02-05-2023-1817 - Top five medical innovations in China mainland since Xinhai revolution [1911]: results of AME survey-002

Top five medical innovations in China mainland since Xinhai revolution [1911]: results of AME survey-002

https://qims.amegroups.com/article/view/5980/html#

 

02-05-2023-1816 - DRAFT VARIOUS LINKS

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoxicillin/clavulanic_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azidocillin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procaine_benzylpenicillin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzylpenicillin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefalexin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefaclor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceftazidime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefoperazone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefpodoxime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefozopran

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceftaroline_fosamil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefiderocol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefquinome

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocardicin_A

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztreonam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tazobactam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoparcin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancomycin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colistin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymyxin_B

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramoplanin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylformamide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decarbonylation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxional_molecule

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line#Line_broadening_and_shift

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_emission

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorescence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulated_emission

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maser

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_amplifier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_state

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_symbol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_notation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleming_valve

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototube

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylformamide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_rectification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_rectifier

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsinic_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphenylcyanoarsine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylarsine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylarsine_oxide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosodium_methyl_arsonate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenicin_A

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Arsonic_acids

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsonic_acid

Arsonic acid is the simplest of the arsonic acids. It is a hypothetical compound, although the tautomeric arsenious acid (As(OH)₃) is well established. In contrast to the instability of HAsO(OH)₂, the phosphorus compound with analogous stoichiometry exists as the tetrahedral tautomer. Similarly, organic derivatives such as phenylarsonic acid are tetrahedral with pentavalent central atom.^[3] 

Arsonic acid

Names
Preferred IUPAC name Arsonic acid[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsonic_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylarsonic_acid

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemihydrate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophosphoric_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoryl_chloride

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus_trichloride

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiophosphoryl_chloride

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_electron_diffraction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geometry

Figure 2: Diffraction pattern of gaseous benzene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_electron_diffraction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_chemistry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_spectroscopy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinchesia_scintillans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoplea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichuris

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haycocknema_perplexum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Protostome_classes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanauplia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalvia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinge_line

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seta

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotifer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessility_(motility)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochineal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Osuna

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungicide_use_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fludioxonil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluazinam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoospore

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_blight

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptomycin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiabendazole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mebendazole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piperazine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mebendazole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agranulocytosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbamazepine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubulin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle_apparatus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mebendazole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphthalene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_potassium_tartrate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinoline

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithionol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niridazole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorous_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milbemycin_oxime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinoline

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzylamine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphthalenesulfonate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrifonate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascaridole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexylresorcinol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioxanthone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentobarbital

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosgene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_chloride

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenobarbital

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_thiopental

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propofol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_hydroxide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brucite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylphosphine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminonaphthalenesulfonic_acids

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullmann%27s_Encyclopedia_of_Industrial_Chemistry

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1-Naphthylamine is an aromatic amine derived from naphthalene. It can cause bladder cancer (transitional cell carcinoma). It crystallizes in colorless needles which melt at 50 °C. It possesses a disagreeable odor, sublimes readily, and turns brown on exposure to air. It is the precursor to a variety of dyes.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Naphthylamine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_red

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 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Organic_sodium_salts

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maitotoxin

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palytoxin

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics

 

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 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostreopsis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_source#Plasma_desorption_ionization

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylphosphine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_fumarate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brilliant_Black_BN

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brilliant_blue_FCF

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromsulfthalein

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amido_black_10B

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azorubine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylbenzene_sulfonates

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Blue_1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%26C_Red_33

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disodium_cocoamphodiacetate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_carmine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappadione

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyranine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_laureth_sulfate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_malate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_nonanoyloxybenzenesulfonate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_phenylacetate/sodium_benzoate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_picosulfate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tartrate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_stearoyl_lactylate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tetradecyl_sulfate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfoxone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrasodium_tris(bathophenanthroline_disulfonate)ruthenium(II)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_blue

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylene_cyanol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisodium_dicarboxymethyl_alaninate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piperidine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_vulcanization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-stage_flash_distillation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrazine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralysis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethylcarbamazine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachidonic_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piperonal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitazoxanide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrantel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niclosamide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifampicin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphotericin_B

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparasitic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifabutin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethambutol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoniazid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isonicotinic_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexamethasone_isonicotinate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diimide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azodicarbonamide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazine

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychochemical_warfare

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incapacitating_agent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_drug

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive_drug

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide

In the UK the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, passed at the onset of the First World War, gave the government wide-ranging powers to requisition the property and to criminalize specific activities. A moral panic was whipped up by the press in 1916 over the alleged sale of drugs to the troops of the British Indian Army. With the temporary powers of DORA, the Army Council quickly banned the sale of all psychoactive drugs to troops, unless required for medical reasons. However, shifts in the public attitude towards drugs—they were beginning to be associated with prostitution, vice and immorality—led the government to pass further unprecedented laws, banning and criminalising the possession and dispensation of all narcotics, including opium and cocaine. After the war, this legislation was maintained and strengthened with the passing of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920. Home Office control was extended to include raw opium, morphine, cocaine, ecogonine and heroin.^[26][27] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs

 California's broader 'three strikes and you're out' policy adopted in 1994 was the first mandatory sentencing policy to gain widespread publicity and was subsequently adopted in most United States jurisdictions. This policy mandates life imprisonment for a third criminal conviction of any felony offense. A similar 'three strikes' policy was introduced to the United Kingdom by the Conservative government in 1997. This legislation enacted a mandatory minimum sentence of seven years for those convicted for a third time of a drug trafficking offense involving a class A drug.

Calls for legalization, relegalization or decriminalization

Main article: Arguments for and against drug prohibition

See also: Illegal drug trade § Effects of the illegal drug trade on societies, Prohibition of drugs § Legal Dilemmas, Harm reduction § Decriminalisation, and Prohibition of drugs § Social control

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs

 

Dangerous Drugs Act 1920

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In the United Kingdom the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 is an Act which changed to a penal offence drug addiction which up to then was, within the medical profession, treated as a disease. The former was the view held by the then Assistant Under Secretary of State, Malcolm Delevingne.^[1]

The Home Office was charged with implementing the Act.^[2] In January 1921 the Home Secretary gave 40 days' notice of his intention to issue controls over:

• raw opium
• morphine
• cocaine
• ecgonine and
• heroin.^[3]

The Act also said that the export, import, sale, distribution or possession of barbiturates, had to be licensed or authorised by the Home Secretary. This proviso also applied to dilutions of cocaine and morphine, as defined in the lower limits set by the Hague Convention.

The Home Office, in consultation with the Ministry of Health, as a result of this Act, produced a series of memoranda for doctors and dentists to explain the requirements of the Act. These were known as DD 101's (Memoranda as to the Duties of Doctors and Dentists). These were distributed to doctors, although the memorandi never had any statutory power.^[2] One particular memorandum, in 1938, added, for the first time, that maintenance of addicts if only for the 'gratification of addiction is not regarded as a medical need'.^[4]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous_Drugs_Act_1920}

 

Decriminalisation

Decriminalisation as a harm-reduction strategy gives the ability to treat substance use disorder solely as a public health issue rather than a criminal activity. This enables other harm-reduction strategies to be employed, which results in a lower incidence of HIV infection.^[4]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harm_reduction#Decriminalisation}

Social control

In Hallucinations: Behavior, Experience, and Theory (1975), senior US government researchers Louis Jolyon West and Ronald K. Siegel explain how drug prohibition can be used for selective social control:

The role of drugs in the exercise of political control is also coming under increasing discussion. Control can be through prohibition or supply. The total or even partial prohibition of drugs gives the government considerable leverage for other types of control. An example would be the selective application of drug laws ... against selected components of the population such as members of certain minority groups or political organizations.^[60]

Linguist Noam Chomsky argues that drug laws are currently, and have historically been, used by the state to oppress sections of society it opposes:^[61][62]

Very commonly substances are criminalized because they're associated with what's called the dangerous classes, poor people, or working people. So for example in England in the 19th century, there was a period when gin was criminalized and whiskey wasn't, because gin is what poor people drink.

Legal highs and prohibition

In 2013 the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reported that there are 280 new legal drugs, known as "legal highs", available in Europe.^[63] One of the best known, mephedrone, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2010.^[64] On November 24, 2010, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration announced it would use emergency powers to ban many synthetic cannabinoids within a month.^[65] An estimated 73 new psychoactive synthetic drugs appeared on the UK market in 2012. The response of the Home Office has been to create a temporary class drug order which bans the manufacture, import, and supply (but not the possession) of named substances.^[66]

Corruption

In certain countries,^[which?] there is concern that campaigns against drugs and organized crime are a cover for corrupt officials tied to drug trafficking themselves. In the United States, Federal Bureau of Narcotics chief Harry Anslinger's opponents accused him of taking bribes from the Mafia to enact prohibition and create a black market for alcohol.^[67] More recently in the Philippines, one death squad hitman told author Niko Vorobyov that he was being paid by military officers to eliminate those drug dealers who failed to pay a ‘tax’.^[vague][68] Under President Rodrigo Duterte, the Philippines has waged a bloody war against drugs that may have resulted in up to 29,000 extrajudicial killings.^[69]

When it comes to social control with cannabis, there are different aspects to consider. Not only do we assess legislative leaders and the way they vote on cannabis, but we also must consider the federal regulations and taxation that contribute to social controls. For instance, according to a report on the U.S. customs and border protections, the American industry, although banned the main usage of marijuana, was still using products similar such as hemp seeds, oils etc. leading to the previously discussed marijuana tax act.^[70]

The Tax act provisions^[71] required importers to register and pay an annual tax of $24 and receive an official stamp. Stamps for Products were then affixed to each original order form and recorded by the state revenue collector. Then, a customs collector ^[72] was to maintain the custody of imported marijuana at entry ports until required documents were received, reviewed and approved.Shipments were subject to searches, seizures and forfeitures if any provisions of the law were not met. Violations would result in fines of no more than $2000 or potential imprisonment for up to 5 years. Oftentimes, this created opportunity for corruption, stolen imports that would later lead to smuggling, oftentimes by state officials and tight knit elitists.

Penalties

United States

Main article: Drug policy of the United States

Total incarceration in the United States by year

US cannabis arrests by year

Drug possession is the crime of having one or more illegal drugs in one's possession, either for personal use, distribution, sale or otherwise. Illegal drugs fall into different categories and sentences vary depending on the amount, type of drug, circumstances, and jurisdiction. In the U.S., the penalty for illegal drug possession and sale can vary from a small fine to a prison sentence. In some states, marijuana possession is considered to be a petty offense, with the penalty being comparable to that of a speeding violation. In some municipalities, possessing a small quantity of marijuana in one's own home is not punishable at all. Generally, however, drug possession is an arrestable offense, although first-time offenders rarely serve jail time. Federal law makes even possession of "soft drugs", such as cannabis, illegal, though some local governments have laws contradicting federal laws.

In the U.S., the War on Drugs is thought to be contributing to a prison overcrowding problem. In 1996, 59.6%^[73] of prisoners were drug-related criminals. The U.S. population grew by about +25% from 1980 to 2000. In that same 20 year time period, the U.S. prison population tripled, making the U.S. the world leader in both percentage and absolute number of citizens incarcerated. The United States has 5% of the world's population, but 25% of the prisoners.^[74]

About 90% of United States prisoners are incarcerated in state jails. In 2016, about 200,000, under 16%, of the 1.3 million people in these state jails, were serving time for drug offenses. 700,000 were incarcerated for violent offenses.^[75]

The data from Federal Bureau of Prisons online statistics page states that 45.9% of prisoners were incarcerated for drug offenses, as of December 2021.^[76]

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs#Social_control}

 

Neil Hunt's article entitled "A review of the evidence-base for harm reduction approaches to drug use" examines the criticisms of harm reduction, which include claims that it is not effective; that it prevents addicts from "hitting a rock bottom" thus trapping them in addiction; that it encourages drug use; that harm reduction is a Trojan horse strategy for "drug law reform", such as drug legalization.^[108] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harm_reduction#Decriminalisation

 

Mitigation is the reduction of something harmful or the reduction of its harmful effects.^[1] It may refer to measures taken to reduce the harmful effects of hazards that remain in potentia,^[2] or to manage harmful incidents that have already occurred.^[1] It is a stage or component of emergency management and of risk management.^[2] The theory of mitigation is a frequently used element in criminal law and is often used by a judge to try cases such as murder, where a perpetrator is subject to varying degrees of responsibility as a result of one's actions.

Disaster mitigation

An all-hazards approach to disaster management considers all known hazards and their natural and anthropogenic potential risks and impacts, with the intention of ensuring that measures taken to mitigate one type of risk do not increase vulnerability to other types of risks. Proactive disaster mitigation measures are generally more effective than reactive measures in eliminating or reducing the impacts,^[2] but not all disasters are reasonably foreseeable, and when an unforeseen disaster occurs, mitigation is necessarily after the fact. Proactive disaster mitigation measures may be structural or non-structural, and will generally be based on measurement and assessment of the risk and the cost of setting up the measures, and possibly the cost of maintenance.^[3] Mitigation planning identifies policies and actions that can be taken over the long term to reduce risk, and in the event of a disaster occurring, minimize loss. Such policies and actions are based on a risk assessment, using the identified hazards, vulnerabilities and probabilities of occurrence and estimates of impact to calculate risks, and are generally planned in cooperation with the stakeholder groups.^[2] The principles are applicable to mitigation of risk in general.

Planning processes may include:^[2]

• Stakeholder agreement on actions for risk reduction
• Assessment of relative risk and vulnerability
• Building partnerships among stakeholders
• Increasing awareness of hazards, vulnerabilities and risk
• Establishing priorities
• Aligning risk reduction and mitigation strategies with other objectives

Risk assessment and mitigation measures may include:^[3]

• Hazard mapping
• Flood plain mapping
• Land use and zoning practices
• Implementing and enforcing appropriate building codes
  • Reinforced tornado safe rooms
  • Burying of electrical cables to prevent ice build-up
  • Raising of buildings in flood-prone areas
• Public awareness programs
• Insurance programs

Index to Wikipedia articles on mitigation

Wikipedia has a range of articles on Mitigation in various contexts, including:

Environment

• Climate change mitigation – Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change
• Environmental mitigation in public administration; also, in particular:
  • Mitigation banking – Wetland improvement to offset development
• Disaster mitigation – Dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies in emergency management; also, in particular:
  • Flood mitigation – Management and control of flood water movement
  • Landslide mitigation – Modifications to slopes to reduce the effect of landslides
  • Hurricane mitigation – Planning and actions to deal with a tropical cyclone strike
• Radon mitigation – Reducing radon gas levels in buildings

Information technology

• Mitigation, a kind of defense against security issues in computing, as part of vulnerability management

Law

• Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, a U.S. federal legislation passed in 2000 that amended provisions of the United States Code related to disaster relief
• Mitigation (law), the principle that a party who has suffered loss has to take reasonable action to minimize the amount of the loss suffered
• Also in law, mitigating factors may cause a crime to be considered less serious, or provide a reason to make a punishment less severe.^[4]

Occupational safety and health

Mitigation of the effects of incidents and health hazards is one of the central precepts of occupational safety and health, as workers may be exposed to hazards, and that it is not always possible to eliminate the associated risk, making it necessary to deal with the consequences on those occasions when harmful incidents occur.

Politics

• Mitigation of political risk

See also

• Harm reduction
• Hazard – Situation or object that can cause damage or harm
• Hazard analysis – The identification of present hazards as the first step in a process to assess risk
• Risk – Probability of loss of something of value
• Risk assessment – Estimation of risk associated with exposure to a given set of hazards
• Emergency management – Dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) – United States disaster response agency, part of Department of Homeland Security
• Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies
• Disaster risk reduction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitigation

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_loop

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subversion

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_incest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyeurism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissident

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perverting_the_course_of_justice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalworking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_11_of_the_United_States_Code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codification_(law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917_Code_of_Canon_Law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostasy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumptuary_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignorantia_juris_non_excusat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tort

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Law_Act_1977

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_limitations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolling_(law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycophancy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exceptional_circumstances

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_discretion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_limitations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity

 
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Non-Applicability_of_Statutory_Limitations_to_War_Crimes_and_Crimes_Against_Humanity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Statute

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatars

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idel-Ural

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_to_defraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft_Act_1968

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheating_(law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law_offence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_liability_(criminal)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concealment_of_birth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grievous_bodily_harm

https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/24-25/100/section/21

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_with_intent_to_resist_arrest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assaulting_a_constable_in_the_execution_of_his_duty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_imprisonment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offences_Against_the_Person_Act_1861

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affray

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dereliction_of_duty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taking_without_owner%27s_consent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception_(criminal_law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misappropriation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fare_evasion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witness_tampering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breach_of_prison_/_breaking_prison

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescuing_a_prisoner

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution#Uncodified_constitution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantive_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisitorial_system

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jury_nullification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_jeopardy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_imprisonment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_(dog)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brontosaurus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_wattled_bat

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_imprisonment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_wattled_bat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Europe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misfeasance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_silence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_attainder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extradition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolle_prosequi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition_(Scots_law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arraignment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_(formal_criminal_charge)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolo_contendere

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisitorial_system

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_agency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codification_(law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_psychology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adversarial_system

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_(law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trier_of_fact

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre_fiction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipstream_genre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculation_in_kind

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism#Inefficiency,_irrationality,_and_unpredictability

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadre_(politics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_misconduct 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_riots 

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Nazi_German_intelligence_agencies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Law_enforcement

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Gestapo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Secret_police

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Soviet_intelligence_agencies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Stasi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:StB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_historical_secret_police_organizations

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_cause_corruption

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_wall_of_silence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscarriage_of_justice

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_mobility

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_disorganization_theory

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-circuit_television

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternal_Order_of_Police

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Trains

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bloc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Security_Service

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_riot#United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallnacht

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Act_1723

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Secret_police

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Panther_Party 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policia_Militar_Ambulante

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicherheitspolizei

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katpol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OZNA

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_squad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_13

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NKVD

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Purge 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_five-year_plan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_race

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mein_Kampf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksgemeinschaft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Crusade

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untermensch

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Slavs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_continuum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isogloss

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Mairanovsky

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctors%27_plot

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusionary_rule

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_convicted_of_murdering_police_officers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_officer_certification_and_licensure_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contempt_of_cop

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsy_cop

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_misconduct

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_arrest#Mass_arrest_as_a_war_crime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presumption_of_guilt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_courtesy#In_law_enforcement

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_involving_Critical_Mass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department_corruption_and_misconduct#Mafia_cops

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Commission

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_affairs_(law_enforcement)

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usa nac dom 100% caucasians 2000s (~<1900s pre-run)

profit motive? no competition monopoly. game. gamble. missing party. contained units? [usa arguments doe dea dod]

merging separating identify infiltrant remerge swap etc.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inculpatory_evidence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exculpatory_evidence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampering_with_evidence#Spoliation

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_party

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untermensch

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_unworthy_of_life

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Solution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalplan_Ost

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktion_T4

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Party_Office_of_Racial_Policy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mischling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_eugenics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hierarchy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cbermensch#The_%C3%9Cbermensch_and_the_Nazis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_nationalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_certificate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassenschande

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostarbeiter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide

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The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948^[5] and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). It contains an internationally recognized definition of genocide which has been incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries and was also adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which established the International Criminal Court (ICC). Article II of the Convention defines genocide as:

... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

• (a) Killing members of the group;
• (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
• (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
• (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
• (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

Incitement to genocide is recognized as a separate crime under international law and an inchoate crime which does not require genocide to have taken place to be prosecutable.^[53]

Stages, risk factors, and prevention

Main articles: Ten stages of genocide, Risk factors for genocide, and Genocide prevention

Study of the risk factors and prevention of genocide was underway before the 1982 International Conference on the Holocaust and Genocide during which multiple papers on the subject were presented.^[154] In 1996 Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch, presented a briefing paper called "The 8 Stages of Genocide" at the United States Department of State.^[155] In it he suggested that genocide develops in eight stages that are "predictable but not inexorable".^[155][156]

The Stanton paper was presented to the State Department, shortly after the Rwandan Genocide and much of its analysis are based on why that genocide occurred. The preventative measures suggested, given the briefing paper's original target audience, were those that the United States could implement directly or indirectly by using its influence on other governments.^{[citation needed]} In 2012, he added two additional stages, discrimination and persecution.^[157]

Stage	Characteristics	Preventive measures
1. Classification	People are divided into "us and them".	"The main preventive measure at this early stage is to develop universalistic institutions that transcend... divisions."
2. Symbolization	"When combined with hatred, symbols may be forced upon unwilling members of pariah groups..."	"To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be legally forbidden as can hate speech".
3. Discrimination	"Law or cultural power excludes groups from full civil rights: segregation or apartheid laws, denial of voting rights".	"Pass and enforce laws prohibiting discrimination. Full citizenship and voting rights for all groups."
4. Dehumanization	"One group denies the humanity of the other group. Members of it are equated with animals, vermin, insects, or diseases."	"Local and international leaders should condemn the use of hate speech and make it culturally unacceptable. Leaders who incite genocide should be banned from international travel and have their foreign finances frozen."
5. Organization	"Genocide is always organized... Special army units or militias are often trained and armed..."	"The U.N. should impose arms embargoes on governments and citizens of countries involved in genocidal massacres, and create commissions to investigate violations"
6. Polarization	"Hate groups broadcast polarizing propaganda..."	"Prevention may mean security protection for moderate leaders or assistance to human rights groups...Coups d'état by extremists should be opposed by international sanctions."
7. Preparation	"Victims are identified and separated out because of their ethnic or religious identity..."	"At this stage, a Genocide Emergency must be declared. ..."
8. Persecution	"Expropriation, forced displacement, ghettos, concentration camps".	"Direct assistance to victim groups, targeted sanctions against persecutors, mobilization of humanitarian assistance or intervention, protection of refugees."
9. Extermination	"It is 'extermination' to the killers because they do not believe their victims to be fully human".	"At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming armed intervention can stop genocide. Real safe areas or refugee escape corridors should be established with heavily armed international protection."
10. Denial	"The perpetrators... deny that they committed any crimes..."	"The response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts"

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogrom}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_stages_of_genocide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassian_genocide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzungar_genocide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_War}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_genocide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetnik_war_crimes_in_World_War_II}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarian_genocide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercantilism}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Stanton}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrocity_crime}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firestorm}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_winter}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_in_popular_culture}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_III#Historical_close_calls}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doomsday_device}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_winter}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-greenhouse_effect}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_famine}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpopulation}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidote
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitoxin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_waste

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium
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^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration}

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 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Group}

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^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics} 

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Nuclear winter

Main article: Nuclear winter

In the early 1980s, scientists began to consider the effects of smoke and soot arising from burning wood, plastics, and petroleum fuels in nuclear-devastated cities. It was speculated that the intense heat would carry these particulates to extremely high altitudes where they could drift for weeks and block out all but a fraction of the sun's light.^[30] A landmark 1983 study by the so-called TTAPS team (Richard P. Turco, Owen Toon, Thomas P. Ackerman, James B. Pollack and Carl Sagan) was the first to model these effects and coined the term "nuclear winter."^[31]

More recent studies make use of modern global circulation models and far greater computer power than was available for the 1980s studies. A 2007 study examined the consequences of a global nuclear war involving moderate to large portions of the current global arsenal.^[32] The study found cooling by about 12–20 °C in much of the core farming regions of the US, Europe, Russia and China and as much as 35 °C in parts of Russia for the first two summer growing seasons. The changes they found were also much longer-lasting than previously thought, because their new model better represented entry of soot aerosols in the upper stratosphere, where precipitation does not occur, and therefore clearance was on the order of 10 years.^[22] In addition, they found that global cooling caused a weakening of the global hydrological cycle, reducing global precipitation by about 45%.

The authors did not discuss the implications for agriculture in depth, but noted that a 1986 study which assumed no food production for a year projected that "most of the people on the planet would run out of food and starve to death by then" and commented that their own results show that, "This period of no food production needs to be extended by many years, making the impacts of nuclear winter even worse than previously thought."^[32]

In contrast to the above investigations of global nuclear conflicts, studies have shown that even small-scale, regional nuclear conflicts could disrupt the global climate for a decade or more. In a regional nuclear conflict scenario where two opposing nations in the subtropics would each use 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear weapons (about 15 kilotons each) on major populated centres, the researchers estimated as much as five million tons of soot would be released, which would produce a cooling of several degrees over large areas of North America and Eurasia, including most of the grain-growing regions.^[33][21][22] The cooling would last for years, and according to the research, could be "catastrophic". Additionally, the analysis showed a 10% drop in average global precipitation, with the largest losses in the low latitudes due to failure of the monsoons.

Regional nuclear conflicts could also inflict significant damage to the ozone layer. A 2008 study found that a regional nuclear weapons exchange could create a near-global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and impacting agriculture for at least a decade.^[34] This effect on the ozone would result from heat absorption by soot in the upper stratosphere, which would modify wind currents and draw in ozone-destroying nitrogen oxides. These high temperatures and nitrogen oxides would reduce ozone to the same dangerous levels that are experienced below the ozone hole above Antarctica every spring.^[22]

Nuclear famine

Main article: Nuclear famine

It is difficult to estimate the number of casualties that would result from nuclear winter, but it is likely that the primary effect would be global famine (known as Nuclear Famine), wherein mass starvation occurs due to disrupted agricultural production and distribution.^[35] In 2013 and 2022 reports, the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) voiced concerns that more than two billion people, about a third of the world's population, would be at risk of starvation in the event of a regional nuclear exchange between India and Pakistan, or by the use of even a small proportion of nuclear arms held by America and Russia.^[36][37] Several independent studies^{[citation needed]} show corroborated conclusions that agricultural outputs would be significantly reduced for years by climatic changes driven by nuclear wars. Reduction of food supply would be further exacerbated by rising food prices, affecting hundreds of millions of vulnerable people, especially in the poorest nations of the world.

According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal Nature Food in August 2022,^[23] a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia might kill 360 million people directly and more than 5 billion people might die as a consequence from starvation due to soot created by firestorms after nuclear bombing. More than 2 billion people were projected to die as a consequence from a smaller-scale nuclear war between India and Pakistan.

Electromagnetic pulse

See also: Nuclear electromagnetic pulse and High-altitude nuclear explosion

An electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a burst of electromagnetic radiation. Nuclear explosions create a pulse of electromagnetic radiation called a nuclear EMP or NEMP. Such EMP interference is known to be generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment.^[38]

By disabling electronics and their functioning, an EMP would disable hospitals, water treatment facilities, food storage facilities, and all electronic forms of communication, and thereby threaten key aspects of the modern human condition.^{[citation needed]} Certain EMP attacks could lead to a large loss of power for months or years.^[39] Currently, failures of the power grid are dealt with using support from the outside. In the event of an EMP attack, such support would not exist and all damaged components, devices, and electronics would need to be completely replaced.

In 2013, the US House of Representatives considered the "Secure High-voltage Infrastructure for Electricity from Lethal Damage Act" that would provide surge protection for some 300 large transformers around the country.^[40] The problem of protecting civilian infrastructure from electromagnetic pulse has also been intensively studied throughout the European Union, and in particular by the United Kingdom.^[41] While precautions have been taken, James Woolsey and the EMP Commission suggested that an EMP is the most significant threat to the U.S.^[39][42]

The risk of an EMP, either through solar or atmospheric activity or enemy attack, while not dismissed, was suggested to be overblown by the news media in a commentary in Physics Today.^[43] Instead, the weapons from rogue states were still too small and uncoordinated to cause a massive EMP, underground infrastructure is sufficiently protected, and there will be enough warning time from continuous solar observatories like SOHO to protect surface transformers should a devastating solar storm be detected.^[43]

Nuclear fallout

Main article: Nuclear fallout

Nuclear fallout is the residual radioactive dust and ash propelled into the upper atmosphere following a nuclear explosion.^[44] Fallout is usually limited to the immediate area, and can only spread for hundreds of kilometers from the explosion site if the explosion is high enough in the atmosphere. Fallout may get entrained with the products of a pyrocumulus cloud and fall as black rain^[45] (rain darkened by soot and other particulates).

This radioactive dust, usually consisting of fission products mixed with bystanding atoms that are neutron activated by exposure, is a highly dangerous kind of radioactive contamination. The main radiation hazard from fallout is due to short-lived radionuclides external to the body.^[46] While most of the particles carried by nuclear fallout decay rapidly, some radioactive particles will have half-lives of seconds to a few months. Some radioactive isotopes, like strontium-90 and caesium-137, are very long-lived and will create radioactive hot spots for up to 5 years after the initial explosion.^[46] Fallout and black rain may contaminate waterways, agriculture, and soil. Contact with radioactive materials can lead to radiation poisoning through external exposure or accidental consumption. In acute doses over a short amount of time radiation will lead to prodromal syndrome, bone marrow death, central nervous system death and gastrointestinal death.^[47] Over longer periods of exposure to radiation, cancer becomes the main health risk. Long-term radiation exposure can also lead to in utero effects on human development and transgenerational genetic damage.^[47][48] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust