02-06-2023-1836 - A. Momose, in Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference, 2012

 



https://www.fi.edu/case-files/coolidge-cathode-rays


https://www.nature.com/articles/nsb1001-831


Polymer Characterization

A. Momose, in Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference, 2012
2.22.3 Micro X-Ray CT with Microfocus X-Ray Generator

In general, an X-ray generator consists of a metal target (anode), an electron gun (cathode), a vacuum chamber with an X-ray window, and a power supply/controller. X-rays are generated by the electrons accelerated from the cathode and impinging on the target. The X-ray source size is almost the same as that of the electron beam.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/x-ray-generator



The grid is a radiotransparent plate composed of a radiopaque material aligned perpendicular to the beam such that only those X-rays traveling in the intended direction can reach the image intensifier, thus minimizing ‘Compton-scatter fog’ by only allowing those X-rays with the intended angle of incidence or very close to the intended beam angle of incidence to strike the image intensifier. However, it also prevents some useful photons from contributing to the image. For this reason, while a grid reduces Compton scatter it also necessitates a higher mA setting, thereby increasing the exposure to the subject.1

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/x-ray-generator

LEAD | Properties and Determination


A.R. Flegal, G.M. Scelfo, in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003
X-ray Fluorescence

A rapidly evolving methodology for measuring lead concentrations in situ is with X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Sufficient incident radiation from an X-ray generator or a radioactive source is provided to excite an inner shell electron, with the resultant emission of a fluorescent X-ray. The emitted energy is characteristic of the element that absorbed the original X-ray, and the amount of energy released is proportional to the mass of element present.

Two types of XRF are applicable for noninvasive analyses of lead concentrations. L-line techniques require 10.5 keV to remove an L-shell electron, and K-line techniques require 88 keV to remove a K-shell electron. These XRF techniques are most appropriate for analyses of bone lead concentrations of individuals. This is significant because bone is the major reservoir of lead in humans and accounts for > 90% of their total lead content.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/x-ray-generator



The stage related to the particle acceleration in low pressure CS process is considered to consist of three subsequent processes:•

gas and powder mixing;•

acceleration of the particles within the divergent section of the spray nozzle;•

particle movement within the free jet area (before and after contact with the substrate).

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/particle-acceleration

02-06-2023-1248 - Perspectives: A helping hand from the media (1901) [x ray cathode]

The world first discovered the sensational news that Wilhelm Röntgen’s mysterious X-rays could penetrate clothing and human skin, not through scientists but through the press.

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was a physicist who had little time for publicity. Like all other scientists the professor from Würzburg University in Franconia always sought recognition from his peers, but Röntgen rarely appeared at scientific conferences or wrote papers, let alone promoted his research findings outside of his field. All this changed after Röntgen’s accidental discovery of X-rays sparked a media storm that meant his findings would have an impact like no other before it.

On the evening of 8 November 1895, Röntgen was in his laboratory studying how cathode-ray tubes emit light. His attention was distracted by a glowing fluorescent screen that was too far from the tube to be affected by the cathode rays. Röntgen didn’t leave his lab for weeks as he tried to investigate the source of the glow. He discovered that the impact of cathode rays on the glass vacuum tube was generating a new kind of invisible ray. The rays had extraordinary penetrative power – they could travel long distances and make the screen glow, even when cardboard, wood, copper and aluminium were placed in the way – and could be recorded on photographic plates.

Röntgen knew immediately that he had to forego his natural reticence and disseminate this important discovery to the scientific community as soon as possible. Over Christmas, he wrote a 10-page article entitled “On a new kind of rays”, which was accepted by the Proceedings of the Würzburg Physical-Medical Society on 28 December. Röntgen named the discovery X-radiation, or X-rays, after the mathematical term ‘X’ that denotes something unknown. (He always preferred this term, even though other researchers insisted on calling it Röntgen rays.)

The article was precise and reserved in tone, with no accompanying images, and so the chances are that most scientists would have ignored the findings. A trip to the post office in Würzburg on New Years’ Day in 1896 changed all that. In Röntgen’s hands were 90 envelopes, each containing a reprint of the article, which were addressed to physicists all over Europe. Twelve of the envelopes, addressed to friends or to distinguished scientists like Lord Kelvin, also contained nine photographs. Röntgen made several photos mainly of the interiors of metal objects, but it was another photo that led to a situation in which “all hell broke loose,” as Röntgen would later complain.

Since X-rays could penetrate materials like metals and wood, it seemed natural to find out if they could penetrate flesh. What Röntgen discovered was a remarkable ability to see through flesh and make bones visible. As he described in his paper: “If the hand be held before the fluorescent screen, the shadow shows the bones darkly with only faint outlines of the surrounding tissues.” To illustrate this effect, Röntgen took an X-ray photograph of his wife’s hand, which produced an almost ghoulish image that clearly showed her bones and wedding ring.

One of the recipients of these letters was Franz Exner, a former fellow student of Röntgen and at the time professor of experimental physics in Vienna. Exner was a convivial man, regularly inviting members of the faculty to informal dinners at his home. Röntgen’s letter containing the photos arrived just in time for Exner to show his guests at one such gathering that upcoming Saturday, 4 January. One guest, Ernst Lecher, professor of physics in Prague, was so interested in the photos he asked Exner if he could borrow them for one day. Lecher was staying with his father in Vienna over the Christmas holidays, and knew he would be very interested in the images.

 https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1901/perspectives/

 Away from such concerns, scientists rushed to replicate and refine Röntgen’s X-ray images. Scientists were free to create X-rays using cathode-ray tubes because Röntgen had deliberately not patented his discovery, convinced that his inventions and discoveries belonged to the world at large.

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1901/perspectives/

 

 

02-06-2023-1246 - International Bureau of Weights and Measures

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (French: Bureau international des poids et mesures, BIPM) is an intergovernmental organisation, through which its 59 member-states act together on measurement standards in four areas: chemistry, ionising radiation, physical metrology, and coordinated universal time. It is based in Saint-Cloud, Paris, France. The organisation has been referred to as IBWM (from its name in English) in older literature.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Bureau_of_Weights_and_Measures

 

02-06-2023-1246 - metric prefix

A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or submultiple of the unit. All metric prefixes used today are decadic. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to any unit symbol. The prefix kilo-, for example, may be added to gram to indicate multiplication by one thousand: one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams. The prefix milli-, likewise, may be added to metre to indicate division by one thousand; one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of a metre.

Decimal multiplicative prefixes have been a feature of all forms of the metric system, with six of these dating back to the system's introduction in the 1790s. Metric prefixes have also been used with some non-metric units. The SI prefixes are metric prefixes that were standardised for use in the International System of Units (SI) by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in resolutions dating from 1960 to 2022.^[1][2] Since 2009, they have formed part of the ISO/IEC 80000 standard. They are also used in the Unified Code for Units of Measure (UCUM).

 

The BIPM specifies twenty-four prefixes for the International System of Units (SI).

SI prefixes

• v
• t
• e

Prefix		Base 10	Decimal	Adoption [nb 1]
Name	Symbol
quetta	Q	1030	1000000000000000000000000000000	2022[3]
ronna	R	1027	1000000000000000000000000000	2022
yotta	Y	1024	1000000000000000000000000	1991
zetta	Z	1021	1000000000000000000000	1991
exa	E	1018	1000000000000000000	1975
peta	P	1015	1000000000000000	1975
tera	T	1012	1000000000000	1960
giga	G	109	1000000000	1960
mega	M	106	1000000	1873
kilo	k	103	1000	1795
hecto	h	102	100	1795
deca	da	101	10	1795
		100	1	—
deci	d	10−1	0.1	1795
centi	c	10−2	0.01	1795
milli	m	10−3	0.001	1795
micro	μ	10−6	0.000001	1873
nano	n	10−9	0.000000001	1960
pico	p	10−12	0.000000000001	1960
femto	f	10−15	0.000000000000001	1964
atto	a	10−18	0.000000000000000001	1964
zepto	z	10−21	0.000000000000000000001	1991
yocto	y	10−24	0.000000000000000000000001	1991
ronto	r	10−27	0.000000000000000000000000001	2022
quecto	q	10−30	0.000000000000000000000000000001	2022
Notes

Prefixes adopted before 1960 already existed before SI. The introduction of the CGS system was in 1873.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_prefix

 

 

 

02-06-2023-1244 - vascular tissue

Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There are also two meristems associated with vascular tissue: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. All the vascular tissues within a particular plant together constitute the vascular tissue system of that plant.

The cells in vascular tissue are typically long and slender. Since the xylem and phloem function in the conduction of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant, it is not surprising that their form should be similar to pipes. The individual cells of phloem are connected end-to-end, just as the sections of a pipe might be. As the plant grows, new vascular tissue differentiates in the growing tips of the plant. The new tissue is aligned with existing vascular tissue, maintaining its connection throughout the plant. The vascular tissue in plants is arranged in long, discrete strands called vascular bundles. These bundles include both xylem and phloem, as well as supporting and protective cells. In stems and roots, the xylem typically lies closer to the interior of the stem with phloem towards the exterior of the stem. In the stems of some Asterales dicots, there may be phloem located inwardly from the xylem as well.

Between the xylem and phloem is a meristem called the vascular cambium. This tissue divides off cells that will become additional xylem and phloem. This growth increases the girth of the plant, rather than its length. As long as the vascular cambium continues to produce new cells, the plant will continue to grow more stout. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.

In leaves, the vascular bundles are located among the spongy mesophyll. The xylem is oriented toward the adaxial surface of the leaf (usually the upper side), and phloem is oriented toward the abaxial surface of the leaf. This is why aphids are typically found on the undersides of the leaves rather than on the top, since the phloem transports sugars manufactured by the plant and they are closer to the lower surface.^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_tissue

 

 

02-06-2023-1031 - draft various continued...

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepsis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_adhesin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connexin

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_stress

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilus#Fimbriae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_flow

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalopod?wprov=srpw1_1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry-powder_inhaler

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_injector

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioadhesive

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transdermal_implant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient-controlled_analgesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocell

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaesthetic_machine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_drug_delivery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripherally_inserted_central_catheter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraosseous_infusion

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connexon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylation

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_pathology

administration of oxygen, volatile anesthetic agents, and other breathing gases into the lungs using a tracheal tube

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catheter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_venous_catheter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fistula

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia_awareness

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suxamethonium_chloride

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric_acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agranulocytosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulocyte

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocyte

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_cell

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cell

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelocyte

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promyelocyte

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_gradient

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_metal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decontamination

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_decontamination

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary_medicine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_cleaner

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_shock_response

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstriction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_vessel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_illness

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_gangrene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_chamber#Hyperbaric_chamber

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_embolism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteomyelitis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrotizing_fasciitis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucormycosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumothorax

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atelectasis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_surfactant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system

draft

circulatory line equipment

resp line substitution equipment 

ns line equipment and mainframe computer or second etc.

respiratory substitution, neural substitution, circulatory substitution, reequilibration, calibration, pressures, reactions, matters, builds, tissues, salts, points, cells, decontamination, etc.. 

resp line equipment

artificial lung/rebuilds/clone brain component/etc. (computers, biological-system-r (cell, nested systems, etc.), signal generator/starters/medium/method, mirror/quality, receiver, human bio reactor, nuclear, nano/exponential ('negative marker'), scale, radioactive example, activation, quecto, observable universe, expansion amplification cascade, dark energy/etc., infinite, etc.)

pressure containment

nervous line relace (brain stem substitute; two units/etc.)

 privacy euthanasia beheading cremation (one pair boots one person, build components, suppliers, time, space, persons, quantity, quality, etc.)

 

 

02-06-2023-0951 - 7397/8-9,00-01

 02-06-2023-0951 - 7397/8-9,00-01

02-06-2023-0948 - Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS)

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring medical intervention to achieve homeostasis.

Although Irwin and Rippe cautioned in 2005 that the use of "multiple organ failure" or "multisystem organ failure" should be avoided,^[1] both Harrison's (2015) and Cecil's (2012) medical textbooks still use the terms "multi-organ failure" and "multiple organ failure" in several chapters and do not use "multiple organ dysfunction syndrome" at all.

There are different stages of organ dysfunction for certain different organs, both in acute and in chronic onset, whether or not there are one or more organs affected. Each stage of dysfunction (whether it be the heart, lung, liver, or kidney) has defined parameters, in terms of laboratory values based on blood and other tests, as to what it is (each of these organs' levels of failure is divided into stage I, II, III, IV, and V). The word "failure" is commonly used to refer to the later stages, especially IV and V, when artificial support usually becomes necessary to sustain life; the damage may or may not be fully or partially reversible. 

Cause

The condition results from infection, injury (accident, surgery), hypoperfusion and hypermetabolism. The primary cause triggers an uncontrolled inflammatory response.^{[citation needed]}

Sepsis is the most common cause of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and may result in septic shock. In the absence of infection, a sepsis-like disorder is termed systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Both SIRS and sepsis could ultimately progress to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. In one-third of the patients, however, no primary focus can be found.^[1] Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome is well established as the final stage of a continuum: SIRS + infection → sepsis → severe sepsis → Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.^{[citation needed]}

Currently, investigators are looking into genetic targets for possible gene therapy to prevent the progression to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Some authors have conjectured that the inactivation of the transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1 would be appropriate targets in preventing sepsis and SIRS.^[2] These two genes are pro-inflammatory. They are essential components of a normal healthy immune response, however, so there is risk of increasing vulnerability to infection, which can also cause clinical deterioration.^{[citation needed]}

Pathophysiology

A definite explanation has not been found. Local and systemic responses are initiated by tissue damage. Respiratory failure is common in the first 72 hours. Subsequently, one might see liver failure (5–7 days), gastrointestinal bleeding (10–15 days) and kidney failure (11–17 days).^[1]

Gut hypothesis

The most popular hypothesis by Deitch to explain MODS in critically ill patients is the gut hypothesis.^[3] Due to splanchnic hypoperfusion and the subsequent mucosal ischaemia there are structural changes and alterations in cellular function. This results in increased gut permeability, changed immune function of the gut and increased translocation of bacteria. Liver dysfunction leads to toxins escaping into the systemic circulation and activating an immune response. This results in tissue injury and organ dysfunction.^[1]

Endotoxin macrophage hypothesis

Gram-negative infections in MODS patients are relatively common, hence endotoxins have been advanced as principal mediator in this disorder. It is thought that following the initial event cytokines are produced and released. The pro-inflammatory mediators are: tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1, interleukin-6, thromboxane A2, prostacyclin, platelet activating factor, and nitric oxide.^[1]

Tissue hypoxia-microvascular hypothesis

As a result of macro- and microvascular changes insufficient supply of oxygen occurs. Hypoxemia causes cell death and organ dysfunction.^[1]

Mitochondrial DNA hypothesis

According to findings of Professor Zsolt Balogh and his team at the University of Newcastle (Australia), mitochondrial DNA is the leading cause of severe inflammation due to a massive amount of mitochondrial DNA that leaks into the bloodstream due to cell death of patients who survived major trauma.^{[citation needed]}

Mitochondrial DNA resembles bacterial DNA. If bacteria triggers leukocytes, mitochondrial DNA may do the same. When confronted with bacteria, white blood cells, or neutrophil granulocytes, behave like predatory spiders. They spit out a web, or net, to trap the invaders, then hit them with a deadly oxidative blast, forming neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).^{[citation needed]}

This results in catastrophic immune response leading to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.^[4][5]

Integrated hypothesis

Since in most cases no primary cause is found, the condition could be part of a compromised homeostasis involving the previous mechanisms.^[1]

Diagnosis

The European Society of Intensive Care organized a consensus meeting in 1994 to create the "Sepsis-Related Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA)" score to describe and quantitate the degree of organ dysfunction in six organ systems. Using similar physiologic variables the Multiple Organ Dysfunction Score was developed.^[1]

Four clinical phases have been suggested:^{[citation needed]}

• Stage 1: the patient has increased volume requirements and mild respiratory alkalosis, which is accompanied by oliguria, hyperglycemia and increased insulin requirements.
• Stage 2: the patient is tachypneic, hypocapnic and hypoxemic; develops moderate liver dysfunction and possible hematologic abnormalities.
• Stage 3: the patient develops shock with azotemia and acid-base disturbances; has significant coagulation abnormalities.
• Stage 4: the patient is vasopressor dependent and oliguric or anuric; subsequently develops ischemic colitis and lactic acidosis.

Definition

Multiple dysfunction syndrome is the presence of altered organ function in acutely ill patients such that homeostasis cannot be maintained without intervention. It usually involves two or more organ systems. It calls for an immediate intervention.^[1]

Management

At present, there is no drug or device that can reverse organ failure that has been judged by the health care team to be medically and/or surgically irreversible (organ function can recover, at least to a degree, in patients whose organs are very dysfunctional, where the patient has not died;^{[citation needed]} and some organs, like the liver or the skin, can regenerate better than others),- with the possible exception of single or multiple organ transplants or the use of artificial organs or organ parts, in certain candidates in specific situations. Therapy, therefore, is usually mostly limited to supportive care, i.e. safeguarding hemodynamics, and respiration. Maintaining adequate tissue oxygenation is a principal target. Starting enteral nutrition within 36 hours of admission to an intensive care unit has reduced infectious complications.^[1]

Prognosis

Mortality, though it has lessened to a limited degree, at least in developed countries with timely access to initial and tertiary care, varies where the chance of survival is diminished as the number of organs involved increases. Mortality in MODS from septic shock (which itself has a high mortality of 25-50%), and from multiple traumas, especially if not rapidly treated, appear to be especially severe. If more than one organ system is affected, the mortality rate is still higher, and this is especially the case when five or more systems or organs are affected. Old age is a risk factor in and of itself, and immunocompromised patients, such as with cancer or AIDS or a transplant, are at risk. Prognosis must take into account any co-morbidities the patient may have, their past and current health status, any genetic or environmental vulnerabilities they have, the nature and type of the illness or injury (as an example, data from COVID-19 is still being analyzed, whereas other cases from long-existing illnesses are much better understood), and any resistance to drugs used to treat microbial infections or any hospital-acquired co-infection. Earlier and aggressive treatment, the use of experimental treatments, or at least modern tools such as ventilators, ECMO, dialysis, bypass, and transplantation, especially at a trauma center, may improve outcomes in certain cases, but this depends in part on speedy and affordable access to high-quality care, which many areas lack. Measurements of lactate, cytokines, albumin and other proteins, urea, blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, insulin, and blood sugar, adequate hydration, constant monitoring of vital signs, good communication within and between facilities and staff, and adequate staffing, training, and charting are important in MODS, as in any serious illness.^{[6][7][8][9][10]}

In patients with sepsis, septic shock, or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome that is due to major trauma, the rs1800625 polymorphism is a functional single nucleotide polymorphism, a part of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) transmembrane receptor gene (of the immunoglobulin superfamily) and confers host susceptibility to sepsis and MODS in these patients.^[11]

History

For many years, some patients were loosely classified as having sepsis or the sepsis syndrome. In more recent years, these concepts have been refined – so that there are specific definitions of sepsis – and two new concepts have been developed: the SIRS and MODS.^[1]

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_organ_dysfunction_syndrome

 

02-06-2023-0947 - marburg town (germany)

Marburg (German pronunciation: [ˈmaːɐ̯bʊʁk] or [ˈmaʁbʊʁk] (listen)) is a university town in the German federal state (Bundesland) of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf district (Landkreis). The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has a population of approximately 76,000.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_virus_disease

02-06-2023-0945 - Antiserum 1890

History

In 1890, Emil Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō published their first paper on serum therapy.

Behring had pioneered the technique, using guinea pigs to produce serum.^[2] Based on his observation that people who survived infection with the diphtheria bacterium never became infected again, he discovered that the body continually produces an antitoxin, which prevents survivors of infections from being infected again with the same agent.

It was necessary for Behring to immunize larger animals in order to produce enough serum to protect humans, because the amount of antiserum produced by guinea pigs was too little to be practical. Horses proved to be the best serum producer, as the serum of other large animals is not concentrated enough, and horses were not believed to carry any diseases that could be transferred to humans.

Due to the First World War, a large number of horses were needed for military purposes. It was difficult for Behring to find enough German horses for his serum facility. He chose to obtain horses from Eastern European countries, mostly Hungary and Poland. Because of Behring's limited financial resources, most horses he selected had been intended for slaughter; however, the usefulness of the animal to others had no influence on the production of serum. Serum horses were calm, well-mannered, and in good health. Age, breed, height, and color were irrelevant.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiserum