09-28-2021-1759 - 4287/8-9,90

 09-28-2021-1759 - 4287/8-9,90

nixotov nixotovy ninxc

https://virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=WVA18840606.1.1&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN--------

https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174&lpg=PA174&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=fbs4ZkoWG1&sig=ACfU3U1AmKerUt6D2pCufxryvQerXqQ40A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjN47ey0KPzAhWyTN8KHX-EAF8Q6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://books.google.com/books?id=-eh5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA191&lpg=PA191&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=3J-58CgDuy&sig=ACfU3U1vKGNJgoKFo21jwGhn7hXeQto5LA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjN47ey0KPzAhWyTN8KHX-EAF8Q6AF6BAgEEAM#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://books.google.com/books?id=9eV5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=ZMWyVds6Yc&sig=ACfU3U31ik9CRYZ0oOTXdOfa_e1VUN0SoA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjN47ey0KPzAhWyTN8KHX-EAF8Q6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://books.google.com/books?id=BE1UAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA294&lpg=PA294&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=hJ-S1W2FvS&sig=ACfU3U0GlRIj7qlnFbq6Yld6pFvVf4P1sA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_zcCn0KPzAhUMVN8KHYjcBt04ChDoAXoECAsQAw#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_8UHhAQi02TIC/bub_gb_8UHhAQi02TIC_djvu.txt

https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzJGwzf0spEC&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=LB_rEzzwvs&sig=ACfU3U0vcH8jaQSMuV3aiWtQGHaZ_p2oUA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji8ID9z6PzAhVOnOAKHa4HA3wQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://books.google.com/books?id=QbjupCvDYKcC&pg=PA742&lpg=PA742&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=wKc1ILKLrq&sig=ACfU3U3mH6pNTiZwH-NqT01nav3vLhqPYg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji8ID9z6PzAhVOnOAKHa4HA3wQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://books.google.com/books?id=QbjupCvDYKcC&pg=PA742&lpg=PA742&dq=nixotov&source=bl&ots=wKc1ILKLrq&sig=ACfU3U3mH6pNTiZwH-NqT01nav3vLhqPYg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji8ID9z6PzAhVOnOAKHa4HA3wQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=nixotov&f=false

https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1879-08-23/ed-1/seq-10/

0929[2021]-0330

09-28-2021-1757 - CNO cycle carbon–nitrogen–oxygen Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle

Logarithm of the relative energy output (ε) of proton–proton (p-p), CNO, and triple-α fusion processes at different temperatures (T). The dashed line shows the combined energy generation of the p-p and CNO processes within a star.

The CNO cycle (for carbon–nitrogen–oxygen; sometimes called Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle after Hans Albrecht Bethe and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker) is one of the two known sets of fusionreactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium, the other being the proton–proton chain reaction (p-p cycle), which is more efficient at the Sun's core temperature. The CNO cycle is hypothesized to be dominant in stars that are more than 1.3 times as massive as the Sun.^[1]

Unlike the proton-proton reaction, which consumes all its constituents, the CNO cycle is a catalytic cycle. In the CNO cycle, four protons fuse, using carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes as catalysts, each of which is consumed at one step of the CNO cycle, but re-generated in a later step. The end product is one alpha particle (a stable helium nucleus), two positrons, and two electron neutrinos.

There are various alternative paths and catalysts involved in the CNO cycles, all these cycles have the same net result:

4 1
1H
   +   2 
e−

  →   4
2He
   +   2 
e+
   +   2 
e−
   +   2 
ν
e   +   3 
γ
   +   24.7 MeV

  →   4
2He
   +   2 
ν
e   +   7 
γ
   +   26.7 MeV

The positrons will almost instantly annihilate with electrons, releasing energy in the form of gamma rays. The neutrinos escape from the star carrying away some energy.^[2] One nucleus goes on to become carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes through a number of transformations in an endless loop.

Overview of the CNO-I Cycle

The proton–proton chain is more prominent in stars the mass of the Sun or less. This difference stems from temperature dependency differences between the two reactions; pp-chain reaction starts at temperatures around 4×10⁶ K^[3] (4 megakelvin), making it the dominant energy source in smaller stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain starts at approximately 15×10⁶ K, but its energy output rises much more rapidly with increasing temperatures^[1] so that it becomes the dominant source of energy at approximately 17×10⁶ K.^[4]

The Sun has a core temperature of around 15.7×10⁶ K, and only 1.7% of 4
He
 nuclei produced in the Sun are born in the CNO cycle.

The CNO-I process was independently proposed by Carl von Weizsäcker^[5][6] and Hans Bethe^[7][8]in the late 1930s.

The first reports of the experimental detection of the neutrinos produced by the CNO cycle in the Sun were published in 2020. This was also the first experimental confirmation that the Sun had a CNO cycle, that the proposed magnitude of the cycle was accurate, and that von Weizsäcker and Bethe were correct.^[2][9][10]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNO_cycle

09-28-2021-1757 - helium flash

A helium flash is a very brief thermal runaway nuclear fusion of large quantities of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process in the core of low mass stars (between 0.8 solar masses (M_☉) and 2.0 M_☉^[1]) during their red giant phase (the Sun is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence). A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of accreting white dwarfstars.

Low-mass stars do not produce enough gravitational pressure to initiate normal helium fusion. As the hydrogen in the core is exhausted, some of the helium left behind is instead compacted into degenerate matter, supported against gravitational collapse by quantum mechanical pressure rather than thermal pressure. This increases the density and temperature of the core until it reaches approximately 100 million kelvin, which is hot enough to cause helium fusion (or "helium burning") in the core.

However, a fundamental quality of degenerate matter is that increases in temperature do not produce an increase in volume of the matter until the thermal pressure becomes so very high that it exceeds degeneracy pressure. In main sequence stars, thermal expansion regulates the core temperature, but in degenerate cores this does not occur. Helium fusion increases the temperature, which increases the fusion rate, which further increases the temperature in a runaway reaction. This produces a flash of very intense helium fusion that lasts only a few minutes, but briefly emits energy at a rate comparable to the entire Milky Way galaxy.

In the case of normal low-mass stars, the vast energy release causes much of the core to come out of degeneracy, allowing it to thermally expand, however, consuming as much energy as the total energy released by the helium flash, and any left-over energy is absorbed into the star's upper layers. Thus the helium flash is mostly undetectable to observation, and is described solely by astrophysical models. After the core's expansion and cooling, the star's surface rapidly cools and contracts in as little as 10,000 years until it is roughly 2% of its former radius and luminosity. It is estimated that the electron-degenerate helium core weighs about 40% of the star mass and that 6% of the core is converted into carbon.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_flash

09-28-2021-1756 - proton–proton chain

The proton–proton chain, also commonly referred to as the p–p chain, is one of two known sets of nuclear fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium. It dominates in stars with masses less than or equal to that of the Sun,^[2] whereas the CNO cycle, the other known reaction, is suggested by theoretical models to dominate in stars with masses greater than about 1.3 times that of the Sun.^[3]

In general, proton–proton fusion can occur only if the kinetic energy (i.e. temperature) of the protons is high enough to overcome their mutual electrostatic repulsion.^[4]

In the Sun, deuterium-producing events are rare. Diprotons are the much more common result of proton–proton reactions within the star, and diprotons almost immediately decay back into two protons. Since the conversion of hydrogen to helium is slow, the complete conversion of the hydrogen initially in the core of the Sun is calculated to take more than ten billion years.^[5]

Although sometimes called the "proton–proton chain reaction", it is not a chain reaction in the normal sense. In most nuclear reactions, a chain reaction designates a reaction that produces a product, such as neutrons given off during fission, that quickly induces another such reaction. The proton–proton chain is, like a decay chain, a series of reactions. The product of one reaction is the starting material of the next reaction. There are two main chains leading from hydrogen to helium in the Sun. One chain has five reactions, the other chain has six.

Logarithm of the relative energy output (ε) of proton–proton (PP), CNO and Triple-α fusion processes at different temperatures (T). The dashed line shows the combined energy generation of the PP and CNO processes within a star. At the Sun's core temperature of 15.5 million K the PP process is dominant. The PPI process and the CNO process are equal at around 20 MK.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton–proton_chain

09-28-2021-1755 - fusion energy gain factor

A fusion energy gain factor, usually expressed with the symbol Q, is the ratio of fusion power produced in a nuclear fusion reactor to the power required to maintain the plasma in steady state. The condition of Q = 1, when the power being released by the fusion reactions is equal to the required heating power, is referred to as breakeven, or in some sources, scientific breakeven.

The energy given off by the fusion reactions may be captured within the fuel, leading to self-heating. Most fusion reactions release at least some of their energy in a form that cannot be captured within the plasma, so a system at Q = 1 will cool without external heating. With typical fuels, self-heating in fusion reactors is not expected to match the external sources until at least Q = 5. If Q increases past this point, increasing self-heating eventually removes the need for external heating. At this point the reaction becomes self-sustaining, a condition called ignition. Ignition corresponds to infinite Q, and is generally regarded as highly desirable for practical reactor designs.

Over time, several related terms have entered the fusion lexicon. Energy that is not captured within the fuel can be captured externally to produce electricity. That electricity can be used to heat the plasma to operational temperatures. A system that is self-powered in this way is referred to as running at engineering breakeven. Operating above engineering breakeven, a machine would produce more electricity than it uses and could sell that excess. One that sells enough electricity to cover its operating costs is sometimes known as economic breakeven. Additionally, fusion fuels, especially tritium, are very expensive, so many experiments run on various test gasses like hydrogen or deuterium. A reactor running on these fuels that reaches the conditions for breakeven if tritium was introduced is said to be operating at extrapolated breakeven.

As of 2021, the record for Q is held by the JET tokamak in the UK, at Q = (16 MW)/(24 MW) ≈ 0.67, first attained in 1997. The highest record for extrapolated breakeven was posted by the JT-60 device, with Q_ext = 1.25, slightly besting JET's earlier 1.14. ITER was originally designed to reach ignition, but is currently designed to reach Q = 10, producing 500 MW of fusion power from 50 MW of injected thermal power.

In the case of neutrons carrying most of the practical energy, as is the case in the D-T fuel, this neutron energy is normally captured in a "blanket" of lithium that produces more tritium that is used to fuel the reactor. Due to various exothermic and endothermic reactions, the blanket may have a power gain factor M_R. M_R is typically on the order of 1.1 to 1.3, meaning it produces a small amount of energy as well. The net result, the total amount of energy released to the environment and thus available for energy production, is referred to as P_R, the net power output of the reactor.^[9]

The blanket is then cooled and the cooling fluid used in a heat exchanger driving conventional steam turbines and generators. That electricity is then fed back into the heating system.^[9] Each of these steps in the generation chain has an efficiency to consider. In the case of the plasma heating systems,  is on the order of 60 to 70%, while modern generator systems based on the Rankine cycle have  around 35 to 40%. Combining these we get a net efficiency of the power conversion loop as a whole, , of around 0.20 to 0.25. That is, about 20 to 25% of  can be recirculated.^[9]

Thus, the fusion energy gain factor required to reach engineering breakeven is defined as:^[10]

To understand how  is used, consider a reactor operating at 20 MW and Q = 2. Q = 2 at 20 MW implies that P_heat is 10 MW. Of that original 20 MW about 20% is alphas, so assuming complete capture, 4 MW of P_heat is self-supplied. We need a total of 10 MW of heating and get 4 of that through alphas, so we need another 6 MW of power. Of the original 20 MW of output, 4 MW are left in the fuel, so we have 16 MW of net output. Using M_R of 1.15 for the blanket, we get P_R about 18.4 MW. Assuming a good  of 0.25, that requires 24 MW P_R, so a reactor at Q = 2 cannot reach engineering breakeven. At Q = 4 one needs 5 MW of heating, 4 of which come from the fusion, leaving 1 MW of external power required, which can easily be generated by the 18.4 MW net output. Thus for this theoretical design the Q_E is between 2 and 4.

Considering real-world losses and efficiencies, Q values between 5 and 8 are typically listed for magnetic confinement devices,^[9] while inertial devices have dramatically lower values for  and thus require much higher Q_E values, on the order of 50 to 100.^[11]

Ignition[edit]

As the temperature of the plasma increases, the rate of fusion reactions grows rapidly, and with it, the rate of self-heating. In contrast, non-capturable energy losses like x-rays do not grow at the same rate. Thus, in overall terms, the self-heating process becomes more efficient as the temperature increases, and less energy is needed from external sources to keep it hot.

Eventually P_heat reaches zero, that is, all of the energy needed to keep the plasma at the operational temperature is being supplied by self-heating, and the amount of external energy that needs to be added drops to zero. This point is known as ignition. In the case of D-T fuel, where only 20% of the energy is released as alphas that give rise to self-heating, this cannot occur until the plasma is releasing at least five times the power needed to keep it at its working temperature.

Ignition, by definition, corresponds to an infinite Q, but it does not mean that f_recirc drops to zero as the other power sinks in the system, like the magnets and cooling systems, still need to be powered. Generally, however, these are much smaller than the energy in the heaters, and require a much smaller f_recirc. More importantly, this number is more likely to be near-constant, meaning that further improvements in plasma performance will result in more energy that can be directly used for commercial generation, as opposed to recirculation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor

09-28-2021-1755 - field-reversed configuration (FRC)

 A field-reversed configuration (FRC) is a type of plasma device studied as a means of producing nuclear fusion. It confines a plasma on closed magnetic field lines without a central penetration.^[1]In an FRC, the plasma has the form of a self-stable torus, similar to a smoke ring.

FRCs are closely related to another self-stable magnetic confinement fusion device, the spheromak. Both are considered part of the compact toroid class of fusion devices. FRCs normally have a plasma that is more elongated than spheromaks, having the overall shape of a hollowed out sausage rather than the roughly spherical spheromak.

FRCs were a major area of research in the 1960s and into the 1970s, but had problems scaling up into practical fusion triple products. Interest returned in the 1990s and as of 2019, FRCs were an active research area.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration

09-28-2021-1754 - Pyroxferroite

 Pyroxferroite (Fe²⁺,Ca)SiO₃ is a single chain inosilicate. It is mostly composed of iron, silicon and oxygen, with smaller fractions of calcium and several other metals.^[1] Together with armalcolite and tranquillityite, it is one of the three minerals which were discovered on the Moon. It was then found in Lunar and Martian meteorites as well as a mineral in the Earth's crust. Pyroxferroite can also be produced by annealing synthetic clinopyroxene at high pressures and temperatures. The mineral is metastable and gradually decomposes at ambient conditions, but this process can take billions of years.

Pyroxferroite

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroxferroite}

Black Sabbath - Iron Man

092820211753 

09-28-2021-1751 - Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) is an annual plant of the daisy family, Asteraceae. It is most often grown as a leaf vegetable, but sometimes for its stem and seeds. Lettuce is most often used for salads, although it is also seen in other kinds of food, such as soups, sandwiches and wraps; it can also be grilled.^[3] One variety, the celtuce(asparagus lettuce), is grown for its stems, which are eaten either raw or cooked. In addition to its main use as a leafy green, it has also gathered religious and medicinal significance over centuries of human consumption. Europe and North America originally dominated the market for lettuce, but by the late 20th century the consumption of lettuce had spread throughout the world. As of 2017, world production of lettuce and chicorywas 27 million tonnes, 56% of which came from China.^[4]

Lettuce was originally farmed by the ancient Egyptians, who transformed it from a plant whose seeds were used to create oil into an important food crop raised for its succulent leaves and oil-rich seeds. Lettuce spread to the Greeks and Romans; the latter gave it the name lactuca, from which the English lettuce is derived. By 50 AD, many types were described, and lettuce appeared often in medieval writings, including several herbals. The 16th through 18th centuries saw the development of many varieties in Europe, and by the mid-18th century, cultivars were described that can still be found in gardens.

Generally grown as a hardy annual, lettuce is easily cultivated, although it requires relatively low temperatures to prevent it from flowering quickly. It can be plagued by numerous nutrient deficiencies, as well as insect and mammal pests, and fungal and bacterial diseases. L. sativa crosses easily within the species and with some other species within the genus Lactuca. Although this trait can be a problem to home gardeners who attempt to save seeds, biologists have used it to broaden the gene pool of cultivated lettuce varieties.

Lettuce is a rich source of vitamin K and vitamin A, and a moderate source of folate and iron. Contaminated lettuce is often a source of bacterial, viral, and parasitic outbreaks in humans, including E. coli and Salmonella.

Lettuce
An iceberg lettuce field in California
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Asterids
Order:	Asterales
Family:	Asteraceae
Tribe:	Cichorieae
Genus:	Lactuca
Species:	L. sativa
Binomial name
Lactuca sativa L.
Synonyms[1][2]
Lactuca scariola var. sativa (Moris) L. scariola var. integrata (Gren. and Godr.) L. scariola var. integrifolia (G.Beck)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettuce