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The Khazars^[a] (/ˈxɑːzɑːrz/) were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia, southern Ukraine, Crimea, and Kazakhstan.^[10] They created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Khaganate.^[11] Astride a major artery of commerce between Eastern Europe and Southwestern Asia, Khazaria became one of the foremost trading empires of the early medieval world, commanding the western marches of the Silk Road and playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between China, the Middle East and Kievan Rus'.^[12]^[13] For some three centuries (c. 650–965) the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus.^[14]

Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate, after serving as the Byzantine Empire's proxy against the Sasanian Empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and to weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus and sought to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.^[15] Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus' ruler, Sviatoslav I of Kiev, as well as his allies, conquered the capital, Atil, and ended Khazaria's independence. The state became the autonomous entity of Rus' and then of Khazar former provinces (Khwarazm in which Khazars were known as Turks, just as Hungarians were known as Turks in Byzantium) in Volga Bulgaria.

Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of their languages, but it is a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survive, and the state was polyglot and polyethnic. The native religion of the Khazars is thought to have been Tengrism, like that of the North Caucasian Huns and other Turkic peoples.^[16] The polyethnic populace of the Khazar Khaganate appears to have been a multiconfessional mosaic of pagan, Tengrist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim worshippers.^[17] Some of the Khazars (i.e., Kabars) joined the ancient Hungarians in the 9th century. The ruling elite of the Khazars was said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism in the 8th century,^[18] but the scope of the conversion to Judaism within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain.^[19]

Where the Khazars dispersed after the fall of the Empire is subject to many conjectures. Proposals have been made regarding the possibility of a Khazar factor in the ethnogenesis of numerous peoples, such as the Hazaras, Hungarians, the Kazakhs, the Cossacks of the Don region and of Ukraine, Bukharan Jews, the Muslim Kumyks, the Turkic-speaking Krymchaks and their Crimean neighbours the Crimean Karaites, the Moldavian Csángós, the Mountain Jews, even some Subbotniks (on the basis of their Ukrainian and Cossack origin and others).^[20]^[21]^[22] The late 19th century saw the emergence of the theory that the core of today's Ashkenazi Jews are descended from a hypothetical Khazarian Jewish diaspora which migrated westward from modern-day Russia and Ukraine into modern-day France and Germany. Linguistic and genetic studies have not supported the theory of a Khazar connection to Ashkenazi Jewry. The theory still finds occasional support, but most scholars view it with considerable scepticism.^[23]^[19] The theory is sometimes associated with antisemitism^[24] and anti-Zionism.^[25]

Etymology

Gyula Németh, following Zoltán Gombocz, derived Khazar from a hypothetical *Qasar reflecting a Turkic root qaz- ("to ramble, to roam") being an hypothetical retracted variant of Common Turkic kez-;^[26] however, András Róna-Tas objected that *qaz- is a ghost word.^[27] In the fragmentary Tes and Terkhin inscriptions of the Uyğur empire (744–840) the form Qasar is attested, although uncertainty remains whether this represents a personal or tribal name, gradually other hypotheses emerged. Louis Bazin derived it from Turkic qas- ("tyrannize, oppress, terrorize") on the basis of its phonetic similarity to the Uyğur tribal name, Qasar.^{[note 3]} Róna-Tas connects qasar with Kesar, the Pahlavi transcription of the Roman title Caesar.^{[note 4]}

D. M. Dunlop tried to link the Chinese term for "Khazars" to one of the tribal names of the Uyğur, or Toquz Oğuz, namely the Qasar (Ch. 葛薩 Gésà).^[28]^[29] The objections are that Uyğur 葛薩 Gésà/Qasar was not a tribal name but rather the surname of the chief of the 思结 Sijie tribe (Sogdian: Sikari) of the Toquz Oğuz (Ch. 九姓 jĭu xìng),^{[note 5]} and that in Middle Chinese the ethnonym "Khazars" was always prefaced with Tūjué, then still reserved for Göktürks and their splinter groups,^[40] (Tūjué Kěsà bù:突厥可薩部; Tūjué Hésà:突厥曷薩) and "Khazar"'s first syllable is transcribed with different characters (可 and 曷) than 葛, which is used to render the syllable Qa- in the Uyğur word Qasar.^{[note 6]}^[42]^[43]

After their conversion it is reported that they adopted the Hebrew script,^{[note 7]} and it is likely that, although speaking a Turkic language, the Khazar chancellery under Judaism probably corresponded in Hebrew.^{[note 8]}

Linguistics

Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of their languages, but it is a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survive, and the state was polyglot and polyethnic.^{[note 9]}^{[note 10]} Whereas the royal or ruling elite probably spoke an eastern variety of Shaz Turkic, the subject tribes appear to have spoken varieties of Lir Turkic, such as Oğuric, a language variously identified with Bulğaric, Chuvash, and Hunnish (the latter based upon the assertion of the Persian historian al-Iṣṭakhrī that the Khazar language was different from any other known tongue.^{[note 11]}^{[note 12]} One method for tracing their origins consists in the analysis of the possible etymologies behind the ethnonym "Khazar".

History

Tribal origins and early history

The tribes^{[note 13]} that were to comprise the Khazar empire were not an ethnic union, but a congeries of steppe nomads and peoples who came to be subordinated, and subscribed to a core Turkic leadership.^[44] Many Turkic groups, such as the Oğuric peoples, including Šarağurs, Oğurs, Onoğurs, and Bulğars who earlier formed part of the Tiele (Tiělè) confederation, are attested quite early, having been driven West by the Sabirs, who in turn fled the Asian Avars, and began to flow into the Volga-Caspian-Pontic zone from as early as the 4th century CE and are recorded by Priscus to reside in the Western Eurasian steppe lands as early as 463.^[45]^[46] They appear to stem from Mongolia and South Siberia in the aftermath of the fall of the Hunnic/Xiōngnú nomadic polities. A variegated tribal federation led by these Turks, probably comprising a complex assortment of Iranian,^{[note 14]} proto-Mongolic, Uralic, and Palaeo-Siberian clans, vanquished the Rouran Khaganate of the hegemonic central Asian Avars in 552 and swept westwards, taking in their train other steppe nomads and peoples from Sogdiana.^[47]

The ruling family of this confederation may have hailed from the Āshǐnà (阿史那) clan of the Western Turkic Khaganate,^[48]^[49]^[50] although Constantine Zuckerman regards Ashina and their pivotal role in the formation of the Khazars with scepticism.^{[note 15]} Golden notes that Chinese and Arabic reports are almost identical, making the connection a strong one, and conjectures that their leader may have been Yǐpíshèkuì (Chinese:乙毗射匱), who lost power or was killed around 651.^[51] Moving west, the confederation reached the land of the Akatziroi,^{[note 16]} who had been important allies of Byzantium in fighting off Attila's army.

Rise of the Khazar state

An embryonic state of Khazaria began to form sometime after 630,^[52]^[53] when it emerged from the breakdown of the larger Göktürk Khaganate. Göktürk armies had penetrated the Volga by 549, ejecting the Avars, who were then forced to flee to the sanctuary of the Hungarian plain. The Ashina clan appeared on the scene by 552, when they overthrew the Rourans and established the Göktürk Qağanate, whose self designation was Tür(ü)k.^{[note 17]} By 568, these Göktürks were probing for an alliance with Byzantium to attack Persia. An internecine war broke out between the senior eastern Göktürks and the junior West Turkic Khaganate some decades later, when on the death of Taspar Qağan, a succession dispute led to a dynastic crisis between Taspar's chosen heir, the Apa Qağan, and the ruler appointed by the tribal high council, Āshǐnà Shètú (阿史那摄图), the Ishbara Qağan.

By the first decades of the 7th century, the Ashina yabgu Tong managed to stabilise the Western division, but upon his death, after providing crucial military assistance to Byzantium in routing the Sasanian army in the Persian heartland,^[54]^[55] the Western Turkic Qağanate dissolved under pressure from the encroaching Tang dynasty armies and split into two competing federations, each consisting of five tribes, collectively known as the "Ten Arrows" (On Oq). Both briefly challenged Tang hegemony in eastern Turkestan. To the West, two new nomadic states arose in the meantime, Old Great Bulgaria under Kubrat, the Duōlù clan leader, and the Nǔshībì subconfederation, also consisting of five tribes.^{[note 18]} The Duōlù challenged the Avars in the Kuban River-Sea of Azov area while the Khazar Qağanate consolidated further westwards, led apparently by an Ashina dynasty. With a resounding victory over the tribes in 657, engineered by General Sū Dìngfāng (蘇定方), Chinese overlordship was imposed to their East after a final mop-up operation in 659, but the two confederations of Bulğars and Khazars fought for supremacy on the western steppeland, and with the ascendency of the latter, the former either succumbed to Khazar rule or, as under Asparukh, Kubrat's son, shifted even further west across the Danube to lay the foundations of the First Bulgarian Empire in the Balkans (c. 679).^[56]^[57]

The Qağanate of the Khazars thus took shape out of the ruins of this nomadic empire as it broke up under pressure from the Tang dynasty armies to the east sometime between 630 and 650.^[51] After their conquest of the lower Volga region to the East and an area westwards between the Danube and the Dniepr, and their subjugation of the Onoğur-Bulğar union, sometime around 670, a properly constituted Khazar Qağanate emerges,^[58] becoming the westernmost successor state of the formidable Göktürk Qağanate after its disintegration. According to Omeljan Pritsak, the language of the Onoğur-Bulğar federation was to become the lingua franca of Khazaria^[59] as it developed into what Lev Gumilev called a "steppe Atlantis" (stepnaja Atlantida/ Степная Атлантида).^[60] Historians have often referred to this period of Khazar domination as the Pax Khazarica since the state became an international trading hub permitting Western Eurasian merchants safe transit across it to pursue their business without interference.^[61] The high status soon to be accorded this empire to the north is attested by Ibn al-Balḫî's Fârsnâma (c. 1100), which relates that the Sasanian Shah, Ḫusraw 1, Anûsîrvân, placed three thrones by his own, one for the King of China, a second for the King of Byzantium, and a third for the king of the Khazars. Although anachronistic in retrodating the Khazars to this period, the legend, in placing the Khazar qağan on a throne with equal status to kings of the other two superpowers, bears witness to the reputation won by the Khazars from early times.^[62]^[63]

Khazar state: culture and institutions

Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate

Khazaria developed a Dual kingship governance structure,^{[note 19]} typical among Turkic nomads, consisting of a shad/bäk and a qağan.^[64] The emergence of this system may be deeply entwined with the conversion to Judaism.^[65] According to Arabic sources, the lesser king was called îšâ and the greater king Khazar xâqân; the former managed and commanded the military, while the greater king's role was primarily sacral, less concerned with daily affairs. The greater king was recruited from the Khazar house of notables (ahl bait ma'rûfīn) and, in an initiation ritual, was nearly strangled until he declared the number of years he wished to reign, on the expiration of which he would be killed by the nobles.^{[note 20]}^[66]^[67]^{[note 21]} The deputy ruler would enter the presence of the reclusive greater king only with great ceremony, approaching him barefoot to prostrate himself in the dust and then light a piece of wood as a purifying fire, while waiting humbly and calmly to be summoned.^[68] Particularly elaborate rituals accompanied a royal burial. At one period, travellers had to dismount, bow before the ruler's tomb, and then walk away on foot.^[69] Subsequently, the charismatic sovereign's burial place was hidden from view, with a palatial structure ("Paradise") constructed and then hidden under rerouted river water to avoid disturbance by evil spirits and later generations. Such a royal burial ground (qoruq) is typical of inner Asian peoples.^[70] Both the îšâ and the xâqân converted to Judaism sometime in the 8th century, while the rest, according to the Persian traveller Ahmad ibn Rustah, probably followed the old Tūrkic religion.^[71]^{[note 22]}

Ruling elite

The ruling stratum, like that of the later Činggisids within the Golden Horde, was a relatively small group that differed ethnically and linguistically from its subject peoples, meaning the Alano-As and Oğuric Turkic tribes, who were numerically superior within Khazaria.^[72] The Khazar Qağans, while taking wives and concubines from the subject populations, were protected by a Khwârazmian guard corps, or comitatus, called the Ursiyya.^{[note 23]}^{[note 24]} But unlike many other local polities, they hired soldiers (mercenaries) (the junûd murtazîqa in al-Mas'ûdî).^[73] At the peak of their empire, the Khazars ran a centralised fiscal administration, with a standing army of some 7–12,000 men, which could, at need, be multiplied two or three times that number by inducting reserves from their nobles' retinues.^[74]^{[note 25]} Other figures for the permanent standing army indicate that it numbered as many as one hundred thousand. They controlled and exacted tribute from 25 to 30 different nations and tribes inhabiting the vast territories between the Caucasus, the Aral Sea, the Ural Mountains, and the Ukrainian steppes.^[75] Khazar armies were led by the Qağan Bek (pronounced as Kagan Bek) and commanded by subordinate officers known as tarkhans. When the bek sent out a body of troops, they would not retreat under any circumstances. If they were defeated, every one who returned was killed.^[76]

Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as tuduns. In some cases, such as the Byzantine settlements in southern Crimea, a tudun would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's sphere of influence. Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by ibn Fadlan as Jawyshyghr and Kündür, but their responsibilities are unknown.

Demographics

It has been estimated that 25 to 28 distinct ethnic groups made up the population of the Khazar Qağanate, aside from the ethnic elite. The ruling elite seems to have been constituted out of nine tribes/clans, themselves ethnically heterogeneous, spread over perhaps nine provinces or principalities, each of which would have been allocated to a clan.^[66] In terms of caste or class, some evidence suggests that there was a distinction, whether racial or social is unclear, between "White Khazars" (ak-Khazars) and "Black Khazars" (qara-Khazars).^[66] The 10th-century Muslim geographer al-Iṣṭakhrī claimed that the White Khazars were strikingly handsome with reddish hair, white skin, and blue eyes, while the Black Khazars were swarthy, verging on deep black as if they were "some kind of Indian".^[77] Many Turkic nations had a similar (political, not racial) division between a "white" ruling warrior caste and a "black" class of commoners; the consensus among mainstream scholars is that Istakhri was confused by the names given to the two groups.^[78] However, Khazars are generally described by early Arab sources as having a white complexion, blue eyes, and reddish hair.^[79]^[80] The ethnonym in the Tang Chinese annals, Ashina, often accorded a key role in the Khazar leadership, may reflect an Eastern Iranian or Tokharian word (Khotanese Saka âşşeina-āššsena "blue"): Middle Persian axšaêna ("dark-coloured"): Tokharian A âśna ("blue", "dark").^[6] The distinction appears to have survived the collapse of the Khazarian empire. Later Russian chronicles, commenting on the role of the Khazars in the magyarisation of Hungary, refer to them as "White Oghurs" and Magyars as "Black Oghurs".^[81] Studies of the physical remains, such as skulls at Sarkel, have revealed a mixture of Slavic, other European, and a few Mongolian types.^[78]

Economy

The import and export of foreign wares, and the revenues derived from taxing their transit, was a hallmark of the Khazar economy, although it is said also to have produced isinglass.^[82] Distinctively among the nomadic steppe polities, the Khazar Qağanate developed a self-sufficient domestic Saltovo^[83] economy, a combination of traditional pastoralism – allowing sheep and cattle to be exported – extensive agriculture, abundant use of the Volga's rich fishing stocks, together with craft manufacture, with diversification in lucrative returns from taxing international trade given its pivotal control of major trade routes.

The Khazars constituted one of the two great furnishers of slaves to the Muslim market (the other being the Iranian Sâmânid amîrs), supplying it with captured Slavs and tribesmen from the Eurasian northlands.^[84] It profited from the latter which enabled it to maintain a standing army of Khwarezm Muslim troops. The capital Atil reflected the division: Kharazān on the western bank where the king and his Khazar elite, with a retinue of some 4,000 attendants, dwelt, and Itil proper to the East, inhabited by Jews, Christians, Muslims and slaves and by craftsmen and foreign merchants.^{[note 26]}

The ruling elite wintered in the city and spent from spring to late autumn in their fields. A large irrigated greenbelt, drawing on channels from the Volga river, lay outside the capital, where meadows and vineyards extended for some 20 farsakhs (c. 60 miles).^[85] While customs duties were imposed on traders, and tribute and tithes were exacted from 25 to 30 tribes, with a levy of one sable skin, squirrel pelt, sword, dirham per hearth or ploughshare, or hides, wax, honey and livestock, depending on the zone. Trade disputes were handled by a commercial tribunal in Atil consisting of seven judges, two for each of the monotheistic inhabitants (Jews, Muslims, Christians) and one for the pagans.^{[note 27]}

Khazars and Byzantium

Byzantine diplomatic policy towards the steppe peoples generally consisted of encouraging them to fight among themselves. The Pechenegs provided great assistance to the Byzantines in the 9th century in exchange for regular payments.^[86] Byzantium also sought alliances with the Göktürks against common enemies: in the early 7th century, one such alliance was brokered with the Western Tűrks against the Persian Sasanians in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628. The Byzantines called Khazaria Tourkía, and by the 9th century referred to the Khazars as "Turks".^{[note 28]} During the period leading up to and after the siege of Constantinople in 626, Heraclius sought help via emissaries, and eventually personally, from a Göktürk chieftain^{[note 29]} of the Western Turkic Khaganate, Tong Yabghu Qağan, in Tiflis, plying him with gifts and the promise of marriage to his daughter, Epiphania.^[89] Tong Yabghu responded by sending a large force to ravage the Persian empire, marking the start of the Third Perso-Turkic War.^[90] A joint Byzantine-Tűrk operation breached the Caspian gates and sacked Derbent in 627. Together they then besieged Tiflis, where the Byzantines may have deployed an early variety of traction trebuchets (ἑλέπόλεις) to breach the walls. After the campaign, Tong Yabghu is reported, perhaps with some exaggeration, to have left some 40,000 troops behind with Heraclius.^[91] Although occasionally identified with Khazars, the Göktürk identification is more probable since the Khazars only emerged from that group after the fragmentation of the former sometime after 630.^[52]^[53] Some scholars argued that Sasanian Persia never recovered from the devastating defeat wrought by this invasion.^{[note 30]}

Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 (area of direct Khazar control in dark blue, sphere of influence in purple).

Once the Khazars emerged as a power, the Byzantines also began to form alliances with them, dynastic and military. In 695, the last Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, nicknamed "the slit-nosed" (ὁ ῥινότμητος) after he was mutilated and deposed, was exiled to Cherson in the Crimea, where a Khazar governor (tudun) presided. He escaped into Khazar territory in 704 or 705 and was given asylum by qağan Busir Glavan (Ἰβουζῆρος Γλιαβάνος), who gave him his sister in marriage, perhaps in response to an offer by Justinian, who may have thought a dynastic marriage would seal by kinship a powerful tribal support for his attempts to regain the throne.^[92] The Khazarian spouse thereupon changed her name to Theodora.^[93] Busir was offered a bribe by the Byzantine usurper, Tiberius III, to kill Justinian. Warned by Theodora, Justinian escaped, murdering two Khazar officials in the process. He fled to Bulgaria, whose Khan Tervel helped him regain the throne. Upon his reinstalment, and despite Busir's treachery during his exile, he sent for Theodora; Busir complied, and she was crowned as Augusta, suggesting that both prized the alliance.^[94]^[95]

Decades later, Leo III (ruled 717–741) made a similar alliance to co-ordinate strategy against a common enemy, the Muslim Arabs. He sent an embassy to the Khazar qağan Bihar and married his son, the future Constantine V (ruled 741–775), to Bihar's daughter, a princess referred to as Tzitzak, in 732. On converting to Christianity, she took the name Irene. Constantine and Irene had a son, the future Leo IV (775–780), who thereafter bore the sobriquet, "the Khazar".^[96]^[97] Leo died in mysterious circumstances after his Athenian wife bore him a son, Constantine VI, who on his majority co-ruled with his mother, the dowager. He proved unpopular, and his death ended the dynastic link of the Khazars to the Byzantine throne.^[98]^[96] By the 8th century, Khazars dominated the Crimea (650–c. 950), and even extended their influence into the Byzantine peninsula of Cherson until it was wrested back in the 10th century.^[99] Khazar and Farghânian (Φάργανοι) mercenaries constituted part of the imperial Byzantine Hetaireia bodyguard after its formation in 840, a position that could openly be purchased by a payment of seven pounds of gold.^[100]^[101]

Arab–Khazar wars

During the 7th and 8th centuries, the Khazars fought a series of wars against the Umayyad Caliphate and its Abbasid successor. The First Arab-Khazar War began during the first phase of Muslim expansion. By 640, Muslim forces had reached Armenia; in 642 they launched their first raid across the Caucasus under Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah. In 652 Arab forces advanced on the Khazar capital, Balanjar, but were defeated, suffering heavy losses; according to Persian historians such as al-Tabari, both sides in the battle used catapults against the opposing troops. A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan from this period as Irbis and describe him as a scion of the Göktürk royal house, the Ashina. Whether Irbis ever existed is open to debate, as is whether he can be identified with one of the many Göktürk rulers of the same name.

Due to the outbreak of the First Muslim Civil War and other priorities, the Arabs refrained from repeating an attack on the Khazars until the early 8th century.^[102] The Khazars launched a few raids into Transcaucasian principalities under Muslim dominion, including a large-scale raid in 683–685 during the Second Muslim Civil War that rendered much booty and many prisoners.^[103] There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Göktürks in Transoxiana.

Caucasus region, c. 740

The Second Arab-Khazar War began with a series of raids across the Caucasus in the early 8th century. The Umayyads tightened their grip on Armenia in 705 after suppressing a large-scale rebellion. In 713 or 714, the Umayyad general Maslamah conquered Derbent and drove deeper into Khazar territory. The Khazars launched raids in response into Albania and Iranian Azerbaijan but were driven back by the Arabs under Hasan ibn al-Nu'man.^[104] The conflict escalated in 722 with an invasion by 30,000 Khazars into Armenia inflicting a crushing defeat. Caliph Yazid II responded, sending 25,000 Arab troops north, swiftly driving the Khazars back across the Caucasus, recovering Derbent, and advancing on Balanjar. The Arabs broke through the Khazar defence and stormed the city; most of its inhabitants were killed or enslaved, but a few of them managed to flee north.^[103] Despite their success, the Arabs had not yet defeated the Khazar army, and they retreated south of the Caucasus.

In 724, the Arab general al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars in a long battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, then moved on to capture Tiflis, bringing Caucasian Iberia under Muslim suzerainty. The Khazars struck back in 726, led by a prince named Barjik, launching a major invasion of Albania and Azerbaijan; by 729, the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and were thrust again into the defensive. In 730, Barjik invaded Iranian Azerbaijan and defeated Arab forces at Ardabil, killing the general al-Djarrah al-Hakami and briefly occupying the town. Barjik was defeated and killed the next year at Mosul, where he directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's severed head^{[citation needed]}. In 737, Marwan Ibn Muhammad entered Khazar territory under the guise of seeking a truce. He then launched a surprise attack in which The Qaghan fled north and the Khazars surrendered.^[105] The Arabs did not have enough resources to influence the affairs of Transcaucasia.^[105] The Qağan was forced to accept terms involving his conversion to Islam, and subject himself to the rule of the Caliphate, but the accommodation was short-lived because a combination of internal instability among the Umayyads and Byzantine support undid the agreement within three years, and the Khazars re-asserted their independence.^[106] The suggestion that the Khazars adopted Judaism as early as 740 is based on the idea that, in part, it was, a re-assertion of their independence from the rule of both regional powers, Byzantium and the Caliphate, while it also conformed to a general Eurasian trend to embrace a world religion.^{[note 31]}

Whatever the impact of Marwan's campaigns was, warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737. Arab raids continued to occur until 741, but their control of the region was limited because maintaining a large garrison at Derbent further depleted their already overstretched army. A third Muslim civil war soon broke out, leading to the Abbasid Revolution and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750.

In 758, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur attempted to strengthen diplomatic ties with the Khazars, ordering Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami, one of his nobles and the military governor of Armenia, to take a royal Khazar bride. Yazid married a daughter of Khazar Khagan Baghatur, but she died inexplicably, possibly during childbirth. Her attendants returned home, convinced that some members of another Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged. the Khazar general Ras Tarkhan invaded regions which were located south of the Caucasus in 762–764, devastating Albania, Armenia, and Iberia, and capturing Tiflis. Thereafter, relations between the Khazars and the Abbasids became increasingly cordial, because the foreign policies of the Abbasids were generally less expansionist than the foreign policies of the Umayyads, relations between the Khazars and the Abbasids were ultimately broken by a series of raids which occurred in 799, the raids occurred after another marriage alliance failed.

Khazars and Hungarians

Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate. As a result, three Kabar tribes^[107] of the Khazars (probably the majority of ethnic Khazars) joined the Hungarians and moved through Levedia to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854,^[108] though other sources state that an attack by Pechenegs was the reason for their departure to Etelköz. The new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. From 862 onwards, the Hungarians (already referred to as the Ungri) along with their allies, the Kabars, started a series of raids from the Etelköz into the Carpathian Basin, mostly against the Eastern Frankish Empire (Germany) and Great Moravia, but also against the Lower Pannonian principality and Bulgaria. Then they together ended up at the outer slopes of Carpathians, and settled there, where the majority of Khazars converted from Judaism to Christianity in the 10th to 13th centuries. There could be shamanists and Christians among these Khazars apart from Jews.^[109]^{[better source needed]}

Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state

Trade routes of the Black Sea region, 8th–11th centuries

By the 9th century, groups of Varangian Rus', developing a powerful warrior-merchant system, began probing south down the waterways controlled by the Khazars and their protectorate, the Volga Bulgarians, partially in pursuit of the Arab silver that flowed north for hoarding through the Khazarian-Volga Bulgarian trading zones,^{[note 32]} partially to trade in furs and ironwork.^{[note 33]} Northern mercantile fleets passing Atil were tithed, as they were at Byzantine Cherson.^[110] Their presence may have prompted the formation of a Rus' state by convincing the Slavs, Merja and the Chud' to unite to protect common interests against Khazarian exactions of tribute. It is often argued that a Rus' Khaganate modelled on the Khazarian state had formed to the east and that the Varangian chieftain of the coalition appropriated the title of qağan (khagan) as early as the 830s: the title survived to denote the princes of Kievan Rus', whose capital, Kyiv, is often associated with a Khazarian foundation.^[111]^[112]^{[note 34]}^{[note 35]} The construction of the Sarkel fortress, with technical assistance from Khazaria's Byzantine ally at the time, together with the minting of an autonomous Khazar coinage around the 830s, may have been a defensive measure against emerging threats from Varangians to the north and from the Magyars on the eastern steppe.^{[note 36]}^{[note 37]} By 860, the Rus' had penetrated as far as Kyiv and, via the Dnieper, Constantinople.^[116]

Site of the Khazar fortress at Sarkel (aerial photo from excavations conducted by Mikhail Artamonov in the 1950s).

Alliances often shifted. Byzantium, threatened by Varangian Rus' raiders, would assist Khazaria, and Khazaria at times allowed the northerners to pass through their territory in exchange for a portion of the booty.^[117] From the beginning of the 10th century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies. The pax Khazarica was caught in a pincer movement between steppe Pechenegs and the strengthening of an emergent Rus' power to the north, both undermining Khazaria's tributary empire.^[118] According to the Schechter Text, the Khazar ruler King Benjamin (ca.880–890) fought a battle against the allied forces of five lands whose moves were perhaps encouraged by Byzantium.^{[note 38]} Although Benjamin was victorious, his son Aaron II faced another invasion, this time led by the Alans, whose leader had converted to Christianity and entered into an alliance with Byzantium, which, under Leo VI the Wise, encouraged them to fight against the Khazars.

By the 880s, Khazar control of the Middle Dnieper from Kyiv, where they collected tribute from Eastern Slavic tribes, began to wane as Oleg of Novgorod wrested control of the city from the Varangian warlords Askold and Dir, and embarked on what was to prove to be the foundation of a Rus' empire.^[119] The Khazars had initially allowed the Rus' to use the trade route along the Volga River, and raid southwards. See Caspian expeditions of the Rus'. According to Al-Mas'udi, the qağan is said to have given his assent on the condition that the Rus' give him half of the booty.^[117] In 913, however, two years after Byzantium concluded a peace treaty with the Rus' in 911, a Varangian foray, with Khazar connivance, through Arab lands led to a request to the Khazar throne by the Khwârazmian Islamic guard for permission to retaliate against the large Rus' contingent on its return. The purpose was to revenge the violence the Rus' razzias had inflicted on their fellow Muslim believers.^{[note 39]} The Rus' force was thoroughly routed and massacred.^[117] The Khazar rulers closed the passage down the Volga to the Rus', sparking a war. In the early 960s, Khazar ruler Joseph wrote to Hasdai ibn Shaprut about the deterioration of Khazar relations with the Rus': "I protect the mouth of the river (Itil-Volga) and prevent the Rus arriving in their ships from setting off by sea against the Ishmaelites and (equally) all (their) enemies from setting off by land to Bab."^{[note 40]}

Sviatoslav I of Kiev (in boat), destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate.^{[note 41]}

The Rus' warlords launched several wars against the Khazar Qağanate, and raided down to the Caspian sea. The Schechter Letter relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by HLGW (recently identified as Oleg of Chernigov) around 941 in which Oleg was defeated by the Khazar general Pesakh.^[120] The Khazar alliance with the Byzantine empire began to collapse in the early 10th century. Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by the 940s emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was speculating in De Administrando Imperio about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked. The Byzantines during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus', with varying degrees of success. A further factor undermining the Khazar Qağanate was a shift in Islamic routes at this time, as Muslims in Khwarazmia forged trade links with the recently converted Volga Bulgarian Muslims, a move which may have caused a drastic drop, perhaps up to 80%, in the revenue base of Khazaria, and consequently, a crisis in its ability to pay for its defence.^[121]

Sviatoslav I finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial power in the 960s, in a circular sweep that overwhelmed Khazar fortresses like Sarkel and Tamatarkha, and reached as far as the Caucasian Kassogians/Circassians^{[note 42]} and then back to Kyiv.^[122] Sarkel fell in 965, with the capital city of Atil following, c. 968 or 969.

In the Russian chronicle, the vanquishing of the Khazar traditions is associated with Vladimir's conversion in 986.^[123] According to the Primary Chronicle, in 986 Khazar Jews were present at Vladimir's disputation to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievan Rus'.^[124] Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kyiv or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar remnant state is unclear. Conversion to one of the faiths of the people of Scripture was a precondition to any peace treaty with the Arabs, whose Bulgar envoys had arrived in Kyiv after 985.^[125]

A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city that its vineyards and garden had been razed, that not a grape or raisin remained in the land, and not even alms for the poor were available.^[126] An attempt to rebuild may have been undertaken, since Ibn Hawqal and al-Muqaddasi refer to it after that date, but by Al-Biruni's time (1048) it was in ruins.^{[note 43]}

Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion

Although Poliak argued that the Khazar kingdom did not wholly succumb to Sviatoslav's campaign, but lingered on until 1224, when the Mongols invaded Rus',^[127]^[128] by most accounts, the Rus'-Oghuz campaigns left Khazaria devastated, with perhaps many Khazarian Jews in flight,^[129] and leaving behind at best a minor rump state. It left little trace, except for some placenames,^{[note 44]} and much of its population was undoubtedly absorbed in successor hordes.^[130] Al-Muqaddasi, writing ca.985, mentions Khazar beyond the Caspian sea as a district of "woe and squalor", with honey, many sheep and Jews.^[131] Kedrenos mentions a joint Rus'-Byzantine attack on Khazaria in 1016, which defeated its ruler Georgius Tzul. The name suggests Christian affiliations. The account concludes by saying, that after Tzul's defeat, the Khazar ruler of "upper Media", Senaccherib, had to sue for peace and submission.^[132] In 1024 Mstislav of Chernigov (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an army that included "Khazars and Kassogians" in a repulsed attempt to restore a kind of "Khazarian"-type dominion over Kyiv.^[122] Ibn al-Athir's mention of a "raid of Faḍlūn the Kurd against the Khazars" in 1030 CE, in which 10,000 of his men were vanquished by the latter, has been taken as a reference to such a Khazar remnant, but Barthold identified this Faḍlūn as Faḍl ibn Muḥammad and the "Khazars" as either Georgians or Abkhazians.^[133]^[134] A Kievian prince named Oleg, grandson of Jaroslav was reportedly kidnapped by "Khazars" in 1079 and shipped off to Constantinople, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Cumans-Kipchaks or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region. Upon his conquest of Tmutarakan in the 1080s Oleg Sviatoslavich, son of a prince of Chernigov, gave himself the title "Archon of Khazaria".^[122] In 1083 Oleg is said to have exacted revenge on the Khazars after his brother Roman was killed by their allies, the Polovtsi/Cumans. After one more conflict with these Polovtsi in 1106, the Khazars fade from history.^[132] By the 13th century they survived in Russian folklore only as "Jewish heroes" in the "land of the Jews". (zemlya Jidovskaya).^[135]

By the end of the 12th century, Petachiah of Ratisbon reported travelling through what he called "Khazaria", and had little to remark on other than describing its minim (sectaries) living amidst desolation in perpetual mourning.^[136] The reference seems to be to Karaites.^[137] The Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck likewise found only impoverished pastures in the lower Volga area where Ital once lay.^[85] Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, the papal legate to the court of the Mongol Khan Guyuk at that time, mentioned an otherwise unattested Jewish tribe, the Brutakhi, perhaps in the Volga region. Although connections are made to the Khazars, the link is based merely on a common attribution of Judaism.^[138]

The Pontic steppes, c. 1015 (areas in blue possibly still under Khazar control).

The 10th century Zoroastrian Dênkart registered the collapse of Khazar power in attributing its eclipse to the enfeebling effects of "false" religion.^{[note 45]} The decline was contemporary to that suffered by the Transoxiana Sāmānid empire to the east, both events paving the way for the rise of the Great Seljuq Empire, whose founding traditions mention Khazar connections.^[139]^{[note 46]} Whatever successor entity survived, it could no longer function as a bulwark against the pressure east and south of nomad expansions. By 1043, Kimeks and Qipchaqs, thrusting westwards, pressured the Oğuz, who in turn pushed the Pechenegs west towards Byzantium's Balkan provinces.^[140]

Khazaria nonetheless left its mark on the rising states and some of their traditions and institutions. Much earlier, Tzitzak, the Khazar wife of Leo III, introduced into the Byzantine court the distinctive kaftan or riding habit of the nomadic Khazars, the tzitzakion (τζιτζάκιον), and this was adopted as a solemn element of imperial dress.^{[note 47]} The orderly hierarchical system of succession by "scales" (lestvichnaia sistema:лествичная система) to the Grand Principate of Kyiv was arguably modelled on Khazar institutions, via the example of the Rus' Khaganate.^[141]

The proto-Hungarian Pontic tribe, while perhaps threatening Khazaria as early as 839 (Sarkel), practiced their institutional model, such as the dual rule of a ceremonial kende-kündü and a gyula administering practical and military administration, as tributaries of the Khazars. A dissident group of Khazars, the Qabars, joined the Hungarians in their migration westwards as they moved into Pannonia. Elements within the Hungarian population can be viewed as perpetuating Khazar traditions as a successor state. Byzantine sources refer to Hungary as Western Tourkia in contrast to Khazaria, Eastern Tourkia. The gyula line produced the kings of medieval Hungary through descent from Árpád, while the Qabars retained their traditions longer, and were known as "black Hungarians" (fekete magyarság). Some archaeological evidence from Čelarevo suggests the Qabars practised Judaism^[142]^[143]^[144] since warrior graves with Jewish symbols were found there, including menorahs, shofars, etrogs, lulavs, candlesnuffers, ash collectors, inscriptions in Hebrew, and a six-pointed star identical to the Star of David.^[145]^[146]

Seal discovered in excavations at Khazar sites. However, rather than having been made by Jews, these appear to be shamanistic sun discs.^{[note 48]}

The Khazar state was not the only Jewish state to rise between the fall of the Second Temple (67–70 CE) and the establishment of Israel (1948). A state in Yemen also adopted Judaism in the 4th century, lasting until the rise of Islam.^[147]

The Khazar kingdom is said to have stimulated messianic aspirations for a return to Israel as early as Judah Halevi.^[148] In the time of the Egyptian vizier Al-Afdal Shahanshah (d. 1121), one Solomon ben Duji, often identified as a Khazarian Jew,^{[note 49]} attempted to advocate for a messianic effort for the liberation of, and return of all Jews to, Palestine. He wrote to many Jewish communities to enlist support. He eventually moved to Kurdistan where his son Menachem some decades later assumed the title of Messiah and, raising an army for this purpose, took the fortress of Amadiya north of Mosul. His project was opposed by the rabbinical authorities and he was poisoned in his sleep. One theory maintains that the Star of David, until then a decorative motif or magical emblem, began to assume its national value in late Jewish tradition from its earlier symbolic use by Menachem.^[149]

The word Khazar, as an ethnonym, was last used in the 13th century by people in the North Caucasus believed to practice Judaism.^[150] The nature of a hypothetical Khazar diaspora, Jewish or otherwise, is disputed. Avraham ibn Daud mentions encountering rabbinical students descended from Khazars as far away as Toledo, Spain in the 1160s.^[151] Khazar communities persisted here and there. Many Khazar mercenaries served in the armies of the Islamic Caliphates and other states. Documents from medieval Constantinople attest to a Khazar community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of Pera.^[152] Khazar merchants were active in both Constantinople and Alexandria in the 12th century.^[153]

Religion

Tengrism

Direct sources for the Khazar religion are not many, but in all likelihood they originally engaged in a traditional Turkic form of religious practices known as Tengrism, which focused on the sky god Tengri. Something of its nature may be deduced from what we know of the rites and beliefs of contiguous tribes, such as the North Caucasian Huns. Horse sacrifices were made to this supreme deity. Rites involved offerings to fire, water, and the moon, to remarkable creatures, and to "gods of the road" (cf. Old Türk yol tengri, perhaps a god of fortune). Sun amulets were widespread as cultic ornaments. A tree cult was also maintained. Whatever was struck by lightning, man or object, was considered a sacrifice to the high god of heaven. The afterlife, to judge from excavations of aristocratic tumuli, was much a continuation of life on earth, warriors being interred with their weapons, horses, and sometimes with human sacrifices: the funeral of one tudrun in 711-12 saw 300 soldiers killed to accompany him to the otherworld. Ancestor worship was observed. The key religious figure appears to have been a shaman-like qam,^[154] and it was these (qozmím) that were, according to the Khazar Hebrew conversion stories, driven out.

Many sources suggest, and a notable number of scholars have argued, that the charismatic Ashina clan played a germinal role in the early Khazar state, although Zuckerman dismisses the widespread notion of their pivotal role as a "phantom". The Ashina were closely associated with the Tengri cult, whose practices involved rites performed to assure a tribe of heaven's protective providence.^[155] The qağan was deemed to rule by virtue of qut, "the heavenly mandate/good fortune to rule."^[156]^{[note 50]}

Christianity

Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad empire, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.^[15]

On Khazaria's southern flank, both Islam and Byzantine Christianity were proselytising great powers. Byzantine success in the north was sporadic, although Armenian and Albanian missions from Derbend built churches extensively in maritime Daghestan, then a Khazar district.^[157] Buddhism also had exercised an attraction on leaders of both the Eastern (552–742) and Western Qağanates (552–659), the latter being the progenitor of the Khazar state.^[158] In 682, according to the Armenian chronicle of Movsês Dasxuranc'i, the king of Caucasian Albania, Varaz Trdat, dispatched a bishop, Israyêl, to convert Caucasian "Huns" who were subject to the Khazars, and managed to convince Alp Ilut'uêr, a son-in-law of the Khazar qağan, and his army, to abandon their shamanising cults and join the Christian fold.^[159]^{[note 51]}

The Arab Georgian martyr St Abo, who converted to Christianity within the Khazar kingdom around 779–80, describes local Khazars as irreligious.^{[note 52]} Some reports register a Christian majority at Samandar,^{[note 53]} or Muslim majorities.^{[note 54]}

Judaism

The Khazar "Moses coin" found in the Spillings Hoard and dated c. 800. It is inscribed with "Moses is the messenger of God" instead of the usual Muslim text "Muhammad is the messenger of God".

The conversion of the Khazars to Judaism is mentioned in external sources and it is also mentioned in the Khazar Correspondence, but doubts of its authenticity persist.^[160] Hebrew documents, whose authenticity was long doubted and challenged,^{[note 55]} are now widely accepted by specialists as either authentic or as reflecting internal Khazar traditions.^{[note 56]}^{[note 57]}^{[note 58]}^[163] Archaeological evidence for conversion, on the other hand, remains elusive,^{[note 59]}^{[note 60]} and may reflect either the incompleteness of excavations, or that the stratum of actual adherents was thin.^{[note 61]} Conversion of steppe or peripheral tribes to a universal religion is a fairly well attested phenomenon,^{[note 62]} and the Khazar conversion to Judaism, although unusual, would not have been without precedent.^{[note 63]} The topic is emotionally charged in Israel,^{[note 64]} and a few scholars, such as Moshe Gil (2011) and Shaul Stampfer (2013) argue that the conversion of the Khazar elite to Judaism never happened.^[160]^[167]

Jews from both the Islamic world and Byzantium are known to have migrated to Khazaria during periods of persecution under Heraclius, Justinian II, Leo III, and Romanus Lakapēnos.^[168]^[169] For Simon Schama, Jewish communities from the Balkans and the Bosphoran Crimea, especially from Panticapaeum, began migrating to the more hospitable climate of pagan Khazaria in the wake of these persecutions, and were joined there by Jews from Armenia. The Geniza fragments, he argues, make it clear the Judaising reforms sent roots down into the whole of the population.^[170] The pattern is one of an elite conversion preceding large-scale adoption of the new religion by the general population, which often resisted the imposition.^[158] One important condition for mass conversion was a settled urban state, where churches, synagogues or mosques provided a focus for religion, as opposed to the free nomadic lifestyle of life on the open steppes.^{[note 65]} A tradition of the Iranian Judeo-Tats claims that their ancestors were responsible for the Khazar conversion.^[171] A legend traceable to the 16th-century Italian rabbi Judah Moscato attributed it to Yitzhak ha-Sangari.^[172]^[173]^[174]

Both the date of the conversion, and the extent of its influence beyond the elite,^{[note 66]} often minimised in some scholarship,^{[note 67]} are a matter of dispute,^{[note 68]} but at some point between 740 and 920 CE, the Khazar royalty and nobility appear to have converted to Judaism, in part, it is argued, perhaps to deflect competing pressures from Arabs and Byzantines to accept either Islam or Orthodoxy.^{[note 69]}^{[note 70]}

History of discussions about Khazar Jewishness

The earliest surviving Arabic text that refers to Khazar Jewishness appears to be that which was written by ibn Rustah, a Persian scholar who wrote an encyclopedic work on geography in the early tenth century.^[175] It is believed that ibn Rustah derived much of his information from the works of his contemporary Abu al Jayhani based in Central Asia.

The 10th century Kievian Letter has Old Turkic (Orkhon) inscription word-phrase OKHQURÜM, "I read (this or it)".

Christian of Stavelot in his Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam (c. 860–870s) refers to Gazari, presumably Khazars, as living in the lands of Gog and Magog, who were circumcised and omnem Judaismum observat—observing all the laws of Judaism.^{[note 71]} New numismatic evidence of coins dated 837/8 bearing the inscriptions arḍ al-ḫazar (Land of the Khazars), or Mûsâ rasûl Allâh (Moses is the messenger of God, in imitation of the Islamic coin phrase: Muḥammad rasûl Allâh) suggest to many the conversion took place in that decade.^{[note 72]} Olsson argues that the 837/8 evidence marks only the beginning of a long and difficult official Judaization that concluded some decades later.^{[note 73]} A 9th-century Jewish traveller, Eldad ha-Dani, is said to have informed Spanish Jews in 883 that there was a Jewish polity in the East, and that fragments of the legendary Ten Lost Tribes, part of the line of Simeon and half-line of Manasseh, dwelt in "the land of the Khazars", receiving tribute from some 25 to 28 kingdoms.^[176]^[177]^[178] Another view holds that by the 10th century, while the royal clan officially claimed Judaism, a non-normative variety of Islamisation took place among the majority of Khazars.^[179]

By the 10th century, the letter of King Joseph asserts that, after the royal conversion, "Israel returned (yashuvu yisra'el) with the people of Qazaria (to Judaism) in complete repentance (bi-teshuvah shelemah)."^[180] Persian historian Ibn al-Faqîh wrote that "all the Khazars are Jews, but they have been Judaized recently". Ibn Fadlân, based on his Caliphal mission (921–922) to the Volga Bulğars, also reported that "the core element of the state, the Khazars, were Judaized",^{[note 74]} something underwritten by the Qaraite scholar Ya'kub Qirqisânî around 937.^{[note 75]} The conversion appears to have occurred against a background of frictions arising from both an intensification of Byzantine missionary activity from the Crimea to the Caucasus, and Arab attempts to wrest control over the latter in the 8th century CE,^[181] and a revolt, put down, by the Khavars around the mid-9th century is often invoked as in part influenced by their refusal to accept Judaism.^[182] Modern scholars generally^{[note 76]} see the conversion as a slow process through three stages, which accords with Richard Eaton's model of syncretic inclusion, gradual identification and, finally, displacement of the older tradition.^{[note 77]}^[183]

Sometime between 954 and 961, Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ, from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain), wrote a letter of inquiry addressed to the ruler of Khazaria, and received a reply from Joseph of Khazaria. The exchanges of this Khazar Correspondence, together with the Schechter Letter discovered in the Cairo Geniza and the famous plato nizing dialogue^[184] by Judah Halevi, Sefer ha-Kuzari ("Book (of) The Khazari"), which plausibly drew on such sources,^{[note 78]} provide us with the only direct evidence of the indigenous traditions^{[note 79]} concerning the conversion. King Bulan^{[note 80]} is said to have driven out the sorcerers,^{[note 81]} and to have received angelic visitations exhorting him to find the true religion, upon which, accompanied by his vizier, he travelled to desert mountains of Warsān on a seashore, where he came across a cave rising from the plain of Tiyul in which Jews used to celebrate the Sabbath. Here he was circumcised.^{[note 82]} Bulan is then said to have convened a royal debate between exponents of the three Abrahamic religions. He decided to convert when he was convinced of Judaism's superiority. Many scholars situate this c. 740, a date supported by Halevi's own account.^[188]^[189] The details are both Judaic^{[note 83]} and Türkic: a Türkic ethnogonic myth speaks of an ancestral cave in which the Ashina were conceived from the mating of their human ancestor and a wolf ancestress.^[190]^{[note 84]}^[191] These accounts suggest that there was a rationalising syncretism of native pagan traditions with Jewish law, by melding through the motif of the cave, a site of ancestral ritual and repository of forgotten sacred texts, Türkic myths of origin and Jewish notions of redemption of Israel's fallen people.^[187] It is generally agreed they adopted Rabbinical rather than Qaraite Judaism.^[192]

Ibn Fadlan reports that the settlement of disputes in Khazaria was adjudicated by judges hailing each from his community, be it Christian, Jewish, Muslim, or Pagan.^[193] Some evidence suggests that the Khazar king saw himself as a defender of Jews even beyond the kingdom's frontiers, retaliating against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria in the wake of Islamic and Byzantine persecutions of Jews abroad.^[194]^{[note 85]} Ibn Fadlan recounts specifically an incident in which the king of Khazaria destroyed the minaret of a mosque in Atil as revenge for the destruction of a synagogue in Dâr al-Bâbûnaj, and allegedly said he would have done worse were it not for a fear that the Muslims might retaliate in turn against Jews.^[192]^[195] Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ sought information on Khazaria in the hope he might discover "a place on this earth where harassed Israel can rule itself" and wrote that, were it to prove true that Khazaria had such a king, he would not hesitate to forsake his high office and his family in order to emigrate there.^{[note 86]}

Albert Harkavy noted in 1877 that an Arabic commentary on Isaiah 48:14 ascribed to Saadia Gaon or to the Karaite scholar Benjamin Nahâwandî, interpreted "The Lord hath loved him" as a reference "to the Khazars, who will go and destroy Babel" (i.e., Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs. This has been taken as an indication of hopes by Jews that the Khazars might succeed in destroying the Caliphate.^[172]

Islam

In 965, as the Qağanate was struggling against the victorious campaign of the Rus' prince Sviatoslav, the Islamic historian Ibn al-Athîr mentions that Khazaria, attacked by the Oğuz, sought help from Khwarezm, but their appeal was rejected because they were regarded as "infidels" (al-kuffâr:pagans). Save for the king, the Khazarians are said to have converted to Islam in order to secure an alliance, and the Turks were, with Khwarezm's military assistance, repelled. It was this that, according to Ibn al-Athîr, led the Jewish king of Khazar to convert to Islam.^[125]

Genetics

Nine skeletons dating to the 7th–9th centuries excavated from elite military burial mounds of the Khazar Khaganate (in the modern Rostov region) were analyzed in two genetic studies (from 2019 and 2021). According to the 2019 study, the results "confirm the Turkic roots of the Khazars, but also highlight their ethnic diversity and some integration of conquered populations". The samples did not show a genetic connection to Ashkenazi Jews, and the results do not support the hypothesis of Ashkenazi Jews being descendants of the Khazars.^[196] In the 2021 study the results showed both European and East Asian paternal haplogroups in the samples: three individuals carried R1a Y-haplogroup, two had C2b, and the rest carried haplogroups G2a, N1a, Q, and R1b, respectively. According to the authors, "The Y-chromosome data are consistent with the results of the craniological study and genome-wide analysis of the same individuals in the sense that they show mixed genetic origins for the early medieval Khazar nobility".^[197]

Claims of Khazar ancestry

Claims of Khazar origins of peoples, or suggestions that the Khazars were absorbed by them, have been made with regard to the Kazakhs, the Hungarians, the Judaizing Slavic Subbotniks, the Muslim Karachays, the Kumyks, the Avars, the Cossacks of the Don and the Ukrainian Cossacks (see Khazar hypothesis of Cossack ancestry), the Turkic-speaking Krymchaks and their Crimean neighbours the Karaites, the Moldavian Csángós, the Mountain Jews and others.^[20]^[198]^[21]^[22] Turkic-speaking Crimean Karaites (known in the Crimean Tatar language as Qaraylar), some of whom migrated in the 19th century from the Crimea to Poland and Lithuania have claimed Khazar origins. Specialists in Khazar history question the connection.^[199]^[200]^{[note 87]} Scholarship is likewise sceptical of claims that the Tatar-speaking Krymchak Jews of the Crimea descend from Khazars.^[201]

Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks

In 1839, the Karaim scholar Abraham Firkovich was appointed by the Russian government as a researcher into the origins of the Jewish sect known as the Karaites.^[202] In 1846, one of his acquaintances, the Russian orientalist Vasilii Vasil'evich Grigor'ev (1816–1881), theorised that the Crimean Karaites were of Khazar stock. Firkovich vehemently rejected the idea,^[203] a position seconded by Firkovich, who hoped that by "proving" his people were of Turkic origin, would secure them exception from Russian anti-Jewish laws, since they bore no responsibility for Christ's crucifixion.^[204] This idea has a notable impact in Crimean Karaite circles.^{[note 88]} It is now believed that he forged much of this material on Khazars and Karaites.^[206] Specialists in Khazar history also question the connection.^[200]^{[note 87]} Brook's genetic study of European Karaites found no evidence of a Khazar or Turkic origin for any uniparental lineage but did reveal the European Karaites' links to Egyptian Karaites and to Rabbinical Jewish communities.^[207]^[208]

Another Turkic Crimean group, the Krymchaks had retained very simple Jewish traditions, mostly devoid of halakhic content, and very much taken with magical superstitions which, in the wake of the enduring educational efforts of the great Sephardi scholar Chaim Hezekiah Medini, came to conform with traditional Judaism.^[209]

Though the assertion they were not of Jewish stock enabled many Crimean Karaites to survive the Holocaust, which led to the murder of 6,000 Krymchaks, after the war, many of the latter, somewhat indifferent to their Jewish heritage, took a cue from the Crimean Karaites, and denied this connection in order to avoid the antisemitic effects of the stigma attached to Jews.^[210]

Ashkenazi-Khazar theories

Several scholars have suggested that instead of disappearing after the dissolution of their Empire, the Khazars migrated westward and eventually, they formed part of the core of the later Ashkenazi Jewish population of Europe. This hypothesis is greeted with scepticism or caution by most scholars.^{[note 89]}^{[note 90]}^{[note 91]}

The German Orientalist Karl Neumann, in the context of an earlier controversy about possible connections between the Khazars and the ancestors of the Slavic peoples, suggested as early as 1847 that emigrant Khazars might have influenced the core population of Eastern European Jews.^{[note 92]}

The theory was then taken up by Albert Harkavi in 1869, when he also claimed that a possible link existed between the Khazars and the Ashkenazim,^{[note 93]} but the theory that Khazar converts formed a major proportion of the Ashkenazim was first proposed to the Western public in a lecture which was delivered by Ernest Renan in 1883.^{[note 94]}^[211] Occasional suggestions that there was a small Khazar component in East European Jews emerged in works by Joseph Jacobs (1886), Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, a critic of antisemitism (1893),^[212] Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz,^{[note 95]} and by the Russian-Jewish anthropologist Samuel Weissenberg.^{[note 96]} In 1909, Hugo von Kutschera developed the notion into a book-length study,^[214]^[215] arguing that the Khazars formed the foundational core of the modern Ashkenazim.^[214] Maurice Fishberg introduced the notion to American audiences in 1911.^[213]^[216] The idea was also taken up by the Polish-Jewish economic historian and General Zionist Yitzhak Schipper in 1918.^{[note 97]}^[217] Israel Bartal has suggested that from the Haskalah onwards, polemical pamphlets against the Khazars were inspired by Sephardi organizations which opposed the Khazaro-Ashkenazim.^[218]

Scholarly anthropologists, such as Roland B. Dixon (1923), and writers such as H. G. Wells (1920) used it to argue that "The main part of Jewry never was in Judea",^{[note 98]}^[219] a thesis that was to have a political echo in later opinion.^{[note 99]}^[220]^[221]

In 1932, Samuel Krauss ventured the theory that the biblical Ashkenaz referred to northern Asia Minor, and he identified it as the ancestral homeland of the Khazars, a position which was immediately disputed by Jacob Mann.^[222] Ten years later, in 1942, Abraham N. Polak (sometimes referred to as Poliak), later professor for the history of the Middle Ages at Tel Aviv University, published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria.^{[note 100]}^{[note 101]}^[223] D.M. Dunlop, writing in 1954, thought that very little evidence supported what he considered a mere assumption, and he also argued that the Ashkenazi-Khazar descent theory went far beyond what "our imperfect records" permit.^[224] In 1955, Léon Poliakov, who assumed that the Jews of Western Europe resulted from a "panmixia" in the first millennium, asserted that it was widely assumed that Europe's Eastern Jews were descended from a mixture of Khazarian and German Jews.^{[note 102]} Poliak's work found some support in Salo Wittmayer Baron and Ben-Zion Dinur,^{[note 103]}^{[note 104]} but was dismissed by Bernard Weinryb as a fiction (1962).^{[note 105]} Bernard Lewis was of the opinion that the word in Cairo Geniza interpreted as Khazaria is actually Hakkari and therefore it relates to the Kurds of the Hakkari mountains in southeast Turkey.^[228]

The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe in 1976,^[229] which was both positively reviewed and dismissed as a fantasy, and a somewhat dangerous one. Israeli historian Zvi Ankori argued that Koestler had allowed his literary imagination to espouse Poliak's thesis, which most historians dismissed as speculative.^[135] Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the Palestinians", while Bernard Lewis claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and it had been abandoned by all serious scholars.^[229]^{[note 106]} Raphael Patai, however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities,^{[note 107]} and several amateur researchers, such as Boris Altschüler (1994),^[200] kept the thesis in the public eye. The theory has been occasionally manipulated to deny Jewish nationhood.^[229]^[233] Recently, a variety of approaches, from linguistics (Paul Wexler)^[234] to historiography (Shlomo Sand)^[235] and population genetics (Eran Elhaik, a geneticist from the University of Sheffield)^[236] have emerged to keep the theory alive.^[237] In a broad academic perspective, both the idea that the Khazars converted en masse to Judaism and the suggestion they emigrated to form the core population of Ashkenazi Jewry, remain highly polemical issues.^[238] One thesis held that the Khazar Jewish population went into a northern diaspora and had a significant impact on the rise of Ashkenazi Jews. Connected to this thesis is the theory, expounded by Paul Wexler, dissenting from the majority of Yiddish linguists, that the grammar of Yiddish contains a Khazar substrate.^[239]

Use in antisemitic polemic

According to Michael Barkun, while the Khazar hypothesis generally never played any major role in the development of anti-Semitism,^[240] it has exercised a noticeable influence on American antisemites since the restrictions on immigration were imposed in the 1920s.^{[note 108]}^{[note 109]} Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and religious polemical literature, particularly in literature which advocated British Israelism, both in Britain and the United States.^[213]^{[note 110]} Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick's The Jews in America, (1923)^[241] it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restriction in the 1920s; racial theorists^[242] such as Lothrop Stoddard; antisemitic conspiracy-theorists such as the Ku Klux Klan's Hiram Wesley Evans; and some anti-communist polemicists such as John O. Beaty^{[note 111]} and Wilmot Robertson, whose views influenced David Duke.^[243] According to Yehoshafat Harkabi (1968) and others,^{[note 112]} it played a role in Arab anti-Zionist polemics, and took on an antisemitic edge. Bernard Lewis, noting in 1987 that Arab scholars had dropped it, remarked that it only occasionally emerged in Arab political discourse.^{[note 113]} It has also played some role in Soviet antisemitic chauvinism^{[note 114]} and Slavic Eurasian historiography; particularly, in the works of scholars like Lev Gumilev,^[245] it came to be exploited by the white supremacist Christian Identity movement^[246] and even by terrorist esoteric cults like Aum Shinrikyō.^[247] The Kazar hypothesis was further exploited by esoteric fascists such as Miguel Serrano, referring to a lost Palestinabuch by the German Nazi-scholar Herman Wirth, who claimed to have proven that the Jews descended from a prehistoric migrant group parasiting on the Great Civilizations.^[248]

Genetic studies

The hypothesis of Khazarian ancestry in Ashkenazi has also been a subject of vehement disagreements in the field of population genetics,^{[note 115]} wherein claims have been made concerning evidence both for and against it. Eran Elhaik argued in 2012 for a significant Khazar component in the paternal line based on the study of Y-DNA of Ashkenazi Jews using Caucasian populations—Georgians, Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews—as proxies.^{[note 116]} The evidence from historians he used has been criticised by Shaul Stampfer^[249] and the technical response to such a position from geneticists is mostly dismissive, arguing that, if traces of descent from Khazars exist in the Ashkenazi gene pool, the contribution would be quite minor,^[250]^[251]^[252]^[253]^{[note 117]} or insignificant.^[254]^[255] One geneticist, Raphael Falk, has argued that "national and ethnic prejudices play a central role in the controversy."^{[note 118]} According to Nadia Abu El-Haj, the issues of origins are generally complicated by the difficulties of writing history via genome studies and the biases of emotional investments in different narratives, depending on whether the emphasis lies on direct descent or on conversion within Jewish history. At the time of her writing, the lack of Khazar DNA samples that might allow verification also presented difficulties.^{[note 119]}

In literature

The Kuzari is an influential work written by the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi (c. 1075–1141). Divided into five essays (ma'amarim), it takes the form of a fictional dialogue between the pagan king of the Khazars and a Jew who was invited to instruct him in the tenets of the Jewish religion. The intent of the work, although based on Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's correspondence with the Khazar king, was not historical, but rather to defend Judaism as a revealed religion, written in the context, firstly of Karaite challenges to the Spanish rabbinical intelligentsia, and then against temptations to adapt Aristotelianism and Islamic philosophy to the Jewish faith.^[258] Originally written in Arabic, it was translated into Hebrew by Judah ibn Tibbon.^[184]

Benjamin Disraeli's early novel Alroy (1833) draws on Menachem ben Solomon's story.^[259] The question of mass religious conversion and the indeterminability of the truth of stories about identity and conversion are central themes of Milorad Pavić's best-selling mystery story Dictionary of the Khazars.^[260]

H.N. Turteltaub's Justinian, Marek Halter's Book of Abraham and Wind of the Khazars, and Michael Chabon's Gentlemen of the Road allude to or feature elements of Khazar history or create fictional Khazar characters.^[261]

Cities associated with the Khazars

Cities associated with the Khazars include Atil, Khazaran, Samandar; in the Caucasus, Balanjar, Kazarki, Sambalut, and Samiran; in Crimea and the Taman region, Kerch, Theodosia, Yevpatoria (Güzliev), Samkarsh (also called Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha), and Sudak; and in the Don valley, Sarkel. A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the Mayaki-Saltovo region. Some scholars suppose that the Khazar settlement of Sambat on the Dnieper refers to the later Kyiv.^{[note 120]}

Notes

Footnotes

Greek: Χάζαροι Kházaroi; Hebrew: כּוּזָרִים, romanized: Kūzārīm;^[6] Latin: Gazari,^[7]^{[note 1]} or Gasani;^{[note 2]}^[8] Chinese: 突厥曷薩 Tūjué Hésà; 突厥可薩 Tūjué Kěsà, lit. 'Türk Khazar'^[9]

Resource notes

"The Gazari are, presumably, the Khazars, although this term or the Kozary of the perhaps near contemporary Vita Constantini ... could have reflected any of a number of peoples within Khazaria." (Golden 2007b, p. 139)

"Somewhat later, however, in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Basil I, dated to 871, Louis the German, clearly taking exception to what had apparently become Byzantine usage, declares that 'we have not found that the leader of the Avars, or Khazars (Gasanorum)'..." (Golden 2001a, p. 33)

Golden 2007a, p. 16 and n.38 citing L. Bazin, "Pour une nouvelle hypothèse sur l'origine des Khazar", in Materialia Turcica, 7/8 (1981–1982): 51–71.

Compare Tibetan dru-gu Ge-sar (the Turk Gesar)(Golden 2007a, p. 16) or Phrom Ge-sar, who was possibly inspired by Fromo Kesaro (拂菻罽娑 standard Chinese: Fúlǐn Jìsuō < Middle Chinese: *pʰɨut̚ -liɪm^X kˠiᴇi^H-sɑ), a king of the Turk Shahis of mixed Hephthalite-Western Turkic origins (Rezakhani 2017, Kim 2016, pp. 58–59, Inaba & Balogh 2020, p. 106, Kordosis 2017, pp. 183–192).

Sijie 思結 (also 斯結^[30]^[31]) was mentioned as a 鐵勒 Tiele, later Toquz Oghuz tribe, and distinguished from 突厥 Tujue in Chinese sources such as Old Book of Tang,^[32] New Book of Tang^[33] or Tang Huiyao.^[34] However, in other sources Sijie were also associated with Tujue (Saka Ttrūka): Zizhi Tongjian mentioned the Tujue Sijie 突厥思結^[35] and Tang Huiyao also counted 思結 Sijie (rendered as 恩結 Enjie) among the Eastern Turkic tribes living south of the Gobi desert.^[36]^[37] A saikairä ttūrkä chārä (< *sïqïr türk čor) was also mentioned in a Khotanese Saka text about Turks in Ganzhou.^[38]^[39]

Kěsà (可薩) would have been pronounced something like k^ha'sat in both Early Middle Chinese/EMC and Late Middle Chinese/LMC, while Hésà 葛 (曷薩) would yield ɣat-sat in (EMC) and xɦat sat (LMC) respectively, where final "t" often transcribes –r- in foreign words. Thus, while these Chinese forms could transcribe a foreign word of the type *Kasar/*Kazar, *Ġatsar, *Ġazar, *Ġasar, there is a problem phonetically with assimilating these to the Uyğur word Qasar 葛薩 (Standard Chinese Gesa < EMC/LMC *Kat-sat= *Kar sar= *Kasar).^[41]

Ibn al-Nadīm commenting on script systems in 987–88 recorded that the Khazars wrote in Hebrew (Golden 2007b, p. 148).

"The chancellery of the Jewish state of the Khazars is therefore also likely to have used Hebrew writing even if the official language was a Turkic one." (Erdal 2007, pp. 98–99)

"there must have been many different ethnic groups within the Khazar realm ... These groups spoke different languages, some of them no doubt belonging to the Indo-European or different Caucasian language families." (Erdal 2007, p. 75, n.2)

The high chancery official of the Abbasid Caliphate under Al-Wathiq, Sallām the interpreter (Sallam al-tardjuman), famous for his reputed mastery of thirty languages, might have been both Jewish and a Khazar Wasserstein 2007, pp. 376, and n.2, referring to Dunlop 1954, pp. 190–193.

"Oğuric Turkic, spoken by many of the subject tribes, doubtless, was one of the linguae francae of the state. Alano-As was also widely spoken. Eastern Common Turkic, the language of the royal house and its core tribes, in all likelihood remained the language of the ruling elite in the same way that Mongol continued to be used by the rulers of the Golden Horde, alongside of the Qipčaq Turkic speech spoken by the bulk of the Turkic tribesmen that constituted the military force of this part of the Činggisid empire. Similarity, Oğuric, like Qipčaq Turkic in the Jočid realm, functioned as one of the languages of government." (Golden 2006, p. 91)

al-Iṣṭakhrī's account however then contradicts itself by likening the language to Bulğaric (Golden 2007a, pp. 13–14, 14 n.28).

"The word tribe is as troublesome as the term clan. It is commonly held to denote a group, like the clan, claiming descent from a common (in some culture zones eponymous) ancestor, possessing a common territory, economy, language, culture, religion, and sense of identity. In reality, tribes were often highly fluid sociopolitical structures, arising as 'ad hoc responses to ephemeral situations of competition,' as Morton H. Fried has noted." (Golden 2001b, p. 78)

Dieter Ludwig, in his doctoral thesis Struktur und Gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der schriftlichen Quellen, (Münster, 1982) suggested that the Khazars were Turkic members of the Hephthalite Empire, where the lingua franca was a variety of Iranian (Golden 2007a, pp. 40–41; Brook 2010, p. 4).

"The reader should be warned that the A-shih-na link of the Khazar dynasty, an old phantom of ... Khazarology, will ... lose its last claim to reality" (Zuckerman 2007, p. 404).

In this view, the name Khazar would derive from a hypothetical *Aq Qasar (Golden 2006, pp. 89–90): e.g. Pritsak (1978) links Ak-Katzirs (< Άκατζίροι) to the name Khazar, though he explains that the polity was named Khazar because the Ashina-ruled Western Turks, after losing their territories to Tang Chinese, took over the territory formerly occupied by the Akatziri (Pritsak 1978, p. 261). However, the hypothesized link between the Akatizoi and the Khazars was not solid, being based on mere phonetic resemblance (Golden 2011b, p. 136, Brook 2006, p. 10).

Whittow states that the word Türk had no strict ethnic meaning at the time: "Throughout the early middle ages on the Eurasian steppes, the term 'Turk' may or may not imply membership of the ethnic group of Turkic peoples, but it does always mean at least some awareness and acceptance of the traditions and ideology of the Gök Türk empire, and a share, however distant, in the political and cultural inheritance of that state." (Whittow 1996, p. 221)

The Duōlù (咄陆) were the left wing of the On Oq, the Nǔshībì (弩失畢: *Nu Šad(a)pit), and together they were registered in Chinese sources as the "ten names" (shí míng:十名) (Golden 2010, pp. 54–55).

Several scholars connect it to Judaization, with Artamonov linking its introduction to Obadiyah's reforms and the imposition of full Rabbinical Judaism and Pritsak to the same period (799–833), arguing that the Beg, a majordomo from the Iranian *Barč/Warâ Bolčan clan, identified with Obadiyah, compelled the Qağanal clan to convert, an event which putatively caused the Qabar revolt. Golden comments: "There is nothing but conjecture to connect it with the reforms of Obadiyah, the further evolution of Khazar Judaism or the Qabars ... The fact is we do not know when, precisely, the Khazar system of dual kingship emerged. It could not have come ex nihilo. It was not present in the early stages of Khazar history. Given the Old Türk traditions of the Khazar state ... and the overall institutional conservation of steppe society, one must exercise great caution here. Clear evidence for it is relatively late (the latter part of the ninth century perhaps and more probably the tenth century)- although it was probably present by the first third of the ninth century. Iranian influences via the Ors guard of the Qağans may have also been a factor" (Golden 2007b, pp. 155–156)

There was a maximum limit on the number of years of a king's reign, according to Ibn Fadlan; if a Qağan had reigned for at least forty years, his courtiers and subjects felt his ability to reason would become impaired by old age. They would then kill the Qağan (Dunlop 1954, pp. 97, 112).

Petrukhin notes that Ibn Fadlan's description of a Rus' prince (malik) and his lieutenant (khalifa) mirrored the Khazarian diarchy, but the comparison was flawed, as there was no sacral kingship among the Rus' (Petrukhin 2007, pp. 256–257).

"the rest of the Khazars profess a religion similar to that of the Turks." (Golden 2007b, pp. 130–131)

This regiment was exempt from campaigning against fellow Muslims, evidence that non-Judaic beliefs were no obstacle to access to the highest levels of government. They had abandoned their homeland and sought service with the Khazars in exchange for the right to exercise their religious freedom, according to al-Masudi (Golden 2007b, p. 138).

Olsson writes that there is no evidence for this Islamic guard for the 9th century, but that its existence is attested for 913 (Olsson 2013, p. 507).

Noonan gives the lower figure for the Muslim contingents, but adds that the army could draw on other mercenaries stationed in the capital, Rūs, Ṣaqāliba and pagans. Olsson's 10,000 refers to the spring-summer horsemen in the nomadic king's retinue (Noonan 2007, pp. 211, 217).

A third division may have contained the dwellings of the tsarina. The dimensions of the western part were 3x3, as opposed to the eastern part's 8 x 8 farsakhs (Noonan 2007, pp. 208–209, 216–219).

Outside Muslim traders were under the jurisdiction of a special royal official (ghulām) (Noonan 2007, pp. 211–214).

Theophanes the Confessor around 813 defined them as Eastern Turks. The designation is complex and Róna-Tas writes: "The Georgian Chronicle refers to the Khazars in 626–628 as the 'West Turks' who were then opposed to the East Turks of Central Asia. Shortly after 679 the Armenian Geography mentions the Turks together with the Khazars; this may be the first record of the Magyars. Around 813, Theophanes uses – alongside the generic name Turk – 'East Turk' for the designation of the Khazars, and in context, the 'West Turks' may actually have meant the Magyars. We know that Nicholas Misticus referred to the Magyars as 'West Turks' in 924/925. In the 9th century the name Turk was mainly used to designate the Khazars." (Róna-Tas 1999, p. 282)

Many sources identify the Göktürks in this alliance as Khazars--for example, Beckwith writes recently: "The alliance sealed by Heraclius with the Khazars in 627 was of seminal importance to the Byzantine Empire through the Early Middle Ages, and helped assure its long-term survival."^[87] Early sources such as the almost contemporary Armenian history, Patmutʿiwn Ałuanicʿ Ašxarhi, attributed to Movsēs Dasxurancʿ, and the Chronicle attributed to Theophanes identify these Turks as Khazars (Theophanes has: "Turks, who are called Khazars"). Both Zuckerman and Golden reject the identification.^[88]

Scholars dismiss Chinese annals which, reporting the events from Turkic sources, attribute the destruction of Persia and its leader Shah Khusrau II personally to Tong Yabghu. Zuckerman argues instead that the account is correct in its essentials (Zuckerman 2007, p. 417).

"The Khazars, the close allies of the Byzantines, adopted Judaism, as their official religion, apparently by 740, three years after an invasion by the Arabs under Marwan ibn Muhammad. Marwan had used treachery against a Khazar envoy in order to gain peaceful entrance into Khazar territory. He then declared his dishonourable intentions and pressed deep into Khazar territory, subsequently, he released the envoy. The Arabs devastated the horse herds, seized many Khazars and others as captives, and forced much of the population to flee into the Ural Mountains. Marwan's terms dictated that the kaghan and his Khazars should convert to Islam. Having no choice, the kaghan accepted Marwan's terms, and the Arabs returned home in triumph. As soon as the Arabs were gone, the kaghan renounced Islam – with, one may assume, great vehemence. The Khazar Dynasty's conversion to Judaism is best explained by this specific historical background, together with the fact that the mid-eighth century was an age in which the major Eurasian states proclaimed their adherence to distinctive world religions. Adopting Judaism also was politically astute: it meant that the Khazars did not have to accept the overlordship (however theoretical) of the Arab caliph or the Byzantine emperor." (Beckwith 2011, p. 149)

Over 520 separate hoards of such silver have been uncovered in Sweden and Gotland (Moss 2002, p. 16).

The Volga Bulgarian state was converted to Islam in the 10th century, and wrested liberty from its Khazarian suzerains when Svyatislav razed Atil (Abulafia 1987, pp. 419, 480–483).

Whittow argues however that: "The title of qaghan, with its claims to lordship over the steppe world, is likely to be no more than ideological booty from the 965 victory." (Whittow 1996, pp. 243–252)

Korobkin citing Golb & Pritsak notes that Khazars have often been connected with Kyiv's foundations.^[113] Pritsak and Golb state that children in Kyiv were being given a mixture of Hebrew and Slavic names by c. 930.^[114] Toch on the other hand is sceptical, and argues that "a significant Jewish presence in early medieval Kyiv or indeed in Russia at large remains much in doubt".^[115]

The yarmaq based on the Arab dirhem was perhaps issued in reaction to fall-off in Muslim minting in the 820s, and to a felt need in the turbulent upheavals of the 830s to assert a new religious profile, with the Jewish legends stamped on them (Golden 2007b, p. 156).

Scholars are divided as to whether the fortification of Sarkel represents a defensive bulwark against a growing Magyar or Varangian threat (Petrukhin 2007, pp. 247, and n.1).

MQDWN or the Macedon dynasty of Byzantium; SY, perhaps a central Volga statelet, Burtas, Asya; PYYNYL denoting the Danube-Don Pechnegs; BM, perhaps indicating the Volga Bulgars, and TWRQY or Oghuz Turks. The provisory identifications are those of Pritsak (Kohen 2007, p. 106).

Al-Mas'udi says the king secretly tipped off the Rus' of the attack but was unable to oppose the request of his guards (Olsson 2013, p. 507).

The letter continues: "I wage war with them. If I left them (in peace) for a single hour they would crush the whole land of the Ishmaelites up to Baghdad." (Petrukhin 2007, p. 257)

From Klavdiy Lebedev (1852–1916), Svyatoslav's meeting with Emperor John, as described by Leo the Deacon.

H. H. Howorth argued that the Khazars were the ancestors of contemporary Circassians (Howorth 1870, pp. 182–192).

Dunlop thought the later city of Saqsin lay on or near Atil (Dunlop 1954, p. 248).

The Caspian Sea is still known to Arabs, and many peoples of the region, as the "Khazar Sea" (Arabic Bahr ul-Khazar) (Brook 2010, p. 156)

"thus it is clear that the false doctrine of Yišô in Rome (Hrôm) and that of Môsê among the Khazars and that of Mânî in Turkistan took away their might and the valor that they once possessed and made them feeble and decadent among their rivals" (Golden 2007b, p. 130).

Some sources claim that the father of Seljuk, the eponymous progenitor of the Seljuk Turks, namely Toqaq Temür Yalığ, began his career as an Oghuz soldier in Khazar service in the early and mid-10th century, and rose to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for Khwarazm. Seljuk's sons, significantly, all bear names from the Jewish scriptures: Mîkâ"il, Isrâ"îl, Mûsâ, Yûnus. Peacock argues that early traditions attesting a Seljuk origin within the Khazar empire when it was powerful, were later rewritten, after Khazaria fell from power in the 11th century, to blank out the connection (Peacock 2010, pp. 27–35).

Tzitzak is often treated as her original proper name, with a Turkic etymology čiček ("flower"). Erdal, however, citing the Byzantine work on court ceremony De Ceremoniis, authored by Constantine Porphyrogennetos, argues that the word referred only to the dress Irene wore at court, perhaps denoting its colourfulness, and compares it to the Hebrew ciciot, the knotted fringes of a ceremonial shawl, or tallit (Erdal 2007, p. 80, n.22; Wexler 1987, p. 72).

"Engravings that resemble the six-pointed Star of David were found on circular Khazar relics and bronze mirrors from Sarkel and Khazarian grave fields in Upper Saltov. However, rather than having been made by Jews, these appear to be shamanistic sun discs." (Brook 2010, pp. 113, 122–123 n.148)

Brook says this thesis was developed by Jacob Mann, based on a reading of the word "Khazaria" in the Cairo Geniza fragment. Bernard Lewis, he adds, challenged the assumption by noting that the original text reads Hakkâri and refers to the Kurds of the Hakkâri mountains in south-east Turkey (Brook 2010, pp. 191–192, n.72).

Whittow notes that this native institution, given the constant, lengthy, military and acculturating pressures on the tribes from China to the East, was influenced also by the sinocentric doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven (Tiānmìng:天命), which signaled legitimacy of rule (Whittow 1996, p. 220).

Alp Ilut'uêr is a Turkish subordinate title (Golden 2007b, p. 124).

Golden and Shapira thinks the evidence from such Georgian sources renders suspect a conversion prior to this date (Golden 2007b, pp. 135–136; Shapira 2007b, pp. 347–348).

Golden 2007b, pp. 135–136, reporting on al-Muqaddasi.

During Islamic invasions, some groups of Khazars who suffered defeat, including a qağan, were converted to Islam (DeWeese 1994, p. 73).

Johannes Buxtorf first published the letters around 1660. Controversy arose over their authenticity; it was even argued that the letters represented "no more than Jewish self-consolation and fantasmagory over the lost dreams of statehood" (Kohen 2007, p. 112).

"If anyone thinks that the Khazar correspondence was first composed in 1577 and published in Qol Mebasser, the onus of proof is certainly on him. He must show that a number of ancient manuscripts, which appear to contain references to the correspondence, have all been interpolated since the end of the sixteenth century. This will prove a very difficult or rather an impossible task." (Dunlop 1954, p. 130)

"The issue of the authenticity of the Correspondence has a long and mottled history which need not detain us here. Dunlop and most recently Golb have demonstrated that Hasdai's letter, Joseph's response (dating perhaps from the 950s) and the 'Cambridge Document' are, indeed, authentic." (Golden 2007b, pp. 145–146)

"(a court debate on conversion) appears in accounts of Khazar Judaism in two Hebrew accounts, as well as in one eleventh-century Arabic account. These widespread and evidently independent attestations would seem to support the historicity of some kind of court debate, but, more important, clearly suggest the currency of tales recounting the conversion and originating among the Khazar Jewish community itself" ... "the 'authenticity' of the Khazar correspondence is hardly relevant"^[161] "The wider issue of the 'authenticity' of the 'Khazar correspondence', and of the significance of this tale's parallels with the equally controversial Cambridge document /Schechter text, has been discussed extensively in the literature on Khazar Judaism; much of the debate loses significance if, as Pritsak has recently suggested, the accounts are approached as 'epic' narratives rather than evaluated from the standpoint of their 'historicity'."^[162]

"Of the intensive archaeological study of Khazar sites (over a thousand burial sites have been investigated!), not one has yet yielded finds that yet fit in some way the material legacy of antique European or Middle Eastern Jewry." (Toch 2012, pp. 162–163)

Shingiray noting the widespread lack of artifacts of wealth in Khazar burials, arguing that nomads used few materials to express their personal attributes: "The SMC assemblages-even if they were not entirely missing from the Khazar imperial center - presented an outstanding instance of archaeological material minimalism in this region." (Shingiray 2012, pp. 209–211)

"But, one must ask, are we to expect much religious paraphernalia in a recently converted steppe society? Do the Oğuz, in the century or so after their Islamization, present much physical evidence in the steppe for their new faith? These conclusions must be considered preliminary." (Golden 2007b, pp. 150–151, and note 137)

Golden 2007b, pp. 128–129 compares Ulfilas's conversions of the Goths to Arianism; Al-Masudi records a conversion of the Alans to Christianity during the Abbasid period; the Volga Bulğars adopted Islam after their leader converted in the 10th century; the Uyğur Qağan accepted Manichaeism in 762.

Golden takes exception to J. B. Bury's claim (1912) that it was "unique in history".^[164]^[165] Golden also cites from Jewish history the conversion of Idumeans under John Hyrcanus; of the Itureans under Aristobulus I; of the kingdom of Adiabene under Queen Helena; the Ḥimyârî kings in Yemen, and Berber assimilations into North African Jewry.^[166]

"in Israel, emotions are still high when it comes to the history of the Khazars, as I witnessed in a symposium on the issue at the Israeli Academy of Sciences in Jerusalem (May 24, 2011). Whereas Prof. Shaul Stampfer believed the story of the Khazars' conversion to Judaism was a collection of stories or legends that have no historical foundation, (and insisted that the Ashkenazi of Eastern Europe of today stem from Jews in Central Europe who emigrated eastwards), Prof. Dan Shapiro believed that the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism was part of the history of Russia at the time it established itself as a kingdom." (Falk 2017, p. 101,n.9)

"The Șûfî wandering out into the steppe was far more effective in bringing Islam to the Turkic nomads than the learned 'ulamâ of the cities." (Golden 2007b, p. 126)

"the Khazars (most of whom did not convert to Judaism, but remained animists, or adopted Islam and Christianity)" (Wexler 2002, p. 514)

"In much of the literature on conversions of Inner Asian peoples, attempts are made, 'to minimize the impact' ... This has certainly been true of some of the scholarship regarding the Khazars." (Golden 2007b, p. 127)

"scholars who have contributed to the subject of the Khazars' conversion, have based their arguments on a limited corpus of textual, and more recently, numismatic evidence ... Taken together these sources offer a cacophony of distortions, contradictions, vested interests, and anomalies in some areas, and nothing but silence in others." (Olsson 2013, p. 496)

"Judaism was apparently chosen because it was a religion of the book without being the faith of a neighbouring state which had designs on Khazar lands." (Noonan 1999, p. 502)

"Their conversion to Judaism was the equivalent of a declaration of neutrality between the two rival powers." (Baron 1957, p. 198)

"We are not aware of any nation under the sky that would not have Christians among them. For even in Gog and Magog, the Hunnic people who call themselves Gazari, those whom Alexander confined, there was a tribe more brave than the others. This tribe had already been circumcised and they profess all dogmata of Judaism (omnem Judaismum observat)." (Golden 2007b, p. 139)

The idea of a forced general conversion imposed on the Qağanal dynasty in the 830s was advanced by Omeljian Pritsak, and is now supported by Roman Kovalev and Peter Golden (Olsson 2013, p. 497).

Olsson identifies this with the onset of Magyar invasions of the Pontic steppe in the 830s, the construction of Sarkel, and the Schechter letter's reference to Bulan, converted to his Jewish wife Serakh's faith, wresting power, in a period of famine, elements which undermined the qağan, and allowed the creation of the royal diarchy (Olsson 2013, pp. 507, 513ff).

wa al-ḥazarwa malikuhum kulluhum yahûd ("The Khazars and their king are all Jews") (Golden 2007b, pp. 143, 159)

Golden, citing his comment on Genesis 9:27: "some other commentators are of the opinion that this verse alludes to the Khazars who accepted Judaism", with Golden's comment: "Certainly, by this time, the association of Khazaria and Judaism in the Jewish world was an established fact" (Golden 2007b, p. 143).

Shapira and Zuckerman disagree, positing only one stage and placing it later. Shapira takes stage 1 as a Jewish-Khazar reinterpretation of the Tengri-cult in terms of a monotheism similar to Judaism's; Zuckerman thinks Judaisation took place, just once, after 861 (Shapira 2007b, pp. 349, and n.178; Zuckerman 1995, p. 250).

Dunlop thought the first stage occurred with the king's conversion c. 740; the second with the installation of Rabbinical Judaism c. 800 (Golden 2007b, pp. 127–128, 151–153; Dunlop 1954, p. 170).

Arabic original: Kitâb al-ḥuyya wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-din al-dhalîl (Book of the Argument and Demonstration in Aid of the Despised Faith) (Schweid 2007, p. 279).

Brook mentions also a letter in Hebrew, the Mejelis document, dated 985–986, which refers to "our lord David, the Khazar prince" who lived in Taman. As Brook notes, both D. M. Dunlop and Dan Shapira dismiss it as a forgery (Brook 2010, pp. 30, 41, n.75).

The name is commonly etymologized as meaning "elk" in Türkic. Shapira identifies him with the Sabriel of the Schechter letter, and suggests, since Sabriel is unattested as a Jewish name, although the root is "hope, believe, find out, understand" that it is a calque on the Oğuz Türkic bulan (one who finds out) or bilen (one who knows) (Shapira 2009, p. 1102).

Szpiech, citing the Letter of King Joseph: et ha-qosmim ve-et'ovdei avodah zarah ("expelled the wizards and idolators") (Szpiech 2012, pp. 93–117 [102]).

This detail is in Halevi's Sefer Ha-Kusari.^[185] Golden has identified Warsān as Transcaucasian Varaˇc'an.^[186] Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's letter also mentions a legend that the Chaldaeans, under persecution, hid the Scriptures in a cave, and taught their sons to pray there, which they did until their descendants forgot the custom. Much later, a tradition has it, a man of Israel entered the cave and, retrieving the books, taught the descendants how to learn the Law.^[187]

The Schechter document has officers during the religious debate speak of a cave in a certain plain (TYZWL) where books are to be retrieved. They turn out to be the books of the Torah (DeWeese 1994, p. 303; Golb & Pritsak 1982, p. 111).

The original ancestral cavern of the Türks, according to Chinese sources, was called Ötüken, and the tribal leaders would travel there annually to conduct sacrificial rites (DeWeese 1994, pp. 276, 300–304).

Kohen refers to Khazar killings of Christians or the uncircumcized in retaliation for persecutions of Jews in Byzantium, and Khazar reprisals against Muslims for persecutions of Jews in Caucasian Albania, perhaps under Emir Nasr (Kohen 2007, pp. 107–108).

"If indeed I could learn that this was the case, then, despising all my glory, abandoning my high estate, leaving my family, I would go over mountains and hills, through seas and lands, till I should arrive at the place where my Lord the King resides, that I might see not only his glory and magnificence, and that of his servants and ministers, but also the tranquillity of the Israelites. On beholding this my eyes would brighten, my reins would exult, my lips would pour forth praises to God, who has not withdrawn his favour from his afflicted ones." (Koestler 1977, p. 63; Leviant 2008, pp. 159–162)

Rabbinic Judaism rather than Qaraism was the form adopted. Small Karaim communities may have existed, but the linguistic and historical evidence suggests that the Turkic-speaking Karaim Jews in Poland and Lithuania, of which one branch also existed in the Crimea, descend from the Khazars. "At most, it is conceivable that the smaller Karaite community which lived in Khazaria gained the Kipchak type Turkic language, that they speak today, through an exchange of language." Khazars probably converted to Rabbinic Judaism, whereas in Karaism only the Torah is accepted, the Talmud being ignored (Róna-Tas 1999, p. 232).

"At a time when Russia masked imperialist goals by pretending to be the protector of Slavic peoples and the Orthodox faith, Crimean Karism was exercising its own version of cultural imperialism. It is clear that the Crimean Karaites intended to expand their dominion to include Cairo, Jerusalem, and Damascus, basing their pre-eminence on the claim that Karaism, an ancient, pre-Talmudic form of Judaism, had been brought to the Middle East by the Khazars. Such an allegation would, however, have been much more difficult, if not impossible, to maintain.

To summarize the Khazar-Karaite nexus commonly accepted in the Russian Empire during the last century: the Khazars, who were of pagan Turkic origin, were supposedly brought to Judaism by Karaites, descendants of Jews who had lived in the Black Sea areas since biblical times and whose Judaism was, therefore, pre-Talmudic and nonrabbinic. As a result, the Khazars' Judaism was Karaite, and later Karaites, who spoken a Turkic language, must have descended from the Khazars, with whom the ancient Jews had assimilated. The circularity of the argument aside, modern historians have concluded that the Khazars were converted by Rabbanite Jews and that they and their descendants observed rabbinic law and traditions. Indeed, recent scholarship has demonstrated that Khazaria was altogether unrepresented in the Karaite literature of the ninth and early tenth centuries, as well as that written during its Golden Age – when Karaism had a militant and missionary influence."^[205]

"Most scholars are skeptical of the hypothesis".^[23] Wexler, who proposes a variation of the idea, argues that a combination of three reasons accounts for scholarly aversion to the concept: a desire not to get mixed up in controversy, ideological insecurities, and the incompetence of much earlier work in favor of that hypothesis.

"Methodologically, Wexler has opened up some new areas, taking elements of folk culture into account. I think that his conclusions have gone well beyond the evidence. Nonetheless, these are themes that should be pursued further." (Golden 2007a, p. 56)

"Arthur Koestler's book The Thirteenth Tribe which claimed that the converted Khazars were the progenitors of today's Ashkenazi Jews, has largely been rejected by serious scholars. However, the disputed theory that the stereotypical European Jew is descended from an Eastern European nation of Jewish converts, has been sufficiently unwelcome as to render study of the Khazars an area of research largely off limits for Jewish as well as Russian archaeologists, the Russians being unhappy with the prospect that their empire was initially ruled by Jewish kings, and the Jews being unhappy with the prospect that the Ashkenazim might not have a genetic connection to the freed slaves who met with God at Sinai." (Mariner 1999, pp. 95–96)

Kizilov 2014, p. 389 citing Karl Neumann, Die Völker des südlichen Russlands in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung, (1847) 2nd ed. Teubner 1855 pp. 125–126.

Rossman 2002, p. 98: Abraham Harkavy, O yazykye evreyev, zhivshikh v drevneye vremya na Rusi i o slavianskikh slovakh, vstrechaiuschikhsia u evreiskikh pisatelei, St. Petersburg.

Barkun 1997, p. 137: Ernest Renan, "Judaism as a Race and as Religion." Delivered on 27 January 1883.

The source is Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz, Początki religii żydowskiej w Polsce, Warsaw: E. Wende i S-ka, 1903 (Polonsky, Basista & Link-Lenczowski 1993, p. 120)

Goldstein writes "The theory that Eastern European Jews are descended from the Khazars was originally proposed by Samuel Weissenberg in an attempt to show that Jews were deeply rooted on Russian soil and the cradle of Jewish civilization was the Caucasus".^[213] Weissenberg's book Die Südrussischen Juden, was published in 1895.

Schipper's first monograph on this was published in the Almanach Žydowski (Vienna) in 1918. While in the Warsaw ghetto before falling victim to the Holocaust at Majdanek, Schipper (1884–1943) was working on the Khazar hypothesis(Litman 1984, pp. 85–110 [109]).

"There were Arab tribes who were Jews in the time of Muhammad, and a Turkic people who were mainly Jews in South Russia in the ninth century. Judaism is indeed the reconstructed political ideal of many shattered peoples-mainly semitic. As a result of these coalescences and assimilations, almost everywhere in the towns throughout the Roman Empire, and far beyond it in the east, Jewish communities traded and flourished, and they were kept in touch through the Bible, and through a religious and educational organization. The main part of Jewry never was in Judea and it had never come out of Judea." (Wells 1920, p. 570)

John Bagot Glubb held that Russian Jews "have considerably less Middle Eastern blood, consisting largely of pagan Slav proselytes or of Khazar Turks." For Glubb, they were not "descendants of the Judeans ...The Arabs of Palestine are probably more closely related to the Judeans (genetically) than are modern Russian or German Jews.... Of course, an anti-Zionist (as well as an anti-Semitic) point is being made here: The Palestinians have a greater political right to Palestine than the Jews do, as they, not the modern-day Jews, are the true descendants of the land's Jewish inhabitants/owners" (Morris 2003, p. 22).

First written as an article in 1941 – "The Khazars' Conversion to Judaism", then written as a monograph (1943), it was revised twice, first, it was revised in 1944, and in 1951, it was revised again and it was also retitled Kazariyah: Toldot mamlacha yehudit be'Eropa (Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe) Mosad Bialik, Tel Aviv, 1951.

"Poliak sought the origins of Eastern European Jewry in Khazaria" (Golden 2007a, p. 29).

"As for the Jews of Eastern Europe (Poles, Russians, etc.), it has always been assumed that they descended from an amalgamation of Jews of Khazar stock from southern Russia and German Jews (the latter having imposed their superior culture)." (Poliakov 2005, p. 285)

Sand^[225] cites Salo Wittmayer Baron, "before and after the Mongol upheaval the Khazars sent many offshoots into the unsubdued Slavonic lands, helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish center of Eastern Europe";^[226] as well as Ben-Zion Dinur: "The Russian conquests did not destroy the Khazar kingdom entirely, but they broke it up and diminished it. And this kingdom, which had absorbed Jewish immigration and refugees from many exiles, must itself have become a diaspora mother, the mother of one of the greatest of the diasporas (Em-galuyot, em akhat hagaluyot hagdolot)-of Israel in Russia, Lithuania and Poland."^[227]

"Salo Baron, who incorrectly viewed them as Finno-Ugrians, believed that the Khazars 'sent many offshoots into the unsubdued Slavonic lands, helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish centers of eastern Europe'" (Golden 2007a, p. 55)

"dismissed ... rather airily" (Golden 2007a, p. 55).

"Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics."^[230] Assertions of this kind have been challenged by Paul Wexler^[231] who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."^[232]

"it is assumed by all historians that those Jewish Khazars who survived the last fateful decades sought and found refuge in the bosom of Jewish communities in the Christian countries to the west, and especially in Russia and Poland, on the one hand, and in the Muslim countries to the east and the south, on the other. Some historians and anthropologists go so far as to consider the modern Jews of East Europe, and more particularly of Poland, the descendants of the medieval Khazars." (Patai & Patai 1989, p. 71)

"The Khazar theory never figured as a major component of antisemitism. The connection receives only scant attention in Léon Poliakov's monumental history of the subject. It did however come to exercise a particular attraction for advocates of immigration restriction in America." (Barkun 1997, pp. 136–137)

"Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s" (Barkun 2012, p. 165).

"By the 1960s, when Christian identity was established as a force on the extreme right, the Khazar ancestry of the Jews was a firm article of faith. Two books, written in this milieu and widely read, came to exercise a strong influence in this regard. John Beaty's Iron Curtain over America (1951) and Wilmot Robertson's Dispossessed Majority (1972) repeated the Khazar thesis of Stoddard. Christian identity teachings readily seized on this negative reference to Russian Jewry, however, it backdated the history of intermarriage between Jews and Khazars to biblical times. In A Short History of Esau-Edom in Jewry (1948), the Vancouver-based writer C.F. Parker claimed that a tiny remnant of 'true Judah' was pitted against a large group of Idumean-Hittites who masqueraded as the true seed of Abraham and sought to expel the descendants of Jacob. These Esau-Hittites are the Ashkenazim, concentrated in Eastern and Central Europe and America." (Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 237)

Beaty was an antisemitic, McCarthyite professor of Old English at SMU, author of The Iron Curtain over America (Dallas 1952). According to him, "the Khazar Jews ... were responsible for all of America's – and the world's ills, beginning with World War 1." The book "had little impact" until the former Wall Street broker and oil tycoon J. Russell Maguire promoted it (Boller 1992, pp. 2, 6–7; Barkun 1997, pp. 141–142).

Wexler 2002, p. 514 has a more detailed bibliography.

"Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin."^[244] This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text "Arab Antisemitism" in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism, (Hebrew) 1968 (p.50).

"in the very late 1980s Russian nationalists were fixated on the 'Khazar episode.' For them the Khazar issue seemed to be a crucial one. They treated it as the first historically documented case of the imposition of a foreign yoke on the Slavs, ... In this context the term 'Khazars' became popular as a euphemism for the so-called 'Jewish occupation regime'." (Shnirelman 2007, pp. 353–372)

"The Khazar king and part of his court allegedly adopted the Jewish religion ... The truth of such a conversion and its extent has been the topic of many discussions, and the topic of vehement disagreements in our age of genomic DNA analyses." (Falk 2017, p. 100)

"Strong evidence for the Khazarian hypothesis is the clustering of European Jews with the populations that reside on opposite ends of ancient Khazaria: Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani Jews" (Elhaik 2012, pp. 61–74).

"During Greco-Roman times, recorded mass conversions led to 6 million people practicing Judaism in Roman times or up to 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Thus, the genetic proximity of these European/Syrian Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to each other and to French, Northern Italian, and Sardinian populations favors the idea of non-Semitic Mediterranean ancestry in the formation of the European/Syrian Jewish groups and is incompatible with theories that Ashkenazi Jews are for the most part the direct lineal descendants of converted Khazars or Slavs. The genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to southern European populations has been observed in several other recent studies.. Admixture with local populations, including Khazars and Slavs, may have occurred subsequently during the 1000 year (2nd millennium) history of the European Jews. Based on analysis of Y chromosomal polymorphisms, Hammer estimated that the rate might have been as high as 0.5% per generation or 12.5% cumulatively (a figure derived from Motulsky), although this calculation might have underestimated the influx of European Y chromosomes during the initial formation of European Jewry.15 Notably, up to 50% of Ashkenazi Jewish Y chromosomal haplogroups (E3b, G, J1, and Q) are of Middle Eastern origin, 15 whereas the other prevalent haplogroups (J2, R1a1, R1b) may be representative of the early European admixture.20 The 7.5% prevalence of the R1a1 haplogroup among Ashkenazi Jews has been interpreted as a possible marker for Slavic or Khazar admixture because this haplogroup is very common among Ukrainians (where it was thought to have originated), Russians, and Sorbs, as well as among Central Asian populations, although the admixture may have occurred with Ukrainians, Poles, or Russians, rather than Khazars." (Atzmon & Ostrer 2010, pp. 850–859)

"The extent to which the Khazars contributed to the Jewish gene-pool, and more specifically to the Ashkenazi ethnic-group(s), has become a charged issue among expert scientists as well as nonprofessionals. National and ethnic prejudices play a central role in the controversy." (Falk 2017, p. 100)

"if the genome does not prove Sand wrong, neither can it prove him right. It is the wrong kind of evidence and the wrong style of reasoning for the task at hand."^[256] "They (researchers) will never be able to prove descent from Khazars: there are no 'verification' samples."^[257]

"Kiev in Khazar is Sambat, the same as the Hungarian word szombat, 'Saturday', which is likely to have been derived from the Khazar Jews living in Kyiv." (Róna-Tas 1999, p. 152)

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Dunlop 1954, pp. 261, 263.

Sand 2010, pp. 241–242.

Baron 1957, pp. 196–206 [206].

Dinur 1961, pp. 2, 5.

Brook 2006, p. 192.

Sand 2010, p. 240.

Lewis 1987, p. 48.

Wexler 2002, p. 538.

Wexler 2002, p. 537.

Toch 2012, p. 155, n.4.

Wexler 2007, pp. 387–398.

Sand 2010, pp. 190–249.

Elhaik 2012, pp. 61–74.

Spolsky 2014, pp. 174–177.

Golden 2007a, pp. 9–10.

Wexler 2002, pp. 513–541.

Barkun 1997, pp. 136–137.

Singerman 2004, pp. 4–5.

Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 237.

Barkun 1997, pp. 140–141. Cf. Wilmot Robertson Dispossessed Majority(1972)

Harkabi 1987, p. 424.

Rossman 2007, pp. 121–188.

Barkun 1997, pp. 142–144.

Goodman & Miyazawa 2000, pp. 263–264.

Serrano 2011, pp. 79, 295.

Stampfer 2013.

Ostrer 2012, pp. 24–27, 93–95, 124–125.

Nebel, Filon & Brinkmann 2001, pp. 1095–1112.

Behar et al. 2003, pp. 769–779.

Nebel, Filon & Faerman 2005, pp. 388–391.

Costa, Pereira & Richards 2013, pp. 1–10.

Behar et al. 2013.

Abu El-Haj 2012, p. 28.

Abu El-Haj 2012, p. 133.

Lobel 2000, pp. 2–4.

Baron 1957, p. 204.

Wachtel 1998, pp. 210–215.

Cokal 2007.

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External links

The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.
Khazaria.com
Resources – Medieval Jewish History – The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Khazar Historic Maps at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 October 2009)
The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com
Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars

Kazan Казань
City of republic significance^[1]
Top-down, left-to-right: View to the Agricultural Palace and Palace Square; Spasskaya Tower; Kul Sharif Mosque; Söyembikä Tower at night; Epiphany Cathedral and Bauman Street; and a view of the Kazan Kremlin.
Flag Coat of arms
Location of Kazan
Kazan Location of Kazan Kazan Kazan (Russia) Kazan Kazan (Europe)
Coordinates: 55°47′47″N 49°06′32″ECoordinates: 55°47′47″N 49°06′32″E
Country	Russia
Federal subject	Tatarstan^[1]
Founded	1005^[2]
Government
• Body	City Duma^[3]
• Mayor^[4]	Ilsur Metshin^[4]
Area ^[5]
• Total	425.3 km² (164.2 sq mi)
Elevation	60 m (200 ft)
Population (2010 Census)^[6]
• Total	1,143,535
• Estimate (2018)^[7]	1,243,500 (+8.7%)
• Rank	8th in 2010
• Density	2,700/km² (7,000/sq mi)
Administrative status
• Subordinated to	city of republic significance of Kazan^[1]
• Capital of	Republic of Tatarstan^[8]
• Capital of	city of republic significance of Kazan^[1]
Municipal status
• Urban okrug	Kazan Urban Okrug^[9]
• Capital of	Kazan Urban Okrug^[9]
Time zone	UTC+3 (MSK ^[10])
Postal code(s)^[11]	420xxx
Dialing code(s)	+7 843^[12]
OKTMO ID	92701000001
City Day	30 August^[13]
Website	www.kzn.ru

Kazan (/kəˈzæn, -ˈzɑːn/ kə-ZAN, -⁠ZAHN; Russian: Казань, IPA: [kɐˈzanʲ]; Tatar: Казан, IPA: [qɑzan])^[14] is the largest city and capital of Tatarstan, Russia. The city lies at the confluence of the Volga and the Kazanka rivers, covering an area of 425.3 square kilometres (164.2 square miles), with a population of over 1.3 million residents,^[15] up to roughly 1.7 million residents in the metropolitan area. Kazan is the fifth-largest city in Russia, and the most populous city on the Volga, as well as the Volga Federal District.

Kazan became the capital of the Khanate of Kazan and was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, becoming a part of the Tsardom of Russia. The city was seized and largely destroyed during Pugachev's Rebellion of 1773–1775, but was later rebuilt during the reign of Catherine the Great. In the following centuries, Kazan grew to become a major industrial, cultural and religious centre of Russia. In 1920, after the Russian SFSR became a part of the Soviet Union, Kazan became the capital of the Tatar ASSR. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazan remained the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan.

Kazan is renowned for its vibrant mix of Tatar and Russian cultures.^[16] In 2015, 2.1 million tourists visited Kazan, and 1.5 million tourists visited the Kazan Kremlin, a World Heritage Site.^[17] In April 2009, the Russian Patent Office granted Kazan the right to brand itself as the "Third Capital of Russia".^[18] In 2009 it was chosen as the "Sports capital of Russia",^[19] and it still is referred to as such.^[20] Kazan hosted the 2013 Summer Universiade, and was one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan

Khanate of Kazan

Казан ханлыгы

1438–1552

The Khanate of Kazan (green), c. 1500.

Status

Independent

(1438–1521, 1551–1552)

Vassal of the Crimean Khanate

(1521–1551)

Capital

Kazan

Official languages

Chagatai language (literature, lingua franca, court)
Old Tatar language (dynastic, literature)

Common languages

Turkic (Tatar, Chuvash), Mari

Religion

Islam, Shamanism

Government

Khanate

Kazan Khan

• 1438–1445

Olug Moxammat (first)

• March-October 1552

Yadegar Moxammat (last)

History

• Established

1438

• Annexed to Muscovy

1552

Preceded by

Succeeded by

Golden Horde

Tsardom of Russia

Today part of

Russia

Part of a series on the
History of Russia

Part of a series on the
History of Tatarstan

Great Bulgaria Turco-Mongols Great Tartary Volga Bulgaria Kipchaks Mongol invasion Golden Horde Khanate of Kazan Muscovy Kazan Governorate Tatar ASSR Republic of Tatarstan
v t e

Part of a series on the
History of Udmurtia

Volga Bulgaria Mongol invasion Golden Horde Khanate of Kazan Ar begs Muscovy Kazan Governorate Udmurt Autonomous Oblast Udmurt ASSR Udmurt Republic
v t e

The Khanate of Kazan (Tatar: Казан ханлыгы, romanized: Kazan xanlıgı; Russian: Казанское ханство, romanized: Kazanskoye khanstvo) or Tsardom of Kazan^[1] was a medieval Tatar Turkic state that occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552. The khanate covered contemporary Tatarstan, Mari El, Chuvashia, Mordovia, and parts of Udmurtia and Bashkortostan; its capital was the city of Kazan. It was one of the successor states of the Golden Horde (Kipchak Khanate), and it came to an end when it was conquered by the Tsardom of Russia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan

Volga Bulgaria

late 9th century–1240s

Capital

Bolghar
Bilär

Common languages

Bulgar

Religion

Tengrism, later Sunni Islam (after Almish Iltäbär)

Government

Monarchy

Ruler

• 9th century

Şilki

• 10th century

Almış, Ahmad, Mikaʾil, Abdallah, Talib, Muʾmin I, Muʾmin II, Shamgun

• 11th-13th centuries

Khaidar, Mukhammad, Saʾid, Baradz, Ibrahim, Otyak, Ghabdula Chelbir, Ilham Khan

Historical era

Middle Ages

• Established

late 9th century

• Conversion to Islam

922

• Conquered by the Mongols

1240s

Preceded by

Succeeded by

Old Great Bulgaria

Mongol Empire

Today part of

Russia

Part of a series on the
History of Tatarstan

Great Bulgaria Turco-Mongols Great Tartary Volga Bulgaria Kipchaks Mongol invasion Golden Horde Khanate of Kazan Muscovy Kazan Governorate Tatar ASSR Republic of Tatarstan
v t e

Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria, was a historical Turkic^[1]^[2]^[3] state that existed between the 9th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state with large numbers of Turkic Bulgars, a variety of Finnic and Ugric peoples, and many East Slavs.^[4] Its strategic position allowed it to create a local trade monopoly with Norse, Cumans, and Pannonian Avars.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria

Ugrians in AD 500

Historically, the Ugrians^[1]^[2] or Ugors were the ancestors of the Hungarians of Central Europe, and the Khanty and Mansi people of the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug of Russia. The name is sometimes also used in a modern context as a cover term for these two peoples, formerly called "Ugrian Finns".^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugrians

(Redirected from Magyars)

Hungarians

Magyarok

The Hungarians arriving at the Carpathian Basin. Detail from Árpád Feszty's cyclorama titled the Arrival of the Hungarians.

Total population

c. 15 million

Regions with significant populations

Hungary 9,632,744^[1]

Other countries

Europe

The Americas

Rest of the world

Languages

Hungarian

Religion

Majority Christianity (Roman Catholicism,^[25] Protestantism (chiefly Calvinism, Unitarianism, and Lutheranism), and Greek Catholicism)
Minority Judaism; Islam; irreligious

Hungarians, also known as Magyars (/ˈmæɡjɑːrz/ MAG-yarz;^[26] Hungarian: magyarok [ˈmɒɟɒrok]), are a nation and ethnic group native to Hungary (Hungarian: Magyarország) and historical Hungarian lands who share a common culture, history, ancestry and language. The Hungarian language belongs to the Uralic language family. There are an estimated 15 million ethnic Hungarians and their descendants worldwide, of whom 9.6 million live in today's Hungary.^[1] About 2 million Hungarians live in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 and are now parts of Hungary's seven neighbouring countries, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Austria. Significant groups of people with Hungarian ancestry live in various other parts of the world, most of them in the United States, Canada, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Chile, Brazil, Australia, and Argentina.

Hungarians can be divided into several subgroups according to local linguistic and cultural characteristics; subgroups with distinct identities include the Székelys (in eastern Transylvania), the Csángós (in Western Moldavia), the Palóc, and the Matyó.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians

Classification

Relative numbers of speakers of Uralic languages^[32]

Hungarian			60%
Finnish			26%
Estonian			5.5%
Mari			2.3%
Udmurt			2.2%
Mordvin			2.0%
Komi			1.5%
Karelian			0.27%
Nenets			0.15%
Northern Saami			0.12%
Khanty			0.07%
other			0.07%

The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. (Some of the proposals are listed in the next section.) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches.^[33]^[34]

Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics.

Finnic (Fennic, Baltic Finnic, Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic)
Hungarian (Magyar)
Khanty (Ostyak, Handi, Hantõ)
Mansi (Vogul)
Mari (Cheremis)
Mordvinic (Mordvin, Mordvinian)
Permic (Permian)
Sami (Saami, Samic, Saamic, Lappic, Lappish)
Samoyedic (Samoyed)

There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation:

Merya
Muromian
Meshcherian (until 16th century?)

Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages.^[35]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages#Classification

Meryan
Extinct	(date missing)
Language family	Uralic Finno-Permic? Finnic?/Mari? Meryan
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–

Merya or Meryanic is an extinct Finno-Ugric language, which was spoken by the Meryans.^[1]^[2] Merya began to be assimilated by East Slavs when their territory became incorporated into Kievan Rus' in the 10th century.^[3]^[4] However some Merya speakers might have even lived in the 18th century.^[5] There is also a theory that the word for "Moscow" originates from the Merya language.^[6]^[7] The Meryan language stretched to the western parts of Vologda Oblast and Moscow.^[8]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merya_language

East Slavs
Усходнія славяне / Uskhodniya slavyane (Belarusian) Восточные славяне / Vostochnyye slavyane (Russian) Восточны славяне / Vostochny slaviane (Rusyn) Східні слов'яни / Skhidni sloviany (Ukrainian)
Countries with predominantly East Slavic population^{[citation needed]}
Total population
200+ million^{[citation needed]}
Regions with significant populations
Majority: Belarus, Russia, Ukraine^{[citation needed]} Minority: Baltics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Serbia, Caucasus (Azerbaijan, Georgia), Moldova, Turkey, United States, Canada, other former Soviet states.^{[citation needed]}
Languages
East Slavic languages: Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn, Ukrainian
Related ethnic groups
Other Slavs

A young Ukrainian girl in a folk costume, by Nikolay Rachkov

Maximum extent of European territory inhabited by the East Slavic tribes—predecessors of Kievan Rus', the first East Slavic state^[1]—in the 8th and 9th centuries.

The East Slavs are the most populous subgroup of the Slavs.^[2] They speak the East Slavic languages,^[3] and formed the majority of the population of the medieval state Kievan Rus', which they claim as their cultural ancestor.^[4]^[5] Today, the East Slavs consist of Belarusians, Russians, Rusyns, and Ukrainians.^[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Slavs

Finno-Ugric
Finno-Ugrian
Geographic distribution	Eastern, Central and Northern Europe, North Asia
Linguistic classification	Uralic Finno-Ugric
Subdivisions	Finno-Permic Ugric
ISO 639-2 / 5	`fiu`
Glottolog	None
The Finno-Ugric languages

Finno-Ugric (/ˌfɪnoʊˈjuːɡrɪk/ or /ˌfɪnoʊˈuːɡrɪk/; Fenno-Ugric)^[1] or Finno-Ugrian (Fenno-Ugrian), is a traditional grouping of all languages in the Uralic language family except the Samoyedic languages. Its formerly commonly accepted status as a subfamily of Uralic is based on criteria formulated in the 19th century and is criticized by some contemporary linguists such as Tapani Salminen and Ante Aikio as inaccurate and misleading.^[2]^[3] The three most-spoken Uralic languages, Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian, are all included in Finno-Ugric, although linguistic roots common to both branches of the traditional Finno-Ugric language tree (Finno-Permic and Ugric) are distant.

The term Finno-Ugric, which originally referred to the entire family, is sometimes used as a synonym for the term Uralic, which includes the Samoyedic languages,^[4] as commonly happens when a language family is expanded with further discoveries.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages

Meshchera
Extinct	(date missing)
Language family	Uralic Finno-Permic? Mordvinic?/Permic? Meshchera
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
Map

Meshchera is an extinct Uralic language. It was spoken around the left bank of the Middle Oka. Meshchera was either a Mordvinic or a Permic language.^[1]^[2] Pauli Rahkonen has suggested on the basis of toponymic evidence that it was a Permic or closely related language.^[3] Rahkonen's speculation has been criticized by Vladimir Napolskikh.^[4] Some Meshchera speaking people possibly assimilated into Mishar Tatars.^[3] However this theory is disputed.^[5]

The first Russian written source which mentions them is the Tolkovaya Paleya, from the 13th century. They are also mentioned in several later Russian chronicles from the period before the 16th century, and even later, in one of the letters by Andrey Kurbsky written in the second half of the 16th century, where he claimed the language spoken in the Meshchera region to be Mordvinic.^[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshchera_language

Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages.^[35]

Traditional classification

All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of language change, from Proto-Uralic. The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed.^[36] Doubts about the validity of most or all of the proposed higher-order branchings (grouping the nine undisputed families) are becoming more common.^[36]^[37]^[3]

A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century.^[38] It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias, handbooks, and overviews of the Uralic family. Otto Donner's model from 1879 is as follows:

Ugric (Ugrian)
- Hungarian
- Ob-Ugric (Ob-Ugrian)
  - Khanty
  - Mansi
Finno-Permic (Permian-Finnic)
- Permic
- Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari)
  - Volga-Finnic
    - Mari
    - Mordvinic
  - Finno-Lappic (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
    - Sami
    - Finnic

At Donner's time, the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in the early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, "Finno-Ugric" for the non-Samoyedic languages (though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family). Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic are listed in ISO 639-5 as primary branches of Uralic.

The following table lists nodes of the traditional family tree that are recognized in some overview sources.

Year	Author(s)	Finno- Ugric	Ugric	Ob-Ugric	Finno- Permic	Finno- Volgaic	Volga- Finnic	Finno- Samic
1910	Szinnyei^[39]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✗	✓
1921	T. I. Itkonen^[40]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✗
1926	Setälä^[41]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✗
1962	Hajdú^[42]^[43]	✓	✗^[a]	✓	✓	✓	✗^[a]	✗
1965	Collinder^[13]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✗	✗	✗
1966	E. Itkonen^[44]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
1968	Austerlitz^[45]	✗^[b]	✓	✓	✗^[b]	✗	✓	✗
1977	Voegelin & Voegelin^[46]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
2002	Kulonen^[47]	✗	✓	✓	✓	✗	✗	✓
2002	Michalove^[48]	✗	✗	✓	✓		✗
2007	Häkkinen^[49]	✗	✗^[c]	✓	✓	✗	✗	✗^[c]
2007	Lehtinen^[50]	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓	✗	✓
2007	Salminen^[33]	✗	✗	✗	✗	✗	✗	✗
2009	Janhunen^[6]	✓	✗^[d]	✗	✓	✓	✗	✗?

^{a. Hajdú describes the Ugric and Volgaic groups as areal units.}

^{b. Austerlitz accepts narrower-than-traditional Finno-Ugric and Finno-Permic groups that exclude Samic}

^{c.
Häkkinen groups Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyed into a Ugro-Samoyed
branch, and groups Balto-Finnic, Sami and Mordvin into a Finno-Mordvin
branch}

^{d. Janhunen accepts a reduced Ugric branch, called 'Mansic', that includes Hungarian and Mansi}

Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage.^[37]^[51] A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an "East Uralic" group for which shared innovations can be noted.^[52]

The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic.^[53] The term Volgaic (or Volga-Finnic) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari, Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages, but it is now obsolete^[37] and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one.

Within Ugric, uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been a competing hypothesis to Ob-Ugric.

Lexical isoglosses

Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree. A recent re-evaluation of the evidence^[48] however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches (Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic).

One alternate proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows:^[6]

Uralic (*kektä "2", *wixti "5" / "10")
- Samoyedic (*op "1", *ketä "2", *näkur "3", *tettə "4", *səmpəleŋkə "5", *məktut "6", *sejtwə "7", *wiət "10")
- Finno-Ugric (*üki/*ükti "1", *kormi "3", *ńeljä "4", *wiiti "5", *kuuti "6", *luki "10")
  - Mansic
    - Mansi
    - Hungarian (hét "7"; replacement egy "1")
  - Finno-Khantic (reshaping *kolmi "3" on the analogy of "4")
    - Khanty
    - Finno-Permic (reshaping *kektä > *kakta)
      - Permic
      - Finno-Volgaic (*śećem "7")
        Mari
        Finno-Saamic (*kakteksa, *ükteksa "8, 9")
        Saamic
        Finno-Mordvinic (replacement *kümmen "10" (*luki- "to count", "to read out"))
        Mordvinic
        Finnic

Phonological isoglosses

Another proposed tree, more divergent from the standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses (which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages) is presented by Viitso (1997),^[54] and refined in Viitso (2000):^[55]

Finno-Ugric
- Saamic–Fennic (consonant gradation)
  - Saamic
  - Fennic
- Eastern Finno-Ugric
  - Mordva
  - (node)
    - Mari
    - Permian–Ugric (*δ > *l)
      - Permian
      - Ugric (*s *š *ś > *ɬ *ɬ *s)
        Hungarian
        Khanty
        Mansi

The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs. Eastern Finno-Ugric (Mari, Mordvinic, Permic-Ugric; *k > ɣ between vowels, degemination of stops) and Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Saamic, Mari, Mordvinic; *δʲ > *ð between vowels) vs. Permic-Ugric. Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno-Permic grouping.

Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. A further non-trivial Ugric-Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction *k, *x, *w > ɣ when before *i, and after a vowel (cf. *k > ɣ above), or adjacent to *t, *s, *š, or *ś.^[52]

Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso (2000); Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti (1988)^[56]

		Saamic	Finnic	Mordvinic	Mari	Permic	Hungarian	Mansi	Khanty	Samoyedic
Medial lenition of *k		no	no	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Medial lenition of p, t		no	no	yes	yes	yes	yes	no	no	no
Degemination		no	no	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Consonant gradation		yes	yes	no	no	no	no	no	no	yes
Development of	*δ	*ð	*t	*t	∅	*l	/l/	*l	*l	*r
	*δʲ	*ð	*t	*t	/ð/	*lʲ	/ɟ/ ⟨gy⟩, /j/	*lʲ	*j	*j
	*s	*s	*s	*s	/ʃ/	*s	∅	*t	*ɬ	*t
	*š	*s	*h	*š		*š	∅	*t	*ɬ	*t
	*ś	*ć	*s	*ś		*ś	/s/ ⟨sz⟩	*ʃ	*s	*s
	*ć	*ć	*s	*ś		*ć	/tʃ/ ⟨cs⟩	*ć	*ć	*s

Note: Proto-Khanty *ɬ in many of the dialects yields *t; Häkkinen assumes this also happened in Mansi and Samoyedic.

The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops (the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation is found) is noted by Helimski (1995): an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well.^[57]

Honkola, et al. (2013)

A computational phylogenetic study by Honkola, et al. (2013)^[58] classifies the Uralic languages as follows. Estimated divergence dates from Honkola, et al. (2013) are also given.

Uralic (5300 YBP)

Samoyedic
Finno-Ugric (3900 YBP)
- Ugric (3300 YBP)
  - Hungarian
  - Ob-Ugric (1900 YBP)
    - Khanty
    - Mansi
- Finno-Permic (3700 YBP)
  - Permian
    - Udmurt
    - Komi
  - Finno-Volgaic
    - Mari (3200 YBP)
    - (core branch)
      - Erzya (2900 YBP) (Mordvinic)
      - Finno-Saami
        Sami (800 YBP)
        Finnic (1200 YBP)

Typology

Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include:

Grammar

extensive use of independent suffixes (agglutination)
a large set of grammatical cases marked with agglutinative suffixes (13–14 cases on average; mainly later developments: Proto-Uralic is reconstructed with 6 cases), e.g.:
- Erzya: 12 cases
- Estonian: 14 cases (15 cases with instructive)
- Finnish: 15 cases
- Hungarian: 18 cases (together 34 grammatical cases and case-like suffixes)
- Inari Sami: 9 cases
- Komi: in certain dialects as many as 27 cases
- Moksha: 13 cases
- Nenets: 7 cases
- North Sami: 6 cases
- Udmurt: 16 cases
- Veps: 24 cases
unique Uralic case system, from which all modern Uralic languages derive their case systems.
- nominative singular has no case suffix.
- accusative and genitive suffixes are nasal consonants (-n, -m, etc.)
- three-way distinction in the local case system, with each set of local cases being divided into forms corresponding roughly to "from", "to", and "in/at"; especially evident, e.g. in Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian, which have several sets of local cases, such as the "inner", "outer" and "on top" systems in Hungarian, while in Finnish the "on top" forms have merged to the "outer" forms.
- the Uralic locative suffix exists in all Uralic languages in various cases, e.g. Hungarian superessive, Finnish essive (-na), North Sami essive, Erzyan inessive, and Nenets locative.
- the Uralic lative suffix exists in various cases in many Uralic languages, e.g. Hungarian illative, Finnish lative (-s as in ulos 'out' and rannemmas 'more towards the shore'), Erzyan illative, Komi approximative, and Northern Sami locative.
a lack of grammatical gender, including one pronoun for both he and she; for example, hän in Finnish, tämä in Votic, tämā or ta (short form for tämā) in Livonian,^[59] tema or ta (short form for tema) in Estonian, sijə in Komi, ő in Hungarian.
negative verb, which exists in almost all Uralic languages (notably absent in Hungarian)
use of postpositions as opposed to prepositions (prepositions are uncommon).
possessive suffixes
- the genitive is also used to express possession in some languages, e.g. Estonian mu koer, colloquial Finnish mun koira, Northern Sami mu beana 'my dog' (literally 'dog of me'). Separate possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns, such as my and your, are rare.
dual, in the Samoyedic, Ob-Ugric and Samic languages and reconstructed for Proto-Uralic
plural markers -j (i) and -t (-d, -q) have a common origin (e.g. in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, Erzya, Samic languages, Samoyedic languages). Hungarian, however, has -i- before the possessive suffixes and -k elsewhere. The plural marker -k is also used in the Samic languages, but there is a regular merging of final -k and -t in Samic, so it can come from either ending.
Possessions are expressed by a possessor in the adessive or dative case, the verb "be" (the copula, instead of the verb "have") and the possessed with or without a possessive suffix. The grammatical subject of the sentence is thus the possessed. In Finnish, for example, the possessor is in the adessive case: "Minulla on kala", literally "At me is fish", i.e. "I have a fish", whereas in Hungarian, the possessor is in the dative case, but appears overtly only if it is contrastive, while the possessed has a possessive ending indicating the number and person of the possessor: "(Nekem) van egy halam", literally "(To me [dative]) is a fish-my" ("(For me) there is a fish of mine"), i.e. "(As for me,) I have a fish".
expressions that include a numeral are singular if they refer to things which form a single group, e.g. "négy csomó" in Hungarian, "njeallje čuolmma" in Northern Sami, "neli sõlme" in Estonian, and "neljä solmua" in Finnish, each of which means "four knots", but the literal approximation is "four knot". (This approximation is accurate only for Hungarian among these examples, as in Northern Sami the noun is in the singular accusative/genitive case and in Finnish and Estonian the singular noun is in the partitive case, such that the number points to a part of a larger mass, like "four of knot(s)".)

Phonology

Vowel harmony: this is present in many but by no means all Uralic languages. It exists in Hungarian and various Baltic-Finnic languages, and is present to some degree elsewhere, such as in Mordvinic, Mari, Eastern Khanty, and Samoyedic. It is lacking in Sami, Permic and standard Estonian, while it does exist in Võro and elsewhere in South Estonian, as well as in Kihnu Island subdialect of North Estonian.^[60]^[61]^[62] (Although double dot diacritics are used in writing Uralic languages, the languages do not exhibit Germanic umlaut, a different type of vowel assimilation.)
Large vowel inventories. For example, some Selkup varieties have over twenty different monophthongs, and Estonian has over twenty different diphthongs.
Palatalization of consonants; in this context, palatalization means a secondary articulation, where the middle of the tongue is tense. For example, pairs like [ɲ] – [n], or [c] – [t] are contrasted in Hungarian, as in hattyú [hɒcːuː] "swan". Some Sami languages, for example Skolt Sami, distinguish three degrees: plain ⟨l⟩ [l], palatalized ⟨'l⟩ [lʲ], and palatal ⟨lj⟩ [ʎ], where ⟨'l⟩ has a primary alveolar articulation, while ⟨lj⟩ has a primary palatal articulation. Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic, independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia-old Proto-Uralic. It is different from Slavic palatalization, which is of more recent origin. The Finnic languages have lost palatalization, but several of them have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic.
Lack of phonologically contrastive tone.
In many Uralic languages, the stress is always on the first syllable, though Nganasan shows (essentially) penultimate stress, and a number of languages of the central region (Erzya, Mari, Udmurt and Komi-Permyak) synchronically exhibit a lexical accent. The Erzya language can vary its stress in words to give specific nuances to sentential meaning.

Lexicography

Basic vocabulary of about 200 words, including body parts (e.g. eye, heart, head, foot, mouth), family members (e.g. father, mother-in-law), animals (e.g. viper, partridge, fish), nature objects (e.g. tree, stone, nest, water), basic verbs (e.g. live, fall, run, make, see, suck, go, die, swim, know), basic pronouns (e.g. who, what, we, you, I), numerals (e.g. two, five); derivatives increase the number of common words.

Selected cognates

The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them.

English	Proto-Uralic	Finnic			Sámi			Mordvin	Mari	Permic		Hungarian	Mansi	Khanty		Samoyed
English	Proto-Uralic	Finnish	Estonian	Võro	South	North	Kildin	Erzya	Meadow	Komi	Udmurt	Hungarian	Northern	Kazym	Vakh	Tundra Nenets
'fire'	*tule	tuli (tule-)	tuli (tule-)	tuli (tulõ-)	dålle [tolːə]	dolla	tōll	tol	tul	tɨl-	tɨl	–	–	–	–	tuu
'water'	*wete	vesi (vete-)	vesi (vee-)	vesi (vii-)	–	–	–	ved´	wüt	va	vu	víz	wit	–	–	jiʔ
'ice'	*jäŋe	jää	jää	ijä	jïenge [jɨeŋə]	jiekŋa	īŋŋ	ej	i	ji	jə	jég	jaaŋk	jeŋk	jeŋk	–
'fish'	*kala	kala	kala	kala	guelie [kʉelie]	guolli	kūll’	kal	kol	–	–	hal	xuul	xŭɬ	kul	xalʲa
'nest'	*pesä	pesä	pesa	pesä	biesie [piesie]	beassi	piess’	pize	pəžaš	poz	puz	fészek	pitʲi	–	pĕl	pʲidʲa
'hand, arm'	*käte	käsi (käte-)	käsi (käe-)	käsi (käe-)	gïete [kɨedə]	giehta	kīdt	ked´	kit	ki	ki	kéz	kaat	–	köt	–
'eye'	*śilmä	silmä	silm (silma-)	silm (silmä-)	tjelmie [t͡ʃɛlmie]	čalbmi	čall’m	śeĺme	šinča	śin (śinm-)	śin (śinm-)	szem	sam	sem	sem	sæwə
'fathom'	*süle	syli (syle-)	süli (süle-)	–	sïlle [sʲɨllə]	salla	sē̮ll	seĺ	šülö	sɨl	sul	öl(el)	tal	ɬăɬ	lö̆l	tʲíbʲa
'vein / sinew'	*sëne	suoni (suone-)	soon (soone-)	suuń (soonõ-)	soene [suonə]	suotna	sūnn	san	šün	sən	sən	ín	taan	ɬɔn	lan	teʔ
'bone'	*luwe	luu	luu	luu	–	–	–	lovaža	lu	lɨ	lɨ	–	luw	ɬŭw	lŏγ	le
'blood'	*were	veri	veri	veri	vïrre [vʲɨrrə]	varra	vē̮rr	veŕ	wür	vur	vir	vér	wiɣr	wŭr	wər	–
'liver'	*mëksa	maksa	maks (maksa-)	mass (massa-)	mueksie [mʉeksie]	–	–	makso	mokš	mus	mus (musk-)	máj	maat	mŏxəɬ	muγəl	mudə
'urine' / 'to urinate'	*kuńśe	kusi (kuse-)	kusi (kuse-)	kusi (kusõ-)	gadtjedh (gadtje-) [kɑdd͡ʒə]-	gožžat (gožža-)	kōnnče	–	kəž	kudź	kɨź	húgy	xuńś-	xŏs-	kŏs-	–
'to go'	*mene-	mennä (men-)	minema	minemä	mïnnedh [mʲɨnnə]-	mannat	mē̮nne	–	mija-	mun-	mɨn-	menni	men-	măn-	mĕn-	mʲin-
'to live'	*elä-	elää (elä-)	elama (ela-)	elämä (elä-)	jieledh [jielə]-	eallit	jēll’e	–	ila-	ol-	ul-	él-	–	–	–	jilʲe-
'to die'	*kale-	kuolla (kuol-)	koolma	kuulma (kool-)	–	–	–	kulo-	kola-	kul-	kul-	hal-	xool-	xăɬ-	kăla-	xa-
'to wash'	*mośke-	–	–	mõskma	–	–	–	muśke-	muška-	mɨśkɨ-	mɨśk-	mos-	–	–	–	masø-

Orthographical notes: The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation (⟨ž⟩ [ʒ], ⟨š⟩ [ʃ], ⟨č⟩ [t͡ʃ]) (In Northern Sami, (⟨ž⟩ [dʒ]), while the acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation (⟨ś⟩ [sʲ ~ ɕ], ⟨ć⟩ [tsʲ ~ tɕ], ⟨l⟩ [lʲ]) or, in Hungarian, vowel length. The Finnish letter ⟨y⟩ and the letter ⟨ü⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel [y]; the letters ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are the front vowels [æ] and [ø].

As is apparent from the list, Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here, with nearly half the words on the list above identical to their Proto-Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes, such as the conflation of *ś into /s/, or widespread changes such as the loss of *x and alteration of *ï. Finnish has even preserved old Indo-European borrowings relatively unchanged as well. (An example is porsas ("pig"), loaned from Proto-Indo-European *porḱos or pre-Proto-Indo-Iranian *porśos, unchanged since loaning save for loss of palatalization, *ś > s.)

Mutual intelligibility

The Estonian philologist Mall Hellam proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages: Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian:^[63]

Estonian: Elav kala ujub vee all.
Finnish: Elävä kala ui veden alla.
Hungarian: (Egy) élő hal úszik a víz alatt.
English: A living fish swims underwater.

However, linguist Geoffrey Pullum reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand the other language's version of the sentence.^[64]

Comparison

No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family. Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include:^[65]

Feature	Samoyedic	Ob-Ugric	Hungarian	Permic	Mari	Mordvin	Finnic	Samic
Palatalization	+	+	+	+	−	+	−	+
Consonant length	−	−	+	−	−	−	+	+
Consonant gradation	−¹	−	−	−	−	−	+	+
Vowel harmony	−²	−²	+	−	+	+	+³	−
Grammatical vowel alternation (ablaut or umlaut)	+	+	−	−	−	−	−⁴	+
Dual number	+	+	−	−	−	−	−	+
Distinction between inner and outer local cases	−	−	+	+	+	+	+	−
Determinative inflection (verbal marking of definiteness)	+	+	+	−	−	+	−	−
Passive voice	−	+	+	−	−	+	+	+
Negative verb	+	−	−	+	+	±	+	+
SVO word order	−	−	−	±⁵	−	+	+	+

Notes:

Clearly present only in Nganasan.
Vowel harmony is present in the Uralic languages of Siberia only in some marginal archaic varieties: Nganasan, Southern Mansi and Eastern Khanty.
Only recently lost in modern Estonian
A number of umlaut processes are found in Livonian.
In Komi, but not in Udmurt.

Proposed relations with other language families

Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested, but none of these is generally accepted by linguists at the present time: All of the following hypotheses are minority views at the present time in Uralic studies.

Uralic-Yukaghir

The Uralic–Yukaghir hypothesis identifies Uralic and Yukaghir as independent members of a single language family. It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts.^[66] Regardless, the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number.

Eskimo-Uralic

The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis associates Uralic with the Eskimo–Aleut languages. This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century. An important restatement of it was made by Bergsland (1959).^[67]

Uralo-Siberian

Uralo-Siberian is an expanded form of the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis. It associates Uralic with Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Michael Fortescue in 1998.^[68] Michael Fortescue (2017) presented new evidence in favor for a connection between Uralic and other Paleo-Siberian languages.^[69]

Ural-Altaic

Theories proposing a close relationship with the Altaic languages were formerly popular, based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features, in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of agglutination in both sets of languages, as well as vowel harmony in some. For example, the word for "language" is similar in Estonian (keel) and Mongolian (хэл (hel)). These theories are now generally rejected^[70] and most such similarities are attributed to language contact or coincidence.

Indo-Uralic

The Indo-Uralic (or "Indo-Euralic") hypothesis suggests that Uralic and Indo-European are related at a fairly close level or, in its stronger form, that they are more closely related than either is to any other language family.

Uralo-Dravidian

The hypothesis that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past,^[71] is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including Robert Caldwell,^[72] Thomas Burrow,^[73] Kamil Zvelebil,^[74] and Mikhail Andronov.^[75] This hypothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages,^[76] and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists, such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti.^[77]

Nostratic

Nostratic associates Uralic, Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, Afroasiatic, and various other language families of Asia. The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by Holger Pedersen in 1903^[78] and subsequently revived by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky in the 1960s.

Eurasiatic

Eurasiatic resembles Nostratic in including Uralic, Indo-European, and Altaic, but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages, Dravidian, and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Nivkh, Ainu, and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Joseph Greenberg in 2000–2002.^[79]^[80] Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by Björn Collinder in 1965.^[81]^[82]

Uralic skepticism

The linguist Angela Marcantonio has argued against the validity of several subgroups of the Uralic family, as well against the family itself, claiming that many of the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages (e.g. Yukaghir or Turkic), and that in particular Hungarian is a language isolate.^[83]

Marcantonio's proposal has been strongly dismissed by most reviewers as unfounded and methodologically flawed.^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89] Problems identified by reviewers include:

Misrepresentation of the amount of comparative evidence behind the Uralic family, by arbitrarily ignoring data and mis-counting the number of examples known of various regular sound correspondences^[84]^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]
After arguing against the proposal of a Ugric subgroup within Uralic, claiming that this would constitute evidence that Hungarian and the Ob-Ugric languages have no relationship at all^[84]^[85]^[86]^[89]
Excessive focus on criticizing the work of early pioneer studies on the Uralic family, while ignoring newer, more detailed work published in the 20th century^[85]^[87]^[88]^[89]
Criticizing the evidence for the Uralic family as unsystematic and statistically insignificant, yet freely proposing alternate relationships based on even scarcer and even less systematic evidence.^[84]^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]

Other comparisons

Various unorthodox comparisons have been advanced. These are considered at best spurious fringe-theories by specialists:

Finno-Basque^[90]
Hungarian-Etruscan^[91]
Sino-Uralic languages
Cal-Ugrian theory
Dené-Finnish (Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dené and Uralic)^[92]
Minoan-Uralic^[93]
Alternative theories of Hungarian language origins

Comparison

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (in English): All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Comparison of the text in prominent Uralic languages:^[94]^[95]

Finnish:

Kaikki ihmiset syntyvät vapaina ja tasavertaisina arvoltaan ja oikeuksiltaan. Heille on annettu järki ja omatunto, ja heidän on toimittava toisiaan kohtaan veljeyden hengessä.

Livvi-Karelian:

Kai rahvas roittahes vällinny da taza-arvozinnu omas arvos da oigevuksis. Jogahizele heis on annettu mieli da omatundo da heil vältämättäh pidäy olla keskenäh, kui vellil.

Veps:

Kaik mehed sünduba joudajin i kohtaižin, ühtejiččin ičeze arvokahudes i oiktusiš. Heile om anttud mel’ i huiktusentund i heile tariž kožuda toine toiženke kut vel’l’kundad.

Estonian:

Kõik inimesed sünnivad vabadena ja võrdsetena oma väärikuselt ja õigustelt. Neile on antud mõistus ja südametunnistus ja nende suhtumist üksteisesse peab kandma vendluse vaim.

Livonian:

Amād rovzt attõ sindõnd brīd ja īdlizt eņtš vǟrtitõks ja õigiztõks. Näntõn um andtõd mūoštõks ja sidāmtundimi, ja näntõn um īdtuoisõ tuoimõmõst veļkub vaimsõ.

Northern Sami:

Buot olbmot leat riegádan friddjan ja olmmošárvvu ja olmmošvuoigatvuođaid dáfus. Sii leat jierbmalaš olbmot geain lea oamedovdu ja sii gálggaše leat dego vieljačagat.

Komi:

Bydös otirys čužöny vol’nöjеzön da ötkoddеzön dostoinstvoyn da pravoèzyn. Nylö sеtöm myvkyd da sovеst’ ovny ötamödnysköt kydz vonnèzlö.

Nenets:

Et xibjari nenėc’ sojamarianta xurkari pravada tnjava, ṇoboj nenėcja nidu nic’ tokalba, ṇybtamba ilevatu tara.

Hungarian:

Minden emberi lény szabadon születik és egyenlő méltósága és joga van. Az emberek, ésszel és lelkiismerettel bírván, egymással szemben testvéri szellemben kell hogy viseltessenek.

Notes

Simons, Gary F.; Fenning, Charles F. "Uralic". Ethnologue. SIL International. Retrieved 14 February 2018.

Tommola, Hannu (2010). "Finnish among the Finno-Ugrian languages". Mood in the Languages of Europe. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 155. ISBN 978-90-272-0587-2.

Aikio 2022, pp. 1–4.

Dziebel, German. "On the Homeland of the Uralic Language Family". Retrieved 2019-03-21.

The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, p. 231.

Janhunen, Juha (2009). "Proto-Uralic—what, where and when?" (PDF). In Jussi Ylikoski (ed.). The Quasquicentennial of the Finno-Ugrian Society. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia 258. Helsinki: Société Finno-Ougrienne. ISBN 978-952-5667-11-0. ISSN 0355-0230.

Grünthal, Riho (2022). "Drastic demographic events triggered the Uralic spread". Diachronica. 39 (4): 490–524. doi:10.1075/dia.20038.gru. hdl:10138/347633. S2CID 248059749.

Bjørn, Rasmus G. (2022). "Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 4: e23. doi:10.1017/ehs.2022.16. ISSN 2513-843X. S2CID 248358873.

Anderson, J.G.C., ed. (1938). Germania. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Sebeok, Thomas A. (15 August 2002). Portrait Of Linguists. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4411-5874-1. OCLC 956101732.

Korhonen 1986, p. 29.

Wickman 1988, pp. 793–794.

Collinder, Björn (1965). An Introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 8–27, 34.

Korhonen 1986, pp. 29–30.

Wickman 1988, pp. 795–796.

Ruhlen, Merritt (1987). A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 64–71. OCLC 923421379.

Wickman 1988, pp. 796–798.

Wickman 1988, p. 798.

Korhonen 1986, p. 32.

Korhonen 1986, pp. 44–46.

Wickman 1988, pp. 801–803.

Wickman 1988, pp. 803–804.

Halász, Ignácz (1893). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 23:1: 14–34.

Halász, Ignácz (1893). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése II" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 23:3: 260–278.

Halász, Ignácz (1893). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése III" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 23:4: 436–447.

Halász, Ignácz (1894). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése IV" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 24:4: 443–469.

Szabó, László (1969). "Die Erforschung der Verhältnisses Finnougrisch–Samojedisch". Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher (in German). 41: 317–322.

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Korhonen 1986, p. 49.

Wickman 1988, pp. 810–811.

"Lexica Societatis Fenno-Ugricae XXXV". Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura (in Hungarian).

Russian figures from the 2010 census. Others from EU 2012 figures or others of comparable date.

Salminen, Tapani (2007). "Europe and North Asia". In Christopher Moseley (ed.). Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages. London: Routlegde. pp. 211–280. ISBN 9780700711970.

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Helimski, Eugene (2006). "The «Northwestern» group of Finno-Ugric languages and its heritage in the place names and substratum vocabulary of the Russian North" (PDF). In Nuorluoto, Juhani (ed.). The Slavicization of the Russian North (Slavica Helsingiensia 27). Helsinki: Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures. pp. 109–127. ISBN 978-952-10-2852-6.

Marcantonio, Angela (2002). The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. Publications of the Philological Society. Vol. 35. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 55–68. ISBN 978-0-631-23170-7. OCLC 803186861.

Salminen, Tapani (2002). "Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies".

Donner, Otto (1879). Die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der Finnisch-ugrischen sprachen (in German). Helsinki. OCLC 1014980747.

Szinnyei, Josef (1910). Finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft (in German). Leipzig: G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung. pp. 9–21.

Itkonen, T. I. (1921). Suomensukuiset kansat (in Finnish). Helsinki: Tietosanakirjaosakeyhtiö. pp. 7–12.

Setälä, E. N. (1926). "Kielisukulaisuus ja rotu". Suomen suku (in Finnish). Helsinki: Otava.

Hájdu, Péter (1962). Finnugor népek és nyelvek (in Hungarian). Budapest.

Hajdu, Peter (1975). Finno-Ugric Languages and Peoples. Translated by G. F. Cushing. London: André Deutch Ltd.. English translation of Hajdú (1962).

Itkonen, Erkki (1966). Suomalais-ugrilaisen kielen- ja historiantutkimuksen alalta. Tietolipas (in Finnish). Vol. 20. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura. pp. 5–8.

Austerlitz, Robert (1968). "L'ouralien". In Martinet, André (ed.). Le langage.

Voegelin, C. F.; Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and Index of the World's Languages. New York/Oxford/Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 341–343. ISBN 9780444001559.

Kulonen, Ulla-Maija (2002). "Kielitiede ja suomen väestön juuret". In Grünthal, Riho (ed.). Ennen, muinoin. Miten menneisyyttämme tutkitaan. Tietolipas. Vol. 180. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. pp. 104–108. ISBN 978-951-746-332-4.

Michalove, Peter A. (2002) The Classification of the Uralic Languages: Lexical Evidence from Finno-Ugric. In: Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen, vol. 57

Häkkinen, Jaakko 2007: Kantauralin murteutuminen vokaalivastaavuuksien valossa. Pro gradu -työ, Helsingin yliopiston Suomalais-ugrilainen laitos. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe20071746

Lehtinen, Tapani (2007). Kielen vuosituhannet. Tietolipas. Vol. 215. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. ISBN 978-951-746-896-1.

Häkkinen, Kaisa 1984: Wäre es schon an der Zeit, den Stammbaum zu fällen? – Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, Neue Folge 4.

Häkkinen, Jaakko 2009: Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa. – Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 92.

Bartens, Raija (1999). Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys (in Finnish). Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. p. 13. ISBN 978-952-5150-22-3.

Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Keelesugulus ja soome-ugri keelepuu. Akadeemia 9/5 (1997)

Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Finnic Affinity. Congressus Nonus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum I: Orationes plenariae & Orationes publicae. (2000)

Sammallahti, Pekka (1988). "Historical phonology of the Uralic Languages". In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 478–554. ISBN 978-90-04-07741-6. OCLC 466103653.

Helimski, Eugene (1995). "Proto-Uralic gradation: Continuation and traces" (PDF). Congressus Octavus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum. Jyväskylä. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-02. Retrieved 2012-02-24.

Honkola, T.; Vesakoski, O.; Korhonen, K.; Lehtinen, J.; Syrjänen, K.; Wahlberg, N. (2013). "Cultural and climatic changes shape the evolutionary history of the Uralic languages". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 26 (6): 1244–1253. doi:10.1111/jeb.12107. PMID 23675756.

"Livonian pronouns". Virtual Livonia. 8 February 2020.

Austerlitz, Robert (1990). "Uralic Languages" (pp. 567–576) in Comrie, Bernard, editor. The World's Major Languages. Oxford University Press, Oxford (p. 573).

"Estonian Language" (PDF). Estonian Institute. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-04-16.

Türk, Helen (2010). "Kihnu murraku vokaalidest". University of Tartu.

"The Finno-Ugrics: The dying fish swims in water", The Economist, pp. 73–74, December 24, 2005 – January 6, 2006, retrieved 2013-01-19

Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005-12-26), "The Udmurtian code: saving Finno-Ugric in Russia", Language Log, retrieved 2009-12-21

Hájdu, Péter (1975). "Arealógia és urálisztika" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 77: 147–152. ISSN 0029-6791.

Rédei, Károly (1999). "Zu den uralisch-jukagirischen Sprachkontakten". Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen. 55: 1–58.

Bergsland, Knut (1959). "The Eskimo-Uralic hypothesis". Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. 61: 1–29.

Fortescue, Michael D (1998). Language Relations Across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. Open linguistics series. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-70330-2. OCLC 237319639.

"Correlating Palaeo-Siberian languages and populations: Recent advances in the Uralo-Siberian hypothesis" (PDF). ResearchGate. Retrieved 22 March 2019.

Georg, Stefan; Michalove, Peter A.; Ramer, Alexis Manaster; Sidwell, Paul J. (March 1999). "Telling general linguists about Altaic". Journal of Linguistics. 35 (1): 65–98. doi:10.1017/S0022226798007312. ISSN 1469-7742. S2CID 144613877.

Tyler, Stephen (1968). "Dravidian and Uralian: The lexical evidence". Language. 44 (4): 798–812. doi:10.2307/411899. JSTOR 411899.

Webb, Edward (1860). "Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages, Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 7: 271–298. doi:10.2307/592159. JSTOR 592159.

Burrow, T. (1944). "Dravidian Studies IV: The body in Dravidian and Uralian". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 11 (2): 328–356. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00072517. S2CID 246637174.

Zvelebil, Kamil (2006). "Dravidian Languages". Encyclopædia Britannica (DVD ed.).

Andronov, Mikhail S. (1971). Comparative studies on the nature of Dravidian-Uralian parallels: A peep into the prehistory of language families. Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies. Madras. pp. 267–277.

Zvelebil, Kamil (1970). Comparative Dravidian Phonology. The Hauge: Mouton. p. 22. bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the hypothesis

Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-521-77111-0.

Pedersen, Holger (1903). "Türkische Lautgesetze" [Turkish Phonetic Laws]. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German). 57 (3): 535–561. ISSN 0341-0137. OCLC 5919317968.

Greenberg, Joseph Harold (2000). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Vol. 1: Grammar. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3812-5. OCLC 491123067.

Greenberg, Joseph H. (2002). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Vol. 2: Lexicon. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4624-3. OCLC 895918332.

Koppelmann, Heinrich L. (1933). Die Eurasische Sprachfamilie: Indogermanisch, Koreanisch und Verwandtes (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winter.

Collinder, Björn (1965). An Introduction to the Uralic Languages. University of California Press. pp. 30–34.

Marcantonio, Angela (2002). The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. Publications of the Philological Society. Vol. 35. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23170-7. OCLC 803186861.

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References

Abondolo, Daniel M. (editor). 1998. The Uralic Languages. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08198-X.
Aikio, Ante (24 March 2022). "Chapter 1: Proto-Uralic". In Bakró-Nagy, Marianne; Laakso, Johanna; Skribnik, Elena (eds.). The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198767664.
Collinder, Björn. 1955. Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary: An Etymological Dictionary of the Uralic Languages. (Collective work.) Stockholm: Almqvist & Viksell. (Second, revised edition: Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1977.)
Collinder, Björn. 1957. Survey of the Uralic Languages. Stockholm.
Collinder, Björn. 1960. Comparative Grammar of the Uralic Languages. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell
Comrie, Bernhard. 1988. "General Features of the Uralic Languages." In The Uralic Languages, edited by Denis Sinor, pp. 451–477. Leiden: Brill.
Décsy, Gyula. 1990. The Uralic Protolanguage: A Comprehensive Reconstruction. Bloomington, Indiana.
Hajdu, Péter. 1963. Finnugor népek és nyelvek. Budapest: Gondolat kiadó.
Helimski, Eugene. Comparative Linguistics, Uralic Studies. Lectures and Articles. Moscow. 2000. (Russian: Хелимский Е.А. Компаративистика, уралистика. Лекции и статьи. М., 2000.)
Laakso, Johanna. 1992. Uralilaiset kansat ('Uralic Peoples'). Porvoo – Helsinki – Juva. ISBN 951-0-16485-2.
Korhonen, Mikko (1986). Finno-Ugrian Language Studies in Finland 1828–1918. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica. ISBN 951-653-135-0..
Napolskikh, Vladimir. The First Stages of Origin of People of Uralic Language Family: Material of Mythological Reconstruction. Moscow, 1991. (Russian: Напольских В. В. Древнейшие этапы происхождения народов уральской языковой семьи: данные мифологической реконструкции. М., 1991.)
Rédei, Károly (editor). 1986–88. Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ('Uralic Etymological Dictionary'). Budapest.
Wickman, Bo (1988). "The History of Uralic Linguistics". In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Uralic Languages: Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill. pp. 792–818. ISBN 978-90-04-07741-6. OCLC 16580570.

External classification

Sauvageot, Aurélien. 1930. Recherches sur le vocabulaire des langues ouralo-altaïques ('Research on the Vocabulary of the Uralo-Altaic Languages'). Paris.

Linguistic issues

Künnap, A. 2000. Contact-induced Perspectives in Uralic Linguistics. LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 39. München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-964-3.
Wickman, Bo. 1955. The Form of the Object in the Uralic Languages. Uppsala: Lundequistska bokhandeln.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Uralic languages.

"The Finno-Ugrics" The Economist, December 20, 2005
Kulonen, Ulla-Maija: Origin of Finnish and related languages. thisisFINLAND, Finland Promotion Board. Cited 30.10.2009.
"Early Indo-Iranic loans in Uralic: Sounds and strata" (PDF). Martin Joachim Kümmel, Seminar for Indo-European Studies.
Syrjänen, Kaj, Lehtinen, Jyri, Vesakoski, Outi, de Heer, Mervi, Suutari, Toni, Dunn, Michael, … Leino, Unni-Päivä. (2018). lexibank/uralex: UraLex basic vocabulary dataset (Version v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1459402

"Rebel" Uralists

"The 'Ugric-Turkic battle': a critical review" by Angela Marcantonio, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni
"Linguistic shadow-boxing" by Johanna Laakso – a book review of Angela Marcantonio's The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics

Notes

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages#Classification

The Onoghurs or Onoğurs or Oğurs (Ὀνόγουροι, Οὔρωγοι, Οὔγωροι; Onογurs, Ογurs; "ten tribes", "tribes"), were Turkic nomadic equestrians who flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region between 5th and 7th century, and spoke the Oghuric language.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onogurs

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug–Yugra
Autonomous okrug
Ханты-Мансийский автономный округ — Югра
Other transcription(s)
• Khanty	Хӑнты-Мансийской Aвтономной Округ
• Mansi	Ханты-Мансийский Aвтономный Oкруг
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Anthem of Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug 1:02

Coordinates: 62°15′N 70°10′ECoordinates: 62°15′N 70°10′E
Country	Russia
Federal district	Urals^[1]
Economic region	West Siberian^[2]
Administrative center	Khanty-Mansiysk
Government
• Body	Duma
• Governor	Natalya Komarova^[3]
Area ^[4]
• Total	534,800 km² (206,500 sq mi)
• Rank	9th
Population (2010 Census)^[5]
• Total	1,532,243
• Rank	29th
• Density	2.9/km² (7.4/sq mi)
• Urban	91.5%
• Rural	8.5%
Time zone	UTC+5 (MSK+2 ^[6])
ISO 3166 code	RU-KHM
License plates	86, 186
OKTMO ID	71800000
Official languages	Russian^[7]
Recognised languages	Khanty • Mansi^{[citation needed]}
Website	http://www.admhmao.ru/

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug–Yugra (Russian and Mansi: Ханты-Мансийский автономный округ — Югра, Khanty-Mansiysky avtonomny okrug — Yugra; Khanty: Хӑнты-Мансийской Aвтономной Округ) or Khantia-Mansia is a federal subject of Russia (an autonomous okrug of Tyumen Oblast). It has a population of 1,532,243 as of the 2010 Census.^[5]

The peoples native to the region are the Khanty and the Mansi, known collectively as Ob-Ugric people, but today the two groups only constitute 2.5% of the region's population. The local languages, Khanty and Mansi, enjoy special status in the autonomous okrug and along with their distant relative Hungarian are part of the Ugric branch of the Finno-Ugric languages. Russian remains the only official language.

In 2012, the majority (51%)^[8] of the oil produced in Russia came from Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, giving the region great economic importance in Russia and the world. It borders Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug to the north, Komi Republic to the northwest, Sverdlovsk Oblast to the west, Tyumen Oblast to the south, Tomsk Oblast to the south and southeast and Krasnoyarsk Krai in the east.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanty-Mansi_Autonomous_Okrug

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Sviatoslav I of Kiev)

Sviatoslav the Brave
Grand Prince of Kiev
Sviatoslav I by Eugene Lanceray (1886)
Reign	945–972
Coronation	964
Predecessor	Olga of Kiev
Successor	Yaropolk I
Born	March 943 Kiev, Kievan Rus'
Died	26 March 972 (aged 28-29) The island of Khortytsia, Dnieper
Wives	Predslava Malusha
Issue	Yaropolk I Oleg Vladimir the Great Sfengus (possibly)
Dynasty	Rurikid
Father	Igor of Kiev
Mother	Olga of Kiev (regent 945–964)
Religion	Slavic paganism

Sviatoslav I Igorevich (Old East Slavic: Ст҃ославъ / Свѧтославъ Игорєвичь, romanized: Svętoslavŭ Igorevičǐ;^[1] Old Norse: Sveinald; Russian: Святослав Игоревич; Ukrainian: Святослав Ігорович, romanized: Sviatoslav Ihorovych; Belarusian: Святаслаў Ігаравіч; 943 – 26 March 972), also spelled Svyatoslav, was Grand Prince of Kiev^[2]^[3] famous for his persistent campaigns in the east and south, which precipitated the collapse of two great powers of Eastern Europe, Khazaria and the First Bulgarian Empire. He conquered numerous East Slavic tribes, defeated the Alans and attacked the Volga Bulgars,^[4]^[5] and at times was allied with the Pechenegs and Magyars (Hungarians).

His decade-long reign over the Kievan Rus' was marked by rapid expansion into the Volga River valley, the Pontic steppe, and the Balkans. By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital in 969 from Kiev (modern-day Ukraine) to Pereyaslavets (identified as the modern village of Nufăru, Romania)^[6] on the Danube.

In contrast with his mother's conversion to Christianity, Sviatoslav remained a staunch pagan all of his life. Due to his abrupt death in an ambush, his conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his three sons, resulting in two of them being killed.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviatoslav_I

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bolghar
UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name	Bolgar Historical and Archaeological Complex
Location	Tatarstan, Russia
Criteria	Cultural: (ii), (vi)
Reference	981rev
Inscription	2014 (38th Session)
Area	424 ha (1.64 sq mi)
Buffer zone	12,101 ha (46.72 sq mi)
Coordinates	54°58′44″N 49°03′23″ECoordinates: 54°58′44″N 49°03′23″E
Location of Bolghar in Russia

Bolghar (Tatar: Болгар, Chuvash: Пăлхар) was intermittently the capital of Volga Bulgaria from the 10th to the 13th centuries, along with Bilyar and Nur-Suvar. It was situated on the bank of the Volga River, about 30 km downstream from its confluence with the Kama River and some 130 km from modern Kazan in what is now Spassky District. West of it lies a small modern town, since 1991 known as Bolgar. The UNESCO World Heritage Committee inscribed Bolgar Historical and Archaeological Complex (ancient Bolghar hill fort) to the World Heritage List in 2014.^[1]

Hill fort before reconstruction (lithography of XIX)

Common view to hill fort

Temples of hill fort

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolghar

Vsevolod III Yuryevich
Born	19 October 1154
Died	15 April 1212 (aged 57)
Spouse	Maria Shvarnovna Liubov Vasilkovna
Issue more...	Konstantin of Rostov Yuri II of Vladimir Yaroslav II of Vladimir Sviatoslav III of Vladimir
House	Yurievichi
Father	Yuri Dolgoruky
Mother	Helene

Vsevolod's Christian name was Dmitry and so he dedicated his palace church to Saint Demetrius, his patron saint.

Vsevolod III Yuryevich, or Vsevolod the Big Nest (Russian: Все́волод III Ю́рьевич Большо́е Гнездо́, tr. Vsévolod III Yúr'yevich Bol'shóye Gnezdó) (1154–1212), was Grand Prince of Vladimir from 1176 to 1212. During his long reign, the city reached the zenith of its glory.^{[citation needed]}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vsevolod_the_Big_Nest

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tbilisi თბილისი
Capital city
Top to bottom: View of Tbilisi from the right bank of the Kura River, Monument of St. George on Freedom Square, View of the Narikala Fortress from the left bank of Kura
Flag Seal

Government
Wikimedia \| © OpenStreetMap
Tbilisi Show map of TbilisiShow map of GeorgiaShow map of Caucasus mountainsShow all
Coordinates: 41°43′21″N 44°47′33″ECoordinates: 41°43′21″N 44°47′33″E
Country	Georgia
Established	AD 455^[2]
• Type	Mayor–Council
• Body	Tbilisi Sakrebulo
• Mayor	Kakha Kaladze (GD)^[3]
Area ^[4]
• Capital city	504.2 km² (194.7 sq mi)
• Metro	726 km² (280 sq mi)
Highest elevation	770 m (2,530 ft)
Lowest elevation	380 m (1,250 ft)
Population (2021)
• Capital city	1,202,731^[1]
• Density	3,194.38/km² (8,273.4/sq mi)
• Metro	1,485,293
Demonym(s)	Tbilisian Tbiliseli (In Georgian)
Population by ethnicity^[5]
• Georgians	89.9 %
• Armenians	4.8 %
• Azerbaijanis	1.4 %
• Russians	1.2 %
• Yazidis	1.0 %
• Others	1.7 %
Time zone	UTC+4 (Georgian Time)
Area code	+995 32
Gross regional product^[6]	2020
– Total	GEL24.9bil. ($8B)
– Per capita	$6,700
HDI (2021)	0.824^[7] – very high
Website	tbilisi.gov.ge

Tbilisi (English: /təbɪˈliːsi, təˈbɪlɪsi/ tə-bil-EE-see, tə-BIL-iss-ee;^[8] Georgian: თბილისი Georgian pronunciation: [tʰbilisi]), in some languages still known by its pre-1936 name Tiflis^[a] (/ˈtɪflɪs/ TIF-liss),^[8] is the capital and the largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Kura River with a population around 1.5 million people. Tbilisi was founded in the fifth century AD by Vakhtang I of Iberia, and since then has served as the capital of various Georgian kingdoms and republics. Between 1801 and 1917, then part of the Russian Empire, Tiflis was the seat of the Caucasus Viceroyalty, governing both the northern and the southern parts of the Caucasus.

Because of its location on the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and its proximity to the lucrative Silk Road, throughout history, Tbilisi was a point of contention among various global powers. To this day the city's location ensures its position as an important transit route for energy and trade projects. Tbilisi's history is reflected in its architecture, which is a mix of medieval, neoclassical, Beaux Arts, Art Nouveau, Stalinist, and Modern structures.

Historically, Tbilisi has been home to people of multiple cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds, though it is overwhelmingly Eastern Orthodox Christian. Its notable tourist destinations include cathedrals Sameba and Sioni, Freedom Square, Rustaveli Avenue and Agmashenebeli Avenue, medieval Narikala Fortress, the pseudo-Moorish Opera Theater, and the Georgian National Museum. The climate in Tbilisi mostly ranges from 20 to 32 °C (68 to 90 °F) in the summer and −1 to 7 °C (30 to 45 °F) in the winter.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi

Islam
الاسلام‎ al-’Islām
The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site
Type	Universal religion
Classification	Abrahamic
Scripture	Quran
Theology	Monotheism
Language	Classical Arabic
Territory	Muslim world
Founder	Muhammad
Origin	7th century CE Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Separated from	Arabian polytheism
Separations	Ahl-e Haqq,^[1] Bábism,^[2] Baháʼí Faith,^[3] Din-i Ilahi, Druzism,^[4]^[5] Ahmadiyya
Number of followers	c. 1.9 billion^[6] (referred to as Muslims, who are collectively called the ummah)

Islam
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Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/; Arabic: ۘالِإسلَام, al-ʾIslām [ɪsˈlaːm] (listen), transl. "Submission [to God]")^[7]^[8] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.^[9]^[10] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims,^[11] number approximately 1.9 billion globally and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.^[6]^[12]^[13]^[14]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam

Modern cities Kazan and Yelabuga were founded as Volga Bulgaria's border fortresses. Some of the Volga Bulgarian cities have still not been found, but they are mentioned in old East Slavic sources. They are: Ashli (Oshel), Tuxçin (Tukhchin), İbrahim (Bryakhimov), Taw İle. Some of them were ruined during and after the Golden Horde invasion.^{[citation needed]}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria}

In September 1223 near Samara an advance guard of Genghis Khan's army under command of Uran, son of Subutai Bahadur,^{[disputed – discuss]} entered Volga Bulgaria but was defeated in the Battle of Samara Bend.^{[citation needed]} In 1236, the Mongols returned and in five years had subjugated the whole country, which at that time was suffering from internal war^{[citation needed]}. Henceforth Volga Bulgaria became a part of the Ulus Jochi, later known as the Golden Horde. It was divided into several principalities; each of them became a vassal of the Golden Horde and received some autonomy. By the 1430s, the Khanate of Kazan was established as the most important of these principalities.^{[citation needed]}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria}

Ulugh Muhammad

Khan of the Golden Horde (1st reign)
Reign	1419 – 1423
Predecessor	Hajji Muhammad Khan ibn Oghlan Ali
Successor	Barak Khan
Khan of the Golden Horde (2nd reign)
Reign	1428 – 1437
Predecessor	Barak Khan
Successor	Sayid Ahmad I
Khan of the Tatar Kazan Khanate
Reign	1438 – 1445
Predecessor	none
Successor	Mäxmüd of Kazan

Born	1405
Died	1445 Kazan
Dynasty	Borjigin
Father	Ichkile Hassan
Religion	Sunni Islam

Ulugh Muhammad (1405–1445; الغ محمد; Tatar: Олуг Мөхәммәт, romanized: Oluğ Möxəmmət; written as Ulanus by orientalists) was a medieval Tatar statesman, Gengisid, Khan of the Golden Horde (before 1436), ruler of Crimea (1437), and the founder of the Khanate of Kazan, which he ruled from 1438–1445. He was the son of the oglan Ichkile Hassan and the cousin of Tokhtamysh. He received the nickname "Ulugh", meaning older or large, in contrast to another Muhammed who was called "Kichi", meaning younger or small.

Ulugh Muhammad was Khan of the Golden Horde in 1419–1423, 1426, 1428. In 1428–1432 he waged a stubborn struggle for possession of the Ulug Ulus with the representatives of a minor branch of the Tukaytimurids (one of the branches of the Gengisids). After being defeated, Ulugh Muhammad escaped to Volga Bulgaria vilayet in 1423. With the support Vytautas, Ulugh Muhammad was able to regain the throne of the Golden Horde in 1426. He succeeded in spreading the power of the Horde to Crimea and established friendly relations with the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. Ulugh Muhammad sent an embassy to Egypt in 1428–1429. In 1431 the son and grandson of the ruler of Moscow, Dmitriy Donskoy came to the court to Ulugh Muhammad in order to reach a decision about princely succession. Ulugh Muhammad ruled in favour of the grandson, Vasiliy II .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Muhammad

List of Kazan khans

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

List of Kazan khans who ruled the Khanate of Kazan before it was conquered by Russia. The First List has local spelling and dynasty. The Second List has very short biographies.

First List

Ghiyath-ud-din Khan taking advantage of the troubles of the Golden Horde established himself as an independent ruler of Kazan Ulus (Kazan district) during the 1420s. Eventually the former ruler of the Golden Horde, Ulugh Muhammad, would take over Kazan and establish his own separate Khanate of Kazan breaking the Golden Horde Empire.
Blue rows signify influence of Grand Duchy of Moscow.
- Green row signifies brief interruption under Khan of Sibir Khanate.
  - Pink rows signify Qasim Khanate rule.
    - Yellow rows signify Giray dynasty from Crimean Khanate.
      - Brown row signifies prince from Khanate of Astrakhan rule.

Titular Name	Personal Name	Reign
Khan خان	Ulugh Muhammad الغ محمد	1438 - 1446 C.E.
Khan خان	Mäxmüd of Kazan محمود ابن الغ محمد	1445 – 1466 C.E.
Khan خان	Xälil of Kazan خلیل ابن محمود	1466 – 1467 C.E.
Khan خان	Ibrahim of Kazan ابراہیم ابن محمود	1467 – 1479 C.E.
Khan خان	Ilham Ghali of Kazan علی ابن ابراہیم	1479 – 1484 C.E. (1st reign)
Khan خان	Möxämmädämin of Kazan محمد امین ابن ابراہیم	1484 – 1485 C.E. (1st reign)
Khan خان	Ilham Ghali of Kazan علی ابن ابراہیم	1485 – 1487 C.E. (2nd reign)
Khan خان	Möxämmädämin of Kazan محمد امین ابن ابراہیم	1487 – 1495 C.E. (2nd reign)
Khan خان	Mamuq of Kazan ?	1495 – 1496 C.E.
Khan خان	Ghabdellatif of Kazan عبد اللطیف ابن ابراہیم	1496 – 1502 C.E.
Khan خان	Möxämmädämin of Kazan محمد امین ابن ابراہیم	1502 - 1518 C.E. (3rd reign)
Khan خان	Shahghali شاہ علی ابن شیخ اللہ یار	1518 - 1521 C.E. (1st reign)
Khan خان	Sahib I Giray صاحب غرائی	1521 - 1525 C.E.
Khan خان	Safa Giray of Kazan صفا غرائی	1525 - 1532 C.E. (1st reign)
Khan خان	Canghali of Kazan جان علی ابن شیخ اللہ یار	1532 – 1535 C.E.
Khan خان	Safa Giray of Kazan صفا غرائی	1535 – 1546 C.E. (2nd reign)
Khan خان	Shahghali شاہ علی ابن شیخ اللہ یار	1546 C.E. (2nd reign)
Khan خان	Safa Giray of Kazan صفا غرائی	1546 - 1549 C.E. (3rd reign)
Khan خان	Devlet I Giray دولت كراى Pretender, appointed by the Ottoman Empire	1549 – 1551 C.E.
Khan خان	Utameshgaray of Kazan عتمش غرائی Utemish being a minor the actual ruler was his mother Söyembikä who acted as regent	1549 – 1551 C.E.
Khan خان	Shahghali شاہ علی ابن شیخ اللہ یار	1551 – 1552 C.E. (3rd reign)
Khan خان	Yadegar Mokhammad of Kazan یاد گار محمد	1552 C.E.
Ivan the Terrible, the Tsar of Russia conquers Khanate of Kazan in 1552 C.E.

Second List with short biographies

This information comes from Howorth's 1880 book ^[1] and is checked against the Russian Wikipedia. There appears to be no modern book in English on the history of the khanate. Abbreviations on khan-numbers: R=pro-Russian, A=anti-Russian.

0. Before the Khanate the area had been part of Volga Bulgaria and then the Bulgar Ulus of the Golden Horde.
1A. Ulugh Muhammad 1438-1456 was twice Khan of the Golden Horde. Driven out in 1436, fled to Crimea, quarreled with the Crimeans, led a 3000-man army north and took the border town of Belyov. In 1437 Vasily II sent 40000 men against him, who were defeated. In the same year he moved to the Volga and in 1438 captured Kazan and separated it from the Golden horde. 1439 took Nizhny Novgorod and burned outskirts of Moscow. In 1444-45 he occupied Nizhny Novgorod and marched on Murom and raided Ryazan. When Vasily counterattacked (1445) he was defeated and captured at the Battle of Suzdal, but soon ransomed. Muhammad died in the fall of 1445, possibly murdered by his son Mamudek, below. His son Qasim Khan went to collect ransom after the battle of Suzdal, entered Russian service and in 1452 founded the Qasim Khanate.
2. Mäxmüd of Kazan or Mamudek 1445-66 son of above. Long and peaceful reign in which the Khanate was stabilized and enriched. Howorth has him kill an Ali Beg who had usurped power. 1444 raided Veliky Ustug far to the northwest. Commander at battle of Suzdal, above. 1448 Russians drove his army out of Vladmir and Murom.
3. Xälil of Kazan 1466-67 son of above, short reign, little information.
4A. Ibrahim of Kazan 1467-79 brother of above. Married his brother's widow (#X below). When he came to the throne Russia and a local faction tried to impose his uncle Qasim Khan, above. After several failures in 1469 the Russians surrounded Kazan and cut off its water supply. Peace was made and Kazan released a large number of captives. In 1478 Ibrahim raided Russia. Next year Ivan reached Kazan and withdrew. Ibrahim died soon after.
5A. Ilham 1479–84, 1485-87 Son of above by first wife. 1482 Russian war plan stopped by treaty. 1484 Russia imposed #6, 1485 Ilham restored by local faction with Russian support. 1487 deposed after Russian siege, exiled to Vologda.
6R. 1st and 2nd Muhammed Amin 1484–85, 1487–95. Son of #4 and #X, half-brother of #5. 1st reign: 1484 at about age 15 enthroned by Russians replacing Ilham, next year replaced by Ilham. 2nd reign: 1487 restored by Russia. 1491 Kazan, Moscow, Crimea and Nogais fought the Great Horde. 1495 replaced by #7, fled to Russia and given fief, fought Lithuania. 3rd reign: see #9
7. Mamuk 1495-96 was khan of Sibir (probably), invited in by a faction, Russia sent army to protect #6, Mamuk driven off by another faction, when Russian army left he took Kazan with Nogai support. Unpopular, after returning from a raid on Arsk the city gates were closed to him and he went back to Sibir, dying en route.
8R. Abdul Latif or Ghabdellatif of Kazan 1497-1502 brother of #6, son of #4 and #X. 1479 went to Crimea with his mother, 1490 fief in Russia. 1496 Kazan asked for him instead of #6. 1499 Agalak(#7's brother) and Uraq failed to take Kazan. Grew unpopular, 1502 faction and Russia replaced him with #6, exiled to Beloozersk, 1516 released, 1517 died.
9RA. 3rd Muhammed Amin 1502–18. See #6 for first and second reigns. Married widow of #5. In 1505, incited by his wife, he robbed, killed or captured the Russian merchants in his domain and sent his troops and Nogais to burn the suburbs of Nizhny Novgorod, which was saved by 300 released Lithuanian POWs. Nogais split with Kazan and the siege was raised. During the Russo-Kazan War (1505-07) two armies went to Kazan. One went down the Volga and was defeated near Kazan. A second army arrived from a different direction, almost won, fell to looting and was destroyed. The matter was settled and Kazan gave up its prisoners. 1510 #X went to Moscow and Kazan and arranged some degree of peace.
10R. 1st Shah Ali 1518-21 The house of #1 having died out, Crimea wanted #11, but Russia imposed the Kasim khan Shah Ali. He is described as fat and physically repulsive and unpopular as a Russian puppet. #11 was invited and took over with no trouble and #10 returned to Russia.
11A. Sahib I Giray 1521-25 younger brother of Crimean khan Mehmed I Giray. 1510 accompanied his step-mother #X to Moscow. His 1521 accession meant war with Russia, so that year Kazan and Crimea raided Muscovy and took a huge number of prisoners. 1522 raided eastern Muscovy. 1523 Russian army under #10 reached Kazan but turned back and Kazan failed to take Galich. 1524 lost Crimean support for uncertain reasons, declared himself a Turkish vassal without result and at the approach of a huge Russian army, fled. Later became Khan of Crimea (1532–51).
12A 1st Safa Giray of Kazan 1525-32: Their khan having fled, the patriotic faction placed his 13-year-old nephew on the throne. The Russian siege was unsuccessful and they withdrew. In 1530 another Russian army was sent and burned much of Kazan, besieged what was left and then made a truce. A Kazan faction replaced him with #13.
13R. Jan Ali 1532-35 Seeking a pro-Russian khan and fearing #10 they chose his brother who was then the Qasim Khan. Recognized Russian suzerainty and dominated by a faction under #Z below, 1533 married Suyumbeke #Y (below), deposed and either killed or exiled to Old Kazan (sources differ). During his reign the future conquer of Kazan, Ivan the Terrible, came to the throne at the age of three.
14A. 2nd Safa Giray 1536-46 see #12. Recalled from Crimea, married #Y, a faction wanted #10, after failed Russian attack, Tatars plundered Nizhny Novgorod region. 1538 raided Muscovy, withdrew and made peace acknowledging Russian suzerainty. 1540 raided Murom with Crimeans and Nogais, 1546 Russians raided near Kazan and withdrew, same year deposed by faction.,
15R. 2nd Shah Ali 1546 see #10, installed by pro-Russian faction, saw that the other faction was more powerful and began to fear for his life. The story goes that he held a banquet, got everyone drunk and slipped out of the palace before anyone knew he was gone.
16A. 3rd Safa Giray 1546-49 see #12, #14. Had fled to his Nogai father-in-law Yusuf, returned with a Nogai army, but Shah Ali's flight made the army unnecessary. Leaders of Russian faction fled to Russia, minor Russian raid. 1547 Ivan the Terrible in person led army east, but unusual warm winter made roads and rivers impassible, so army withdrew. According to one story he died by falling against a pillar when drunk.
17A. Utamesh Giray of Kazan 1549-51 son of #16 and Suyunbeka (#Y below). Enthroned at age 2 with his mother as regent. In 1549 Ivan the Terrible sent an army planning to reinstall #15, Kazan was surrounded, an assault failed and a thaw made the roads impassible and forced withdrawal. They withdrew 29 kilometres (18 mi) west and built a fort at Sviyazhsk. A faction sought peace and delivered Utamesh and his mother to the Russians. Utamesh was baptized, fought the Lithuanians and died at the age of 20. His mother was then married to Shah Ali #15.
18R. 3rd Shah Ali 1551-52 see #15. The pro-Russian Shah Ali was placed on the throne and 60000 Russian captives released. Russia annexed land west of the Volga, which weakened the khanate and was opposed by even Shah Ali. He killed many of his enemies at a banquet, which made things worse. Ivan wanted him deposed and he fled the town for a third time.
19A. Yadegar Mokhammad of Kazan 1552. 1552 patriotic faction closed gates to Russians, called in Yadigar. For the Russian conquest see Siege of Kazan. Yadigar was the son of Qasim II of Astrakhan, 1542 in Russian service, 1550/51 fought Kazan, then joined Nogais, 1552 called to Kazan, survived the defeat, 1553 baptized, given Zvenigorod, fought in Livonian War, died in 1565.
20A?. Ali Akram c1552-56. The rebels who continued to resist in the countryside brought in a Nogai named Ali Akram. He was unsuccessful and was killed by the rebels.
X. Nur-Sultan (ru:Нур-Султан): daughter of Timur, a Nogai beg, wife of #3, second wife of #4, at his death went to Crimea, 1486 married Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. 1494-95 made Hajj, 1510-11 visited Moscow and Kazan, helped with treaty. #6 and #8 were her sons, #11 her stepson and #Z her daughter.
Y. Söyembikä of Kazan daughter of Nogai beg Yosuf, 1533 at age 12 married to Jan Ali #13, circa 1536 became fifth wife of Safa Giray #14 who had deposed #13, 1549 after #14's death regent for his 2-year-old son #17, 1551 faction gave her and her son to Russians, year and a half later married against her will to #18, apparently after he had been expelled from Kazan, died in Kasimov.
Z. Gaukharshad (ru:Гаухаршад) daughter of Ibraham #4 and #X, sister of #6 and #8. Involved in 1532 coup against Safa Giray #12 and became regent for Jan Ali #13 who married #Y. After #13 lost power in 1535 active in politics for another 10 years.

notes

Henry Howorth, History of the Mongols,1880, part 2, pp 363-429

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Kazan_khans

The family tree of Genghis Khan is listed below. This family tree only lists prominent members of the Borjigin family and does not reach the present. Genghis Khan appears in the middle of the tree, and Kublai Khan appears at the bottom of the tree. The Borjigin family was the imperial house of the Mongol Empire (and its various successor states, dating back to the 13th and 14th centuries.

Descent from Genghis Khan in East Asia is well-documented by Chinese sources. His descent in West Asia and Europe was documented through the 14th century, in texts written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani and other Muslim historians. With the advent of genealogical DNA testing, a larger and broader circle of people have begun to claim descent from Genghis Khan.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_and_descendants_of_Genghis_Khan

Throughout its history, the khanate was prone to civil turmoil and struggles for the throne. The khans were replaced 19 times in 115 years. There were a total of fifteen reigning khans, some ascending the throne multiple times. The Khan was often elected from the Gengizides by vernacular nobility and even by the citizens themselves.

Regarding the history of the khanate, there is a scarcity of sources. Not only no single document of the khanate survived the Russian conquest, but even the documents of early Russian colonial administration (Prikaz Kazanskogo Dvortsa) were all destroyed during the Time of Troubles.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan

Möxämmädämin
Khan of the Tatar Kazan Khanate (1st reign)
Reign	1484 – 1485
Predecessor	Ilham Ghali of Kazan
Successor	Ilham Ghali of Kazan
Khan of the Tatar Kazan Khanate (2nd reign)
Reign	1487 – 1495
Predecessor	Ilham Ghali of Kazan
Successor	Mamuq of Kazan
Khan of the Tatar Kazan Khanate (3rd reign)
Reign	1502 – 1518
Predecessor	Ghabdellatif of Kazan
Successor	Shahghali

Born	c. 1469
Died	1518
Spouse	Nur Sultan

Möxämmät Ämin or Möxammädämin (Tatar: Мөхәммәдәмин, Мөхәммәт Әмин, [mœxæmˌmædæˈmin]; also spelled Muhammad Amin or Emin^[1] via Russian: Мухаммед-Амин) (c. 1469 – 1518) was three times a pro-Russian khan of Kazan.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6x%C3%A4mm%C3%A4d%C3%A4min_of_Kazan

Part of the population continued to resist Russian rule until 1556. Rebel governments were formed in Chalem and Mishatamaq, but as the Nogays under Ğäli Äkräm often raided the agricultural population, the coalition went to ruin. After a brutal repression against the Kazan rebels, their commanders were executed.

By some estimates,^[3] the population of the former khanate declined by several thousands during the wars. The administration, known as the Kazan Palace's Office undertook the forced Russification and Christianization of the Tatars and other peoples.^[4] The term Tsardom of Kazan was in use until 1708 when the Kazan Governorate was formed.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan

Ar begs (in Russian chronicles "Арские князья") was a formation of Noqrat Tatars' nobility, served to Muscovy in 16th–17th century. In 14th–15th centuries they were rulers of semi-independent duchy in the middle Cheptsa, nowadays Udmurtia. At the first time, their lands were under Kazan Khanate's and later under Russian influence. Begs also participated in wars for Udmurtia between Kazan and Muscovy.

Several Russian noble families descended from the Ar begs include the Devetyarov, Kasimov, Yaushev and others.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar_begs

Khandoba
Khandoba and Mhalsa killing demons Mani-Malla — a popular oleograph, c.1880.
Sanskrit transliteration	Khaṇḍobā
Devanagari	खंडोबा
Affiliation	Avatar of Shiva
Abode	Jejuri
Mantra	Om Shri Martanda Bhairavaya Namah
Weapon	Trishula, Sword
Mount	Horse
Consort	Mhalsa and Banai (chief consorts); Rambhai, Phulai and Chandai

Khandoba (IAST: Khaṇḍobā), Martanda Bhairava, Malhari, or Malhar is a Hindu deity worshiped as a manifestation of Shiva mainly in the Deccan plateau of India, especially in the state of Maharashtra. He is the most popular Kuladevata (family deity) in Maharashtra.^[1] He is also the patron deity of select warrior, farming castes, Dhangar community and Brahmin (priestly) castes as well as several of the hunter/gatherer tribes (Bedar, Naik) that are native to the hills and forests of this region. The sect of Khandoba has linkages with Hindu and Jain traditions, and also assimilates all communities irrespective of caste, including Muslims. The character of Khandoba developed during the 9th and 10th centuries from a folk deity into a composite god possessing the attributes of Shiva, Bhairava, Surya and Kartikeya (Skanda). He is depicted either in the form of a linga, or as an image of a warrior riding on a bull or a horse. The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is the temple of Jejuri in Maharashtra. The legends of Khandoba, found in the text Malhari Mahatmya and also narrated in folk songs, revolve around his victory over demons Mani-malla and his marriages.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khandoba

Khazar Islands
Geography
Rendering of the Khazar Islands
Location	25 km (16 mi) south of Baku, Azerbaijan
Coordinates	40.24134°N 49.634242°ECoordinates: 40.24134°N 49.634242°E
Archipelago	Baku Archipelago
Total islands	41
Area	20 km² (7.7 sq mi)
Administration
Azerbaijan
Capital city	Baku

The Khazar Islands (Azerbaijani: Xəzər adaları), also known as Caspian Islands,^[1] is a stalled development of artificial islands 25 km (16 mi) south of Baku, Azerbaijan consisting of 41 islands extending 3,000 hectares (30 km²; 7,400 acres; 12 sq mi) into the Caspian Sea.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_Islands

List of artificial islands

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is a list of artificial islands.

Table


Name	Country	Area (km²)	Population	Notes
René-Levasseur Island	Canada	2,020	0	Impact crater in Quebec isolated when two pre-existing natural lakes were connected by the formation of the Manicouagan Reservoir.
Caofeidian	China	60
Dongjiang Island	China	33.5		Cargo transfer and wetland reconstruction.^[1]^{[better source needed]}
Jurong Island	Singapore	32	0	Formed by the amalgamation of seven natural islands
Sanya Hongtangwan International Airport	China	23.99		International Airport under construction.
Dalian Jinzhouwan International Airport	China	21	0	International Airport under construction.
Khazar Islands	Azerbaijan	20	0	Planned city
Subi Reef	Disputed	16	200	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Qianhai	China	14.92
Hong Kong International Airport	Hong Kong	12.48		Mostly on reclaimed land. Some of it is on the now merged Chek Lap Kok and Lam Chau islands.
Diyar Al Muharraq	Bahrain	12	0
Cuarteron Reef	Disputed	8	0	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Macau New Urban Zones	Macau	7.3
Northern City	Bahrain	7	1,000
Mischief Reef	Disputed	5.58	0	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Durrat Al Bahrain	Bahrain	5	1,000
Amwaj Islands	Bahrain	4.31	10,000
Ocean Flower Island	China	3.81
Qingdao Oriental Movie Metropolis	China	3.76
Pulau Semakau	Singapore	3.5	0
Fiery Cross Reef	Disputed	2.74	200	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Pulau Punggol Barat	Singapore	1.92	0
Bahrain Bay	Bahrain	1.35	100
Peberholm	Denmark	1.3
Pulau Punggol Timor	Singapore	1.12	0?
King Fahd Passport Island	Bahrain Saudi Arabia	0.88	10	Shared island between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. Also known as Middle Island, Embankment 4.
Reef Island	Bahrain	0.713	3,000	Also known as Lulu Island.
Ontario Place East and West Island	Canada	0.6273	0	Theme park in Ontario.
Flakfortet	Denmark	0.3		Copenhagen harbour
Freedom Island	Philippines	0.3
Heirisson Island	Australia	0.2856	0	Created from pre-existing smaller islands via reclamation. Swan River, Western Australia
Île Notre-Dame	Canada	0.25	0	Located in Montreal
Gaven Reefs	Disputed	0.136	0	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Chinese Garden	Singapore	0.135	0
Johnson South Reef	Disputed	0.109	0	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Hughes Reef	Disputed	0.076	0	Currently being converted into an island by China as part of the Great Wall of Sand. Also claimed by Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.
Middelgrundsfortet	Denmark	0.07		Copenhagen harbour (also known as Middelgrunden)
Pearl Island	Singapore	0.019	0
Coral Island	Singapore	0.017	0
Langlütjen II	Germany	0.017	0	Sold to a private owner.
Langlütjen I	Germany	0.016	0	Sold.
Île aux Cygnes	France	0.013	0
Wilhelmstein	Germany	0.0125	0
Sealand	United Kingdom (de jure) Sealand (de facto)	0.004	2
Sandy Island	Singapore	0.0007	0
Queen Elizabeth II Island	Australia		0
Bahrain Lagoon	Bahrain			Future artificial planned island
China Dafeng Port Economic Zone	China
Dayang Port	China
Donauinsel	Austria	20 kilometres long and 200 meters wide in the Danube (Vienna)	0	In the Danube (Vienna)
Dongjiakou Dock	China
Fisherman's Island	Australia		0
Fort Boyard	France		250	Fort
Jizuishi Shipyard	China
Lanqiao Port	China
Le Havre Port	France
Longxue Island Shipyard and Port	China
Lvsi Harbour	China
Maojia Port	China
MOSE	Italy			An artificial island was created in Lido inlet as part of the flood defenses for Venice
Nigehörn	Germany		0
Paradise Island	Singapore		0
Qingdao Linghai Hot Spring Golf Club	China
Qingdao Port	China
Rizhao Port	China
Salman City	Bahrain
Sangang Harbour	China			Jiangsu
Shawan Harbour	China			Yancheng, Jiangsu
Treasure Island	Singapore		0
Trekroner Fort	Denmark			Copenhagen harbour
Xiamen Xiang'an International Airport	China
Xiaogoukou	China			Binhai, Yancheng
Ximazhou Shipyard Island	China
Xinkaihe Harbour	China
Yangshan Deepwater Port	China
Zhanghe Airport	China
Zhewangzhen Port	China			Jiangsu
Zhuhai General Aviation Airport	China
Zuhai Jinwan Airport	China
Zuhai Jiuzhou Airport	China
(unnamed amusement park)	China			Amusement Park at Liuye Lake, Changde
Eko Atlantic	Nigeria	25		Created from the Atlantic Ocean via reclamation
Banana Island, Lagos	Nigeria			An artificial island off the foreshore of Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria
Gracefield Island	Nigeria			Created via land reclamation from the Lagos Lagoon
Kashagan Field	Kazakhstan

Australia

Bahrain

New Bahrain International Airport

Bolivia

See #Peru/Bolivia

Brazil

Cidade Universitária (Rio de Janeiro)
Jangadeiros Island

Bulgaria

It has been suggested that parts of this page (Bulgaria) be moved into § Land disconnected by artificial canals. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (January 2023)

In Varna, a portion of the southern industrial and port zone on a 2-km wide isthmus between the Black Sea and Lake Varna became an artificial island in 1976 when it became separated from the shore by two navigable canals.

China

Dongjiang, an island at Bohai Bay, near Beijing, 33.5 km², for cargo transfer and wetlands reconstruction.^[2]
Runways of Shanghai Pudong Airport
Port and Urban Areas around Xiamen, Shantou & Ningbo-Zhoushan
Amusement Park at Liuye Lake Changde
Zhanghe Airport, Jingmen
Zhuhai General Aviation Airport
Several Islands off the coast of Fengchengzhen, Shandong
Coastal Extensions around Bindao Island, Weihai
Rizhao Port
Xinjiancun Coast Islands
Qingdao Linghai Hot Spring Golf Club
Qingdao Port
Maojia Port, Qidong City
Rudong Coast Extensions
Extensions on coasts around Yangjia Bay
Islands off the coast of Lingezhuang
Dongzhuang Coast Extensions
Longkou Harbor Port and Islands
Banweiba Ditch Port & Coastal extensions
Land bordering Bailang Estuary
Jiangdao Coast Extensions
Lianyungang Port
Ganyu Coast
Rudong Yangkou Harbour
Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport Runway
Ports of Pingtan Island
Ports of Jiangyin Island, Fuqing, Fuzhou
Lands surrounding Luoyuan Bay, Luoyuan, Fuzhou
Ports in Xinghua Bay

Egypt

Coasts of Hurghada
Coasts of Alexandria
Ain Sokhna

Germany

Hong Kong

Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre - new wing on a man-made island off the coast of the old wing at Wan Chai.^[3]^[4]^[5]
An artificial island in the artificial Inspiration Lake in the former Penny's Bay
Macau Ferry Terminal - an artificial island connected by a skyway to another artificial island, and further connected by two other skyways to Shun Tak Centre.^[6]
Nam Wan^[7]
A former knoll in the Shek Pik Reservoir
A former knoll in the Shing Mun (Jubilee) Reservoir
Shui Keng Teng [zh-tw] - a former knoll isolated from the mainland after construction of High Island Reservoir
Former knolls and hills in the Tai Lam Chung Reservoir
The central tower of Ting Kau Bridge stands on an artificial island in the Rambler Channel.^[8]
The west tower of Tsing Ma Bridge stands on an artificial island in the Ma Wan Channel^[9]
Duplicate Tsing Yi South Bridge - two artificial islets to the south of two bridge columns, to prevent ships from colliding with the bridge.^[10]
Southern half of Lamma Power Station
Hong Kong–Macau–Zhuhai Bridge Hong Kong Control Point
Breakwaters of many typhoon shelters
An island at the confluence of River Sutlej and River Beas into River Indus, where Sheung Shui Abattoir and Shek Wu Hui Sewage Treatment Works are located.^[11]
Shatin Floating Restaurant (aka Treasure Floating Restaurant, Star Seafood Floating Restaurant)
Tsing Tsuen Bridge - two artificial islands to the north of the two bridge columns

Former

West Kowloon Reclamation during its construction stage^[12]

India

Japan

Chubu Centrair International Airport (2000-2005)^{[clarification needed]}
Shinkawa, Chūō, Tokyo [ja]
Dejima in Nagasaki (Historic) (1634)
Dream Island (Yume No Shima) (1939)
Islands for Tokyo Disneyland in Urayasu
Islands for Haneda International Airport runway expansion.
Hakkeijima [ja]
Heiwa Island, in Tokyo Bay
Higashi Ogijima [ja]
Island City, Fukuoka (Hakata) harbour
Kansai International Airport (1994)
Katsushima [ja]
Kaze no Tō
Kisarazu Island for Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line
Kobe Airport
Malimpia Okinosu [ja]
Midori No Shima [ja], off Hakodate
New Kitakyushu Airport
Nagasaki Airport
Odaiba, Tokyo Bay
Oogishima [ja]
Painuhama-cho (南ぬ浜町 [ja]), Ishigaki-shi, Okinawa-ken
Port Island, Kobe harbour
Rokkō Island, Kobe harbour
Showa Island [ja]
The Second Sea Fortress, Tokyo Bay (The first and second fortresses were sunk)
Umihotaru
Wakaejima (artificial)
Wakasu
Ukishima [ja]

Kuwait

Macau

Aterro da "Zona A" dos Novos Aterros Urbanos
Aterro da "Zona C" dos Novos Aterros Urbanos
Centro Ecuménico Kun Iam [zh-tw]
Macau International Airport
Portas do Entendimento [zh-tw]
Islets in the Lagos Nam Van
Zhuhai-Macau Port Artificial Island [yue] (southern half part of Macau)

Malaysia

Malacca Island, Malacca City, Malacca.
Marina island Pangkor, Lumut, Perak.
Forest City, Johor Bahru, Johor
Gazumbo Island, Gelugor, Penang
Seri Tanjung Pinang, Tanjung Tokong, Penang

Maldives

Mexico

Spiral Island, a small floating island

Montenegro

The Lady Of the Rocks / Gospa od Skrpjela, a small island contribute to Our Lady of the Rocks, situated in the Bay of Kotor.

Netherlands

Oman

Peru/Bolivia

Uros, inhabited artificial floating islands made of reed on Lake Titicaca

Qatar

Lusail, new development north of Doha with several artificial islands.
The Pearl
Hamad International Airport
Ras Laffan
Hamad Port
Banana Island Resort

Russia

Nineteen artificial islands in the Gulf of Finland for fortresses.

It has been suggested that parts of this page (Russia) be moved into § Land disconnected by artificial canals. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (January 2023)

Sviyazhsk

Saudi Arabia

King Abdullah Port
Manifah Field
King Abdul Aziz Sea Port
Yanbu Island
Jazan Economic City
King Fahd Industrial Ports
Areas around Alkhobar & Dhahran
King Salman International Complex for Maritime Industries
Coast line of Jeddah

Solomon Islands

South Africa

Island in Kamfers Dam, constructed as a flamingo breeding island
Durban Port

South Korea

Sri Lanka

Colombo Port City (2014–)
Hambantota Port

Taiwan

Phase V redevelopment of Anping, Tainan [zh-tw]

Tonga

Former Republic of Minerva

Tunisia

Coast of Sfax

United Arab Emirates

Abu Dhabi

Dubai

Burj al-Arab, a hotel on a small artificial island.
The Palm Islands (The Palm, Jumeirah, The Palm, Jebel Ali, and The Palm, Deira). The Palm Jebel Ali has had most of its land filled, but both the Palm Jebel Ali and the Palm Deira projects are on hold as of 2013.
The World Islands, currently uninhabited.
Bluewaters Island
Jumeirah Bay Island
Jumeirah Island 2
Pearl Jumeirah
Dubai Harbour
Dubai Waterfront
The Universe

Ras al Khaimah

Sharjah

Fujairah

Fujairah Port

United Kingdom

England

Scotland

Several hundred crannógs in Scotland

United States

Alabama

Gaillard Island, is an artificially created island located in Mobile Bay near Mobile, Alabama. It was built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, using sand and mud dredged from the Mobile Bay ship channel and elsewhere. The island is an important site for colonial nesting seabirds and shore birds in coastal Alabama and has been the only nesting site for brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) in Alabama - first discovered in 1983.

Alaska

Northstar Island, an island built for oil drilling and extraction from the Northstar Oil Pool in the Beaufort Sea.

Kentucky

Shippingport, a former town now within the boundaries of Louisville that became an island in 1825 when the Louisville and Portland Canal was built as a bypass of the Falls of the Ohio.

Michigan

Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan

New Jersey/Delaware

Artificial Island, New Jersey (Alloway Township, New Jersey)/a tiny portion of Delaware

New York

Washington

Harbor Island (Seattle)
Duck Island, in Green Lake Park, Seattle.

Wisconsin

Door County (north of the canal)

Land disconnected by artificial canals

Africa has been separated from Eurasia by the Suez Canal^{[clarification needed]}
Barnegat Peninsula, New Jersey, United States (Point Pleasant Canal)
Cape Cod, Massachusetts, United States (Cape Cod Canal)
Cape Henlopen, Rehoboth Beach, Delaware, and environs (Lewes and Rehoboth Canal)
Cape Island, New Jersey, United States (Cape May Canal)
Cijin/Kaohsiung Port, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Delmarva Peninsula, United States (Chesapeake & Delaware Canal; lockless)
Western Europe (Rhône–Rhine Canal and rivers)
Fenwick Island, Delaware and Maryland, United States (Assawoman Canal)
Southern Florida (Okeechobee Waterway)
Southeastern New Jersey (Delaware and Raritan Canal)
Part of North Carolina (Alligator-Pungo Canal)
Peloponnese, Greece (Corinth Canal; lockless)
Southern Sweden (Göta Canal and Trollhätte Canal and rivers)
Sviyazhsk, Russia
Eastern United States and southeastern Canada (Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal and Chicago River, Mississippi River, Great Lakes, St. Lawrence Seaway)
Virginia Beach and Norfolk, Virginia, United States (Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal)
Eastern Virginia and North Carolina, United States (Dismal Swamp Canal)
Potonggang-guyok, North Korea, between Pothong River and Pothonggang Canal
Sääminginsalo, Saimaa, Finland

Former hilltops in artificial lakes

Barro Colorado Island, a former hilltop in the Panama Canal Zone, Panama
René-Levasseur Island, Québec, Canada

References

N. China port city to create artificial island in 4 years

Google Satellite

https://www.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/businessandfinance/050616/html/050616en03006.htm

http://dome.mit.edu/handle/1721.3/150194 https://www.flickr.com/photos/chrisjunker/4887773292 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-01-28. Retrieved 2016-01-22. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-08-24. Retrieved 2016-01-22. http://www5.picturepush.com/photo/a/8618398/img/8618398.bmp "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-01-28. Retrieved 2016-01-22.

"港澳下周同步實施報失證件及離境手續新措施". RTHK. 8 January 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-02-14.

http://hk.centamap.com/gc/centamaplocation.aspx?x=828494&y=821153&sx=828494.32&sy=821153.82&z=5&lg=b5

http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/1997/photo/ch14/il.jpg http://my.tdctrade.com/photolib/hk/0400005L.jpg http://www.tsingma.com.hk/Web_pages/Intro_tmca/ting_kau_bridge.jpg Satellite view

"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2016-01-22. Satellite view

"Google Maps".

"SWHEPP".

Wong, Raymond; "A Technical and Project Review of the 10 Airport Core Projects and their Influence on Current Developments"

Banpo Seorae Island 반포 서래섬

"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-11-08. Retrieved 2015-01-01.

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_islands

Khazar Khaganate

c. 650–969

Khazar Khaganate, 650–850

Status

Khaganate

Capital

Balanjar (c. 650–720)
Samandar (720–750)
Atil (750–c. 965–969)

Common languages

Oghuric^[1] (lingua franca)
Old Turkic^[1] (dynastic, spoken)
Alanian^[1] (spoken)

Religion

• c. 650

• 8th century

• 9th century

• 9th century

• 9th century

• 9th century

• 10th century

• 10th century

• 10th century

• 11th century

Historical era

• Established

c. 650

• Sviatoslav's sacking and razing of Atil

969

Area

850 est.^[4]

3,000,000 km² (1,200,000 sq mi)

900 est.^[5]

1,000,000 km² (390,000 sq mi)

Currency

Yarmaq

Preceded by

Succeeded by

	Western Turkic Khaganate
	Old Great Bulgaria

Cumania
Pechenegs
Kievan Rus'

Part of a series on the
History of Tatarstan

Great Bulgaria Turco-Mongols Great Tartary Volga Bulgaria Kipchaks Mongol invasion Golden Horde Khanate of Kazan Muscovy Kazan Governorate Tatar ASSR Republic of Tatarstan
v t e

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars

Umayyad Caliphate

ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة

661–750

The Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE

Status

Empire

Capital

Damascus (661–744)
Harran (744–750)

Common languages

Official:
Classical Arabic
Official in certain regions until 700:
Coptic, Greek, Latin, Persian
Other languages:
Aramaic, Turkic, Berber, African Romance, Armenian, Mozarabic, Sindhi, Georgian, Prakrit, Kurdish

Religion

Islam

Government

Hereditary caliphate

Caliph

• 661–680

Mu'awiya I (first)

• 744–750

Marwan II (last)

History

• Hasan–Muawiya treaty

661

• Abbasid Revolution

750

Area

720^[1]

11,100,000 km² (4,300,000 sq mi)

Currency

Dinar (gold coin)
Dirham (silver coin)
Fals (copper coin)

Preceded by

Succeeded by

	Rashidun Caliphate
	Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
	Visigothic Kingdom
	Exarchate of Africa
	Kingdom of the Aurès
	Kingdom of Altava
	Brahman dynasty of Sindh
	Hephthalite Empire

Abbasid Caliphate
Emirate of Córdoba
Barghawata
Emirate of Nekor
Emirate of Tlemcen
Bavand dynasty

The Umayyad Caliphate^{[pron 1]} (661–750 CE) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, also known as the Umayyads (Arabic: ٱلْأُمَوِيُّون, al-ʾUmawīyūn, or بَنُو أُمَيَّة, Banū ʾUmayya, "Sons of Umayya"). Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member of the clan. The family established dynastic, hereditary rule with Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Greater Syria, who became caliph after the end of the First Fitna in 661. After Mu'awiya's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the Second Fitna,^[5] and power eventually fell to Marwan I, from another branch of the clan. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, with Damascus as their capital.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate

Umayyad dynasty بَنُو أُمَيَّةَ الأمويون

Parent family	Banu Abd-Shams of the Quraysh
Country	Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) (756–1031)
Place of origin	Mecca, Arabia
Founded	661
Founder	Mu'awiya I
Titles	Caliph (Umayyad Caliphate) Emir (Emirate of Cordoba) Caliph (Caliphate of Cordoba)

The Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: بَنُو أُمَيَّةَ, romanized: Banū Umayya, lit. 'Sons of Umayya') or Umayyads (Arabic: الأمويون, romanized: al-Umawiyyūn) were the ruling family of the Caliphate between 661 and 750 and later of al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) between 756 and 1031. In the pre-Islamic period, they were a prominent clan of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh, descended from Umayya ibn Abd Shams. Despite staunch opposition to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Umayyads embraced Islam before the latter's death in 632. Uthman, an early companion of Muhammad from the Umayyad clan, was the third Rashidun caliph, ruling in 644–656, while other members held various governorships. One of these governors, Mu'awiya I of Syria, opposed Caliph Ali in the First Muslim Civil War (656–661) and afterward founded the Umayyad Caliphate with its capital in Damascus. This marked the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty, the first hereditary dynasty in the history of Islam, and the only one to rule over the entire Islamic world of its time.

Umayyad authority was challenged in the Second Muslim Civil War, during which the Sufyanid line of Mu'awiya was replaced in 684 by Marwan I, who founded the Marwanid line of Umayyad caliphs, which restored the dynasty's rule over the Caliphate. The Umayyads drove on the early Muslim conquests, conquering the Maghreb, Hispania, Central Asia, and Sind, but the constant warfare exhausted the state's military resources, while Alid and Kharijite revolts and tribal rivalries weakened the state from within. Finally, in 750 the Abbasids overthrew Caliph Marwan II and massacred most of the family. One of the survivors, Abd al-Rahman, a grandson of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, escaped to Muslim Spain, where he founded the Emirate of Córdoba, which his descendant, Abd al-Rahman III, elevated to the status of a caliphate in 929. After a relatively short golden age, the Caliphate of Córdoba disintegrated into several independent taifa kingdoms in 1031, thus marking the political end of the Umayyad dynasty.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty

From top to bottom and left to right: al-Zahrawi, Al-Biruni, Ibn al-Nafis, Avicenna, Averroes, Ibn Firnas, Alhazen, Muhammad al-Idrisi, Ismail al-Jazari, Ibn Taymiyyah

Islamic Golden Age

8th century – 14th century

Monarch(s)

Umayyad, Abbasid, Samanid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk

Leader(s)

← Preceded by
Rashidun Caliphate

Followed by →
Timurid Renaissance
Age of the gunpowder empires

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of scientific, economic and cultural flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.^[1]^[2]^[3]

This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom, which saw scholars from all over the Muslim world flock to Baghdad, the world's largest city by then, to translate the known world's classical knowledge into Arabic and Persian.^[4] The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.^[5]

There are a few alternative timelines. Some scholars extend the end date of the golden age to around 1350, including the Timurid Renaissance within it,^[6]^[7] while others place the end of the Islamic Golden Age as late as the end of 15th to 16th centuries, including the rise of the Islamic gunpowder empires.^[1]^[2]^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age

The plague of Amwas (Arabic: طاعون عمواس, romanized: ṭāʿūn ʿAmwās), also spelled plague of Emmaus, was a bubonic plague epidemic that afflicted Islamic Syria in 638–639, during the first plague pandemic and toward the end of the Muslim conquest of the region. It was likely a reemergence of the mid-6th-century Plague of Justinian. Called after Amwas in Palestine, the principal camp of the Muslim Arab army, the plague killed up to 25,000 soldiers and their relatives, including most of the army's high command, and caused considerable loss of life and displacement among the indigenous Christians of Syria. The appointment of Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan to the governorship of Syria in the wake of the commanders' deaths paved the way for his establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661, while recurrences of the disease may have contributed to the Umayyad dynasty's downfall in 750. Depopulation in the Syrian countryside may have been a factor in the resettlement of the land by the Arabs unlike in other conquered regions where the Arabs largely secluded themselves to new garrison cities.

The plague of Amwas received more attention in the Arabic sources than any other epidemic until the 14th-century Black Death. Traditional narratives about reactions to the plague of Amwas by Caliph Umar and his top commander Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah informed medieval Muslim theological responses to epidemics, including the Black Death. Principles derived from the narratives were cited in debates about predestination and free will, prohibitions on fleeing or entering plague-affected lands and contagion.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas

The Khuni, Huni or Chuni were a people of the North Caucasus during late antiquity. They have sometimes been referred to as the North Caucasian Huns and are often assumed to be related to the Huns who later entered Eastern Europe. However, the ethnolinguistic and geographical origins of the Khuni are unclear.

The first contemporaneous reference to the Khuni may be by Dionysius Periegetes and Claudius Ptolemy's Geography, in the 2nd century CE, when they are said to be living near the Caspian Sea.

According to Agathangelos, there were Huns living among the peoples of the Caucasus in 227.

In 535 or 537, an Armenian missionary team headed by the bishop Kardost baptized many of the North Caucasian Huns.^[1] The Syriac source reporting this event also indicates that a writing system for Hunnic was developed.^[2]

Huns are said to have established a polity in Daghestan in the 6th century CE. This may have incorporated numerous indigenous Caucasian peoples.

In 682 Bishop Israel of Caucasian Albania led an unsuccessful delegation to convert Alp Iluetuer, the ruler of the Caucasian Huns, to Christianity. It has been suggested that Iluetuer is a corruption of the Khazar title elteber ("client-ruler) and that this people was subordinate to Khazar rulers from the mid to late 7th century. They are frequently described as being allied with the Khazars in their various wars of the period, particularly against the Caliphate.

Little is known about their fate after the early 8th century. It is likely that they became incorporated into the Khazar Khaganate. However, it is likely that they survived in some form or another for several centuries, possibly even until the 11th century.

Some modern Kumyk authors consider Caucasian Huns to be their ancestors; they also refer to their early medieval polity as Djidan (for reasons unknown).^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasian_Huns

Obadiah was the name of a Khazar ruler of the late eighth or early ninth century. He is described as coming from among "the sons of the sons" of Bulan, but whether this should be taken literally to mean that he was Bulan's grandson, or figuratively to imply a more remote descent, is unclear. He was succeeded by his son Hezekiah.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obadiah_(Khazar)

Zachariah was a Khagan of the Khazars, reported in the account of St. Cyril. The dates of his reign are unknown but he was khagan during Cyril's visit to Khazaria in 861.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zachariah_(Khazar)

Joseph ben Aaron was king of the Khazars during the 950s and 960s. Joseph was the son of Aaron II, a Khazar ruler who defeated a Byzantine-inspired war against Khazaria on numerous fronts. Joseph's wife (or probably, one of many wives) was the daughter of the king of the Alans.

Whether Joseph was the Khagan or the Bek of the Khazars is contested among historians. He describes leading Khazar armies which seems to imply the role of the Bek. However, as he does not refer to a co-ruler in his writings, it is possible that by his time the two-king system had been abandoned altogether. (see Khazar Kingship).

Joseph actively sought contact with Jews elsewhere in the diaspora. He corresponded with Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a rabbi in Cordoba, and invited him to settle in Khazaria. He is also mentioned in the Schechter Letter.

Joseph was involved in wars against the Kievan Rus and the Pechenegs, as well as sporadic fighting with the Byzantines in the Crimea. He reported that he was allied with the Muslim states around the Caspian Sea against Varangian marauders from Rus' and Scandinavia.

Joseph's ultimate fate is unknown. As the destruction of the Khazar empire by Sviatoslav I of Kiev occurred soon after his correspondence with Hasdai (in 967 or 969), it is possible that Joseph was ruler during the Khaganate's collapse.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_(Khazar)

Nisi ben Menasseh or Nisi ben Moses was a Jewish Turkic ruler of the Khazars mentioned in the Khazar Correspondence. He probably reigned in the mid to late 9th century CE. Little is known about his reign. As with other Bulanid rulers, it is unclear whether he was Khagan or Khagan Bek of the Khazars, although the latter is more likely. His son, Aaron ben Nisi, is also mentioned as a Khazar ruler by the same source.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisi_ben_Menasseh

Hazer Tarkhan was a general (tarkhan is both a military rank and, in some cases, a personal name) who led a Khazar army of 40,000 men in the failed defense of Atil in 737 CE. He was ambushed and killed by Kawthar, the lieutenant of Marwan ibn Muhammad (later Caliph Marwan II). Following his death the Khazars sued for peace.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazer_Tarkhan

John of Gothia (Greek: ᾿Ιωάννης ἐπίσκοπος τῆς Γοτθίας, Iōánnēs epískopos tēs Gotthiás^[a]; ? – c. 791 AD) was a Crimean Gothic metropolitan bishop of Doros, and rebel leader who overthrew and briefly expelled the Khazars from Gothia in 787. He was canonized as an Eastern Orthodox saint.

John of Gothia was born to a Crimean Gothic family, the son of Leon and Fotina, in Partenit, Crimea, where he grew up to become a bishop. John went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and stayed there for three years. From there he became a bishop in Georgia in 758, until he returned to Gothia and became metropolitan bishop of Doros.

In 787 John led a revolt against Khazar domination of Gothia. The Khazar garrison and Tudun were expelled from Doros, and the rebels seized the mountain passes leading into the country. The Khazars however managed to retake the city in less than a year, and John was imprisoned in Phoulloi. He later managed to escape, and sought refuge in Amastris in the Byzantine Empire, where he died in 791. His remains were brought home to a church on the Ayu-Dag mountain, Partenit, Crimea, where a memorial to him has been built. John was canonized as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church. His memorial day is 26 June.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Gothia

Taman Peninsula
A typical mud volcano near the village of Taman
Taman Peninsula Show map of Krasnodar KraiShow map of European RussiaShow all
Coordinates: 45°11′8″N 36°47′28″ECoordinates: 45°11′8″N 36°47′28″E
Location	Krasnodar Krai, Russia

The Taman Peninsula (Russian: Тама́нский полуо́стров, romanized: Tamanskiy poluostrov) is a peninsula in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, which borders the Sea of Azov to the north, the Kerch Strait to the west and the Black Sea to the south.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taman_Peninsula

Samiran was a Khazar settlement in the Caucasus from roughly the 7th through the 10th centuries CE.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samiran

Medieval fortified town near Samosdelka

Samosdelka (Russian: Самосделка) is a fishing village in southern Russia (about 40 km south-south-west of the city of Astrakhan) near which archaeologists reported in September 2008 that they had found the remains of Atil, the capital of the medieval Khazar kingdom.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samosdelka

Chersonesus
History
Χερσόνησος Херсонес
St. Vladimir's Cathedral overlooks the extensive excavations of Chersonesus.
Shown within Sevastopol Show map of SevastopolShow map of UkraineShow map of RussiaShow all
Alternative name	Chersonese, Chersonesos, Cherson
Location	Gagarin Raion, Sevastopol
Region	Taurica
Coordinates	44°36′42″N 33°29′36″ECoordinates: 44°36′42″N 33°29′36″E
Type	Settlement
Part of	National Preserve "Khersones Tavriysky"
Area	30 ha (74 acres)
Builder	Settlers from Heraclea Pontica
Founded	6th century BC
Abandoned	Around 1400 AD
Periods	Classical Greece to Late Middle Ages
Cultures	Greek, Roman, Hunnic, Byzantine
Site notes
Excavation dates	1827
Management	The National Preserve of Tauric Chersonesos
Website	www.chersonesos.org

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Ancient city of Tauric Chersonese
Part of	Ancient City of Tauric Chersonese and its Chora
Criteria	Cultural: (ii), (v)
Reference	1411
Inscription	2013 (37th Session)
Area	42.8 ha (0.165 sq mi)
Buffer zone	207.2 ha (0.800 sq mi)
Website	chersonesos-sev.ru

Chersonesus (Ancient Greek: Χερσόνησος, romanized: Khersónēsos; Latin: Chersonesus; modern Russian and Ukrainian: Херсоне́с, Khersones; also rendered as Chersonese, Chersonesos, contracted in medieval Greek to Cherson Χερσών; Old East Slavic: Корсунь, Korsun) is an ancient Greek colony founded approximately 2,500 years ago in the southwestern part of the Crimean Peninsula. Settlers from Heraclea Pontica in Bithynia established the colony in the 6th century BC.

The ancient city is located on the shore of the Black Sea on the outskirts of present-day Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula, where it is referred to as Khersones. The site is part of the National Preserve of Tauric Chersonesos. The name Chersonesos in Greek means "peninsula" and aptly describes the site on which the colony was established. It should not be confused with the Tauric Chersonese, a name often applied to the whole of the southern Crimea.

During much of the classical period, Chersonesus operated as a democracy ruled by a group of elected archons and a council called the Demiurgoi. As time passed, the government grew more oligarchic, with power concentrated in the hands of the archons.^[1] A form of oath sworn by all the citizens from the 3rd century BC onwards has survived to the present day.^[2]^[3] In 2013 UNESCO listed Chersonesus as a World Heritage Site.^[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chersonesus

Oghuz Turks
Regions with significant populations
Before 11th century: Turkestan From 11th century: Anatolia · Caucasus · Greater Khorasan · Cyprus · Mesopotamia · Balkans · North Africa Historical: Yedisan · Crimea
Languages
Oghuz languages
Religion
Predominantly Islam (Sunni · Alevi · Bektashi · Twelver Shia) Minority: Irreligion · Christianity · Judaism Historical: Shamanism · Tengrism
Related ethnic groups
Azerbaijanis^[1] · Turkmens^[1] · Turkish people^[1]

The Old World in 600 AD

The Oghuz Turks (Middle Turkic: ٱغُز, romanized: Oγuz, Ottoman Turkish: اوغوز, romanized: Oġuz) were a western Turkic people who spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family.^[2] In the 8th century, they formed a tribal confederation conventionally named the Oghuz Yabgu State in Central Asia. The name Oghuz is a Common Turkic word for "tribe". Byzantine sources call the Oghuz the Uzes (Οὐ̑ζοι, Ouzoi).^[3] By the 10th century, Islamic sources were calling them Muslim Turkmens, as opposed to Tengrist or Buddhist. By the 12th century, this term had passed into Byzantine usage and the Oghuzes were overwhelmingly Muslim.^[4] The term "Oghuz" was gradually supplanted among the Turks themselves by the terms Turkmen and Turcoman (Ottoman Turkish: تركمن, romanized: Türkmen or Türkmân), from the mid-10th century on, a process which was completed by the beginning of the 13th century.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oghuz_Turks

Uyghur Khaganate

𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣
Toquz Oγuz budun

744–840

Territory of the Uyghur Khaganate (745-850), and main contemporary polities in continental Asia.^[1]

Status

Khaganate (Nomadic empire)

Capital

Ötüken^[2]
Ordu-Baliq (later)

Common languages

Religion

Government

Monarchy

Khagan

• 744–747

Qutlugh Bilge Köl (first)

• 841–847

Enian Qaghan (last)

History

• Established

744

• Disestablished

840

Area

800^[3]^[4]

3,100,000 km² (1,200,000 sq mi)

Preceded by

Succeeded by

Second Turkic Khaganate

Kara-Khanid Khanate
Gansu Uyghur Kingdom
Kingdom of Qocho
Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate

The Uyghur Khaganate (also Uyghur Empire or Uighur Khaganate, self defined as Toquz-Oghuz country;^[5]^[6]^[7] Old Turkic: 𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, romanized: Toquz Oγuz budun, Tang-era names, with modern Hanyu Pinyin: traditional Chinese: 回鶻; simplified Chinese: 回鹘; pinyin: Huíhú or traditional Chinese: 回紇; simplified Chinese: 回纥; pinyin: Huíhé) was a Turkic empire^[8] that existed for about a century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. They were a tribal confederation under the Orkhon Uyghur (回鶻) nobility, referred to by the Chinese as the Jiu Xing ("Nine Clans"), a calque of the name Toquz Oghuz or Toquz Tughluq.^[9]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate

Aral Sea
Uzbek: Orol dengizi, Kazakh: Арал теңізі, Karakalpak: Aral teńizi
The Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2014 (right)
Aral Sea
Location	Kazakhstan - Uzbekistan, Central Asia
Coordinates	45°N 60°ECoordinates: 45°N 60°E
Type	endorheic, natural lake, reservoir (North)
Primary inflows	North: Syr Darya South: groundwater only (previously the Amu Darya)
Catchment area	1,549,000 km² (598,100 sq mi)
Basin countries


List ^[1]
Surface area	68,000 km² (26,300 sq mi) (1960, one lake) 28,687 km² (11,076 sq mi) (1998, two lakes) 17,160 km² (6,626 sq mi) (2004, four lakes) North: 3,300 km² (1,270 sq mi) (2008) South: 3,500 km² (1,350 sq mi) (2005)
Average depth	North: 8.7 m (29 ft) (2014)^{[citation needed]} South: 14–15 m (46–49 ft) (2005)
Max. depth	North: 42 m (138 ft) (2008)^[2] 30 m (98 ft) (2003) South: 37–40 m (121–131 ft) (2005) 102 m (335 ft) (1989)
Water volume	North: 27 km³ (6 cu mi) (2007)^{[citation needed]}
Surface elevation	North: 42 m (138 ft) (2011) South: 29 m (95 ft) (2007) 53.4 m (175 ft) (1960)^[3]

The Aral Sea (/ˈærəl/ ARR-əl)^[4]^[a] was an endorheic lake lying between Kazakhstan to its north and Uzbekistan to its south which began shrinking in the 1960s and largely dried up by the 2010s. It was in the Aktobe and Kyzylorda Regions of Kazakhstan and the Karakalpakstan autonomous region of Uzbekistan. The name roughly translates from Mongolic and Turkic languages to "Sea of Islands", referring to over 1,100 islands that had dotted its waters. The Aral Sea drainage basin encompasses Uzbekistan and parts of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and Iran.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_Sea

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Khazar Correspondence

The Khazar Correspondence is a set of documents, which are alleged to date from the 950s or 960s, and to be letters between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and Joseph Khagan of the Khazars. The Correspondence is one of only a few documents attributed to a Khazar author, and potentially one of only a small number of primary sources on Khazar history.

The authenticity of the correspondence has been challenged, on the grounds that it has little in common with the otherwise attested chronology, language, borders and economy of the Khazars at the time.

Ostensibly it gives both account of the Khazar conversion to Judaism and of its progress in subsequent generations, as well as potentially showing that within a generation of the fall of the Khazar empire in 969, the Khazar state was still militarily powerful and received tribute from several polities.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_Correspondence

The Schechter Letter,^{[citation needed]} also called the Genizah Letter^[1] or Cambridge Document,^{[citation needed]} was discovered in the Cairo Geniza by Solomon Schechter in 1912.^[1] It is an anonymous Khazar letter from the Genizah of Cairo, discussing several matters including the wars of the early 940s, involving the Byzantine Empire, the Khazar Khaganate, and Kievan Rus'.^[1] Scholars have debated its authenticity.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schechter_Letter

A genizah (/ɡɛˈniːzə/; Hebrew: גניזה, lit. 'storage', also geniza; plural: genizot[h] or genizahs)^[2] is a storage area in a Jewish synagogue or cemetery designated for the temporary storage of worn-out Hebrew-language books and papers on religious topics prior to proper cemetery burial.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genizah#The_Cairo_Genizah

Khosrow I 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩
King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran^[a]
Plate depicting Khosrow I.
Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire
Reign	13 September 531 – February 579
Predecessor	Kavad I
Successor	Hormizd IV

Born	512–514 Ardestan, Sasanian Empire
Died	February 579 (aged 65–67) Ctesiphon, Sasanian Empire
Spouse	Khazar princess
Issue	Hormizd IV Anoshazad Yazdandar
House	House of Sasan
Father	Kavad I
Mother	Ispahbudhan noblewoman
Religion	Zoroastrianism

Khosrow I (also spelled Khosrau, Khusro or Chosroes; Middle Persian: 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩; New Persian: خسرو [xosˈroʊ̯]), traditionally known by his epithet of Anushirvan (انوشيروان [ænuːʃi:rˈvɔːn] "the Immortal Soul"), was the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 531 to 579. He was the son and successor of Kavad I (r. 488–496, 498/9–531).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_I

A lingua franca (/ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/; lit. 'Frankish tongue'; for plurals see § Usage notes),^[1] also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a native language or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native languages.^[2]

Lingua francas have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities.^[3]^[4] The term is taken from the medieval Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a Romance-based pidgin language used especially by traders in the Mediterranean Basin from the 11th to the 19th centuries.^[5] A world language—a language spoken internationally and by many people—is a language that may function as a global lingua franca.^{[citation needed]}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca

A creole language,^[2]^[3]^[4] or simply creole, is a stable natural language that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often, a pidgin), and then that form expanding and elaborating into a full-fledged language with native speakers, all within a fairly brief period of time.^[5] While the concept is similar to that of a mixed or hybrid language, creoles are often characterized by a tendency to systematize their inherited grammar (e.g., by eliminating irregularities or regularizing the conjugation of otherwise irregular verbs). Like any language, creoles are characterized by a consistent system of grammar, possess large stable vocabularies, and are acquired by children as their native language.^[6] These three features distinguish a creole language from a pidgin.^[7] Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a subfield of linguistics. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language

Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, public or jurisdictional demands for justice by capital punishment, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein a monarch's servants are killed in order for them to continue to serve their master in the next life. Closely related practices found in some tribal societies are cannibalism and headhunting.^[1]

Human sacrifice was practiced in many human societies beginning in prehistoric times. By the Iron Age (1st millennium BCE), with the associated developments in religion (the Axial Age), human sacrifice was becoming less common throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia, and came to be looked down upon as barbaric during classical antiquity.^{[citation needed]} In the Americas, however, human sacrifice continued to be practiced, by some, to varying degrees until the European colonization of the Americas. Today, human sacrifice has become extremely rare.

Modern secular laws treat human sacrifices as tantamount to murder.^[2]^[3] Most major religions in the modern day condemn the practice. For example, the Hebrew Bible prohibits murder and human sacrifice to Moloch.^[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sacrifice

Isinglass

Swim bladder of a rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus)

Isinglass (/ˈaɪzɪŋɡlæs, -ɡlɑːs/ EYE-zing-gla(h)ss) is a substance obtained from the dried swim bladders of fish. It is a form of collagen used mainly for the clarification or fining of some beer and wine. It can also be cooked into a paste for specialised gluing purposes.

The English word origin is from the obsolete Dutch huizenblaas – huizen is a kind of sturgeon, and blaas is a bladder,^[1] or German Hausenblase, meaning essentially the same.^[2]

Although originally made exclusively from sturgeon, especially beluga, in 1795 an invention by William Murdoch facilitated a cheap substitute using cod. This was extensively used in Britain in place of Russian isinglass, and in the US hake was important. In modern British brewing all commercial isinglass products are blends of material from a limited range of tropical fish.^[3] The bladders, once removed from the fish, processed, and dried, are formed into various shapes for use.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isinglass

Third Perso-Turkic War

Part of Göktürk–Persian wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628

Date	627–629
Location	Transcaucasia
Result	Göktürk victory

Belligerents

Sasanian Empire
Iberia

Western Turkic Khaganate

Byzantine Empire

Commanders and leaders

Khosrow II

Shahraplakan
Stephen I of Iberia

Tong Yabghu Qaghan
Böri Shad

Heraclius

The Third Perso-Turkic War was the third and final conflict between the Sasanian Empire and the Western Turkic Khaganate. Unlike the previous two wars, it was not fought in Central Asia, but in Transcaucasia. Hostilities were initiated in 627 AD by Tong Yabghu Qaghan of the Western Göktürks and Emperor Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire. Opposing them were the Sassanid Persians, allied with the Avars. The war was fought against the background of the last Byzantine-Sassanid War and served as a prelude to the dramatic events that changed the balance of powers in the Middle East for centuries to come (Battle of Nineveh, Islamic conquest of Persia).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War

Justinian II

Emperor of the Romans

Young Justinian II, mosaic in the basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna.^[1]^[a]

Byzantine emperor

1st reign

10 July 685 – 695

Predecessor

Constantine IV

Successor

Leontius

2nd reign

21 August 705 –
4 November 711

Predecessor

Tiberius III

Successor

Philippicus

Co-emperor

Tiberius (706–711)

Born

668 or 669
Constantinople
(now Istanbul, Turkey)

Died

4 November 711 (aged 42)^[b]
Damatrys, Opsikion
(now Samandıra, Turkey)

Spouse

Eudokia
Theodora of Khazaria

Issue

Anastasia
Tiberius

Names
Iustinianus^[c]

Father

Mother

Religion

Chalcedonian Christianity

Justinian II (Latin: Iustinianus; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός, romanized: Ioustiniānós; 668/69 – 4 November 711), nicknamed "the Slit-Nosed" (Latin: Rhinotmetus; Greek: ὁ Ῥινότμητος, romanized: ho Rhīnótmētos), was the last Byzantine emperor of the Heraclian dynasty, reigning from 685 to 695 and again from 705 to 711. Like his namesake, Justinian I, Justinian II was an ambitious and passionate ruler who was keen to restore the Roman Empire to its former glories. However, he responded brutally to any opposition to his will and lacked the finesse of his father, Constantine IV.^[6] Consequently, he generated enormous opposition to his reign, resulting in his deposition in 695 in a popular uprising. He only returned to the throne in 705 with the help of a Bulgar and Slav army. His second reign was even more despotic than the first, and it too saw his eventual overthrow in 711. He was abandoned by his army, who turned on him before killing him.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_II

Byzantine army
Part of a series on the

Structural history
East Roman army 'Classical' Byzantine army themes tagmata Hetaireia Komnenian-era army pronoia) Palaiologan-era army allagia Varangian Guard Generals Magister militum Domestic of the Schools Grand Domestic Stratopedarches Protostrator
Byzantine navy: Greek fire Dromon Admirals (Droungarios of the Fleet Megas doux)
Campaign history
Lists of wars, revolts and civil wars, and battles
Strategy and tactics
Tactics Siege warfare Military manuals Fortifications (Walls of Constantinople)
v t e

The Hetaireia (Greek: Ἑταιρεία, Latinized as hetaeria) was a term for a corps of bodyguards during the Byzantine Empire.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetaireia

(Redirected from Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami)

Yazid ibn Asid ibn Zafir al-Sulami
Died	after 779/780
Allegiance	Abbasid Caliphate
Years of service	ca. 750 – ca.780
Wars	Arab–Khazar wars, Arab–Byzantine wars
Relations	Asid ibn Zafir al-Sulami (father)

Yazid ibn Asid ibn Zafir al-Sulami or Yazid ibn Usayd ibn Zafir al-Sulami (Arabic: يزيد بن أسيد السلمي) was an Arab general and governor in the service of the early Abbasid Caliphate. He was active mostly in the Caliphate's northwestern frontier region, serving as governor of Arminiya and the Jazira and fighting against the Byzantine Empire and the Khazars.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazid_ibn_Asid_ibn_Zafir_al-Sulami

The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains.^[1]^[2] The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, which are sometimes collectively known as the Caucasian States. The total area of these countries measures about 186,100 square kilometres (71,850 square miles).^[3] The South Caucasus and the North Caucasus together comprise the larger Caucasus geographical region that divides Eurasia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Caucasus

Kars oblast Карсская область
Oblast
Coat of arms
Administrative map of the Kars Oblast
Country	Russian Empire
Viceroyalty	Caucasus
Established	1878
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk	3 March 1918
Capital	Kars
Area
• Total	18,739.50 km² (7,235.36 sq mi)
Population (1916)
• Total	364,214
• Density	19/km² (50/sq mi)
• Urban	12.30%
• Rural	87.70%

The Kars oblast^[a] was a province (oblast) of the Caucasus Viceroyalty of the Russian Empire between 1878 and 1917. Its capital was the city of Kars, presently in Turkey. The oblast bordered the Ottoman Empire to the west, the Batum Oblast (in 1883–1903 part of the Kutaisi Governorate) to the north, the Tiflis Governorate to the northeast, and the Erivan Governorate to the east. The Kars oblast included parts of the contemporary provinces of Kars, Ardahan, and Erzurum Province of Turkey, and the Amasia Community of the Shirak Province of Armenia.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kars_oblast

Eyālet-i Čildir

Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire

1578–1845

The Childir Eyalet in 1609

Capital

Çıldır 1578-1628;
Ahıska 1628-1829
Oltu 1829-1845

History

• Battle of Çıldır

1578

• Disestablished

1845

Preceded by

Succeeded by

	Principality of Guria
	Principality of Meskheti

Trabzon Eyalet
Kars Eyalet
Tiflis Governorate

Today part of

Georgia
Turkey

The Eyalet of Childir^[1] (Ottoman Turkish: ایالت ایالت چلدر; Eyālet-i Çıldır)^[2] or Akhalzik^[3]^{[nb 1]} was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire in the Southwestern Caucasus. The area of the former Çıldır Eyalet is now divided between Samtskhe-Javakheti and the Autonomous Republic of Adjara in Georgia and provinces of Artvin, Ardahan and Erzurum in Turkey. The administrative center was Çıldır between 1578 and 1628, Ahıska between 1628 and 1829, and Oltu between 1829 and 1845.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childir_Eyalet

Erzurum Eyalet

ایالت ارضروم (Ottoman Turkish)
Eyālet-i Erżurūm

Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire

1533–1867

The Erzurum Eyalet in 1609

Capital

Erzurum^[1]

History

• Established

1533

• Disestablished

1867

Preceded by

Succeeded by

Safavid Empire

Erzurum Vilayet
Trebizond Eyalet

Today part of

Turkey

The Erzurum Eyalet (Ottoman Turkish: ایالت ارضروم, romanized: Eyālet-i Erżurūm)^[2] was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. It was established after the conquest of Western Armenia by the Ottoman Empire. Its reported area in the 19th century was 11,463 square miles (29,690 km²).^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erzurum_Eyalet

With the incorporation of the region into Russian Empire, between 1879–1882 more than 110,000 people from the Kars oblast and 30,000 from the Batum oblast migrated to the new borders of the Ottoman Empire,^[4] about 80% were Muslim.^[5] In their stead, Christian settlers, mostly consisting of Armenians, Greeks and Russians,^[2] were settled throughout the province. The Armenians, who eventually came to form the largest ethnic group in the region were largely composed of immigrants from the Six Vilayets escaping persecution in the Ottoman Empire.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kars_oblast

Six Vilayets ولايت سته
Vilayets of Ottoman Empire
The six Armenian provinces in early 20th century.
History



Today part of	Turkey

The Six Vilayets (Ottoman Turkish: ولايت سته, Vilâyat-ı Sitte), the Six Provinces, or the Six Armenian Vilayets (Armenian: Վեց հայկական վիլայեթներ Vets' haykakan vilayet'ner; Turkish: Altı vilayet, Altı il^[1]) were the main Armenian-populated vilayets ("provinces") of the Ottoman Empire. These were Van, Erzurum, Mamuret-ul-Aziz, Bitlis, Diyarbekir and Sivas.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Vilayets

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Zaza people)

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (September 2021)

Zazas
Total population
Geographic distribution of Zaza speakers (darker green) among Iranian speakers^[1]
2 to 3 million^[2]
Regions with significant populations
Turkey Diaspora: Approx. 300,000^[3] Australia, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States^[4]^[5]
Languages
Zaza, Kurmanji Kurdish,^[4] and Turkish
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam (mostly Shafiʽi school but also Hanafism) significant minority Alevism^[6]

The Zazas (also known as Kird, Kirmanc or Dimili)^[7] are a people in eastern Turkey who traditionally speak the Zaza language, a western Iranian language written in the Latin script. Their heartland consists of Tunceli and Bingöl provinces and parts of Elazığ, Erzincan and Diyarbakır provinces.^[3] Zazas generally^[8] consider themselves Kurds,^[9]^[6]^[10]^[11] and are often described as Zaza Kurds by scholars.^[7]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zazas

According to Encyclopædia Iranica the endonym Dimlī or Dīmla was derived from Daylam region in Northern Iran, and appears in Armenian historical records as delmik, dlmik, which was proposed to be derived from Middle Iranian *dēlmīk meaning Daylamite. Among their neighbors the people are known mainly as Zāzā, which meant “stutterer” and was used as a pejorative. Hadank and Mckenzie attribute relative abundance of sibilants and affricates in Zaza language to explain the semantic etymology of the name.^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zazas

Armenia divided between the Russian and Ottoman empires, 1828–1917

Russian Armenia is the period of Armenian history under Russian rule from 1828, when Eastern Armenia became part of the Russian Empire following Qajar Iran's loss in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) and the subsequent ceding of its territories that included Eastern Armenia per the out coming Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.^[1]

Eastern Armenia remained part of the Russian Empire until its collapse in 1917.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Armenia

Armenian genocide
Part of World War I
Column of Armenian deportees guarded by gendarmes in Harput vilayet
Location	Ottoman Empire
Date	1915–1917^[1]^[2]
Target	Ottoman Armenians
Attack type	Genocide, death march, forced Islamization
Deaths	600,000–1.5 million^[3]
Perpetrators	Committee of Union and Progress
Trials	Ottoman Special Military Tribunal

The Armenian genocide^[a] was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches to the Syrian Desert and the forced Islamization of others, primarily women and children.

Before World War I, Armenians occupied a somewhat protected, but subordinate, place in Ottoman society. Large-scale massacres of Armenians had occurred in the 1890s and 1909. The Ottoman Empire suffered a series of military defeats and territorial losses—especially during the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars—leading to fear among CUP leaders that the Armenians would seek independence. During their invasion of Russian and Persian territory in 1914, Ottoman paramilitaries massacred local Armenians. Ottoman leaders took isolated instances of Armenian resistance as evidence of a widespread rebellion, though no such rebellion existed. Mass deportation was intended to permanently forestall the possibility of Armenian autonomy or independence.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_genocide

Sublime Ottoman State

دولت عليه عثمانیه
Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye

c. 1299–1922

Flag
(1844–1922)

Coat of arms
(1882–1922)

Motto:

دولت ابد مدت
Devlet-i Ebed-müddet
"The Eternal State"^[1]

Anthem: various^[2]^[3]

The Ottoman Empire in 1683, at the start of the Great Turkish War (1683–1699)

Status

Empire

Capital

Söğüt^[4]
(c. 1299–1331)
Nicaea (İznik)^[5]
(1331–1335)
Bursa^[6]
(1335–1363)
Adrianople (Edirne)^[6]
(1363–1453)
Constantinople (Istanbul)^[a]
(1453–1922)

Common languages

Religion

Demonym(s)

Ottoman

Government

Absolute monarchy (c. 1299–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922)
Caliphate (1517–1924)^[17]
Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
Under an authoritarian one-party military dictatorship (1913–1918)

Sultan

• c. 1299–1323/4 (first)

Osman I

• 1918–1922 (last)

Mehmed VI

Caliph

• 1517–1520 (first)

Selim I^[18]^[g]

• 1922–1924 (last)

• 1320–1331 (first)

• 1920–1922 (last)

Legislature

Imperial Council
(until 1876; 1878–1908)

General Assembly
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)

None, rule by decree
(1920–1922)

• Unelected upper house

Chamber of Notables
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)

• Elected lower house

Chamber of Deputies
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)

History

• Founded

c. 1299^[19]

• Interregnum

1402–1413

• Conquest of Constantinople

29 May 1453

• 1st Constitutional

1876–1878

• 2nd Constitutional

1908–1920

• Raid on the Sublime Porte

23 January 1913

• Sultanate abolished^[h]

1 November 1922

• Republic of Turkey established^[i]

29 October 1923

• Caliphate abolished

3 March 1924

Area

1481^[20]

1,220,000 km² (470,000 sq mi)

1521^[20]

3,400,000 km² (1,300,000 sq mi)

1683^[20]^[21]

5,200,000 km² (2,000,000 sq mi)

1913^[20]

2,550,000 km² (980,000 sq mi)

Population

• 1912^[22]

24,000,000

Currency

Various: akçe, para, sultani, kuruş (piastre), pound

Preceded by

Succeeded by

	Sultanate of Rum
	Anatolian beyliks
	Byzantine Empire
	Despotate of the Morea
	Empire of Trebizond
	Principality of Theodoro
	Second Bulgarian Empire
	Tsardom of Vidin
	Despotate of Dobruja
	Despotate of Lovech
	Serbian Despotate
	Kingdom of Bosnia
	Zeta
	Kingdom of Hungary
	Kingdom of Croatia
	League of Lezhë
	Mamluk Sultanate
	Hafsid Kingdom
	Aq Qoyunlu
	Hospitaller Tripoli
	Kingdom of Tlemcen

Turkey
Hellenic Republic
Caucasus Viceroyalty
Principality of Bulgaria
Eastern Rumelia
Albania
Kingdom of Romania
Revolutionary Serbia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Principality of Montenegro
Emirate of Asir
Kingdom of Hejaz
OETA
Mandatory Iraq
French Algeria
British Cyprus
French Tunisia
Italian Tripolitania
Italian Cyrenaica
Sheikhdom of Kuwait
Kingdom of Yemen

The Ottoman Empire,^[k] historically and colloquially the Turkish Empire,^[24] was an empire^[l] that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. It was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman^[25] tribal leader Osman I.^[26] After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and, with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed the Conqueror.^[27]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire

Bitlis Baghesh • Բաղեշ
Municipality
From top left: Ihasiye Serafhan Medrese • Bitlis Castle Tourist office • Şerefiye Mosque • Sokak Han Bitlis skyline • Pasha Hammam
Bitlis Location in Turkey
Coordinates: 38°24′00″N 42°06′30″ECoordinates: 38°24′00″N 42°06′30″E
Country	Turkey
Province	Bitlis
District	Bitlis
Government
• Mayor	Nesrullah Tanğlay (AKP)
Elevation	1,545 m (5,069 ft)
Population (2021)^[1]	53,023
Time zone	TRT (UTC+3)
Postal code	13000
Website	bitlis.bel.tr

Bitlis (Armenian: Բաղեշ, romanized: Baghesh or Paghesh;^[2] Kurdish: Bidlîs;^[3]) is a city in southeastern Turkey. It is the seat of Bitlis District and Bitlis Province.^[4] Its population is 53,023 (2021).^[1] The city is located at an elevation of 1,545 metres, 15 km from Lake Van, in the steep-sided valley of the Bitlis River, a tributary of the Tigris. The local economy is mainly based on agricultural products which include fruits, grain and tobacco. Industry is fairly limited, and deals mainly with leatherworking, manufacture of tobacco products as well as weaving and dyeing of coarse cloth. Bitlis is connected to other urban centres by road, including Tatvan on Lake Van, 25 km to the northeast, and the cities of Muş (Mush), 100 km northwest, and Diyarbakır, 200 km to the west. The climate of Bitlis can be harsh, with long winters and heavy snowfalls. Summers are hot, and often humid. Since the local elections of March 2019, the Mayor of Bitlis is Nesrullah Tanğlay.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitlis

Malatya
Metropolitan municipality
Clockwise from top: Malatya Aerial view, Kernek Square, Turgut Özal Nature Park, Malatya Governorship, New Malatya Mosque
Malatya
Coordinates: 38°20′55″N 38°19′10″ECoordinates: 38°20′55″N 38°19′10″E
Country	Turkey
Region	Eastern Anatolia
Province	Malatya
Government
• Mayor	Selahattin Gürkan (AK Party)
Area ^[1]
• District	922.16 km² (356.05 sq mi)
Elevation	954 m (3,130 ft)
Population ^[2]
• District	806,156
• District density	870/km² (2,300/sq mi)
Time zone	UTC+3 (TRT)
Postal code	44xxx
Area code	0422
Licence plate	44
Website	www.malatya.gov.tr

Malatya (Armenian: Մալաթիա, romanized: Malat'ya; Syriac ܡܠܝܛܝܢܐ Malīṭīná; Kurdish: Meletî;^[3] Ancient Greek: Μελιτηνή) is a large city in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital of Malatya Province. The city has been a human settlement for thousands of years.

In Hittite, melid or milit means "honey", offering a possible etymology for the name, which was mentioned in the contemporary sources of the time under several variations (e.g., Hittite: Malidiya^[4] and possibly also Midduwa;^[5] Akkadian: Meliddu;^[6] Urar̩tian: Meliṭeia^[6]).

Strabo says that the city was known "to the ancients"^[7] as Melitene (Ancient Greek Μελιτηνή), a name adopted by the Romans following Roman expansion into the east. According to Strabo, the inhabitants of Melitene shared with the nearby Cappadocians and Cataonians the same language and culture.

The site of ancient Melitene lies a few kilometres from the modern city in what is now the village of Arslantepe and near the district center of Battalgazi (Byzantine to Ottoman Empire). Present-day Battalgazi was the location of the city of Malatya until the 19th century, when a gradual move of the city to the present third location began. Battalgazi's official name was Eskimalatya (Old Malatya); until recently, it was a name used locally. In Turkey the city is renowned for its apricots, as up to 80% of the Turkish apricot production is provided by Malatya, giving Malatya the name kayısı diyarı ("apricot realm").^[8]

In February 2023, the city suffered huge damage as a result of the Turkey–Syria earthquake.^[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malatya

Arslantepe has been inhabited since the development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent, nearly 6,000 years ago. From the Bronze Age, the site became an administrative center of a larger region in the kingdom of Isuwa. The city was heavily fortified. The Hittites conquered the city in the fourteenth century B.C. In the Hittite language, melid or milit means "honey." The name was mentioned in the contemporary sources under several variations (e.g., Hittite: Malidiya^[9] and possibly also Midduwa;^[10] Akkadian: Meliddu;^[6] Urar̩tian: Meliṭeia^[6]).

After the end of the Hittite Empire, the city became the center of the Neo-Hittite state of Kammanu. The city continued old Hittite traditions and styles. Researchers have discovered a palace inside the city walls with statues and reliefs. A palace was erected with monumental stone sculptures of lions and the ruler. Kammanu was a vassal state of Urartu between 804 and 743.

According to Igor Diakonoff and John Greppin, there was likely an Armenian presence in Melid by 1200 BCE.^[11]

The Neo-Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1077 B.C.) forced the kingdom of Malidiya to pay tribute to Assyria. The Neo-Assyrian king Sargon II (722–705) sacked the city in 712 BC. At the same time, the Cimmerians and Scythians invaded Anatolia and the city declined. Some occupation continued on the site into the Hellenistic and Roman periods—a smithy with four ovens has been excavated from the Roman period. There was a long gap in occupation between the mid-7th century and renewed use of the site in the late 12th or early 13th century.^[12]

Archeologists first began to excavate the site of Arslantepe in the 1930s, led by French archaeologist Louis Delaporte. Since 1961 an Italian team of archaeologists, led by Marcella Frangipane in the early 21st century, has been working at the site.

From the 6th century BC, Melid was ruled by the Armenian Orontid Dynasty, who were subjects of the Achaemenid Empire. After periods of Achaemenid and Macedonian rule, Melid (Malatya) was part of the Kingdom of Lesser Armenia.

Bronze Age swords from Arslantepe, c.3000 BCE, in the Malatya Museum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malatya

Ariarathes V "Father-Loving"
coin of Ariarathes V
King of Cappadocia
Reign	163–130 BC
Predecessor	Ariarathes IV
Successor	Ariarathes VI

Born	Cappadocia
Died	circ. 130 BC Cappadocia
Spouse	Nysa of Cappadocia
Issue	Ariarathes VI 5 other unnamed children
Greek	Λευκών
Father	Ariarathes IV
Mother	Antiochis
Religion	Greek Polytheism


O: Diademed head of Ariarathes V	R: Athena holding Nike with wreath and resting hand on grounded shield, spear behind; ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ / ΑΡΙΑΡΑΘΟΥ / ΕΥΣΕΒΟΥΣ; monograms in field
Silver tetradrachm struck in Eusebia 133 BC; ref.: Simonetta 2 [1]; Λ in exergue is a greek numeral and means 30th year of reign

Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator (Greek: Ἀριαράθης Εὐσεβής Φιλοπάτωρ; reigned 163–130 BC) was a son of the preceding king Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia and queen Antiochis. He was distinguished by his contemporaries for his excellence of his character and his cultivation of philosophy and the liberal arts and is considered by some historians to have been the greatest of the kings of Cappadocia.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_V_of_Cappadocia

Yeni Cami is an example of Byzantine influence on Ottoman architecture See Pammakaristos Church

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malatya

Siirt
Municipality
View of Siirt
Siirt Location in Turkey
Coordinates: 37°55′30″N 41°56′45″ECoordinates: 37°55′30″N 41°56′45″E
Country	Turkey
Province	Siirt
District	Siirt
Government
• Elected Mayor	Berivan Helen Işık (deposed) (HDP)
Population (2021)^[1]	160,340
Time zone	TRT (UTC+3)
Website	www.siirt.bel.tr

City centre

Siirt (Arabic: سِعِرْد, romanized: Siʿird; Armenian: Սղերդ, romanized: S'gherd;^{[citation needed]} Syriac: ܣܥܪܬ, romanized: Siirt;^[2] Kurdish: Sêrt^[3]) is a city in the Siirt District of Siirt Province in Turkey.^[4] It had a population of 160,340 in 2021.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siirt

Hakkâri
Municipality
City
Hakkâri Location in Turkey
Coordinates: 37.577°N 43.739°ECoordinates: 37.577°N 43.739°E
Country	Turkey
Province	Hakkâri
District	Hakkâri
Population (2022)^[1]	60,098
Time zone	TRT (UTC+3)

Hakkâri (Turkish pronunciation: [hacːaːɾi]; Kurdish: Colemêrg^[2]), formerly known as Julamerk,^[3] (Turkish: Çölemerik) is a city and the seat of Hakkâri District in the Hakkâri Province of Turkey.^[4] The city is populated by Kurds and had a population of 60,098 in 2022.^[1]^[5]

It is located about 40 kilometres from the Iraq–Turkey border, but the distance to the nearest Iraqi border crossing (Ibrahim Khalil Border Crossing) by road is about 270 km.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakk%C3%A2ri_(city)

Hokkaidō 北海道
Prefecture and Region
Japanese transcription(s)
• Japanese	北海道
• Rōmaji	Hokkaidō
Satellite image of Hokkaido by Terra, May 2001
Flag Symbol
Anthem: Hikari afurete, Mukashi no mukashi and Hokkai bayashi

Coordinates: 43°N 142°ECoordinates: 43°N 142°E
Country	Japan
Region	Hokkaidō
Island	Hokkaidō
Capital	Sapporo
Largest city	Sapporo
Subdivisions	Districts: 74, Municipalities: 179
Government
• Governor	Naomichi Suzuki
Area
• Total	83,423.84 km² (32,210.12 sq mi)
• Rank	1st
Population (May 31, 2019)
• Total	5,281,297
• Rank	8th
• Density	63/km² (160/sq mi)
ISO 3166 code	JP-01
Website	www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp

Symbols of Japan

Bird	Tanchō (red-crowned crane, Grus japonensis)
Flower	Hamanasu (rugosa rose, Rosa rugosa)
Mascot	Kyun-chan (キュンちゃん)
Tree	Ezomatsu (Jezo spruce, Picea jezoensis)

Hokkaido (Japanese: 北海道, Hepburn: Hokkaidō, pronounced [hokkaꜜidoː] (listen); lit. 'Northern Sea Circuit') is Japan's second largest island and comprises the largest and northernmost prefecture, making up its own region.^[1] The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō from Honshu; the two islands are connected by the undersea railway Seikan Tunnel.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaido

Urartian
Vannic
Native to	Armenian Highlands
Region	Urartu
Era	attested 9th–6th century BCE
Language family	Hurro-Urartian Urartian
Writing system	Neo-Assyrian cuneiform
Language codes
ISO 639-3	`xur`
Linguist List	`xur`
Glottolog	`urar1245`
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Urartian or Vannic is an extinct Hurro-Urartian language which was spoken by the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of Urartu (Biaini or Biainili in Urartian), which was centered on the region around Lake Van and had its capital, Tushpa, near the site of the modern town of Van in the Armenian highlands (now in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey).^[1] Its past prevalence is unknown. While some believe it was probably dominant around Lake Van and in the areas along the upper Zab valley,^[2] others believe it was spoken by a relatively small population who comprised a ruling class.^[3]

First attested in the 9th century BCE, Urartian ceased to be written after the fall of the Urartian state in 585 BCE and presumably became extinct due to the fall of Urartu.^[4] It must have had long contact with, and been gradually totally replaced by, an early form of Armenian,^[5]^[6]^[7] although it is only in the 5th century CE that the first written examples of Armenian appear.^[8]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urartian_language

Persians
پارسی‌ها/فارسی/ایرانی
Total population
c. 60+ million^[1]
Regions with significant populations
Iran	51–65%^[2]^[3]^[4] (also including Gilaks and Mazanderanis)^[2] of the total population
Languages
Persian, other Iranian languages
Religion
Majority: Shia Islam Minority: Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Baháʼí Faith, Sunni Islam, and various others^[5]
Related ethnic groups
Other Iranian peoples

This article contains Persian text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group who comprise over half of the population of Iran.^[4] They share a common cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language^[6]^[7]^[8] as well as of the languages that are closely related to Persian.^[9]

The ancient Persians were originally an ancient Iranian people who had migrated to the region of Persis (corresponding to the modern-day Iranian province of Fars) by the 9th century BCE.^[10]^[11] Together with their compatriot allies, they established and ruled some of the world's most powerful empires^[12]^[11] that are well-recognized for their massive cultural, political, and social influence, which covered much of the territory and population of the ancient world.^[13]^[14]^[15] Throughout history, the Persian people have contributed greatly to art and science.^[16]^[17]^[18] Persian literature is one of the world's most prominent literary traditions.^[19]

In contemporary terminology, people from Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan who natively speak the Persian language are known as Tajiks, with the former two countries having their own dialects of Persian known as Dari and Tajiki, respectively; whereas those in the Caucasus (primarily in the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan and Dagestan, Russia), albeit heavily assimilated, are known as Tats.^[20]^[21] Historically, however, the terms Tajik and Tat were used synonymously and interchangeably with Persian.^[20] Many influential Persian figures hailed from outside of Iran's present-day borders—to the northeast in Afghanistan and Central Asia, and to a lesser extent within the Caucasus proper to the northwest.^[22]^[23] In historical contexts, especially in English, "Persian" may be defined more loosely (often as a national identity) to cover all subjects of the ancient Persian polities, regardless of their ethnic background.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kars_oblast

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurds

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabardians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjarians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezgins

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_languages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetian_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avar_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dargin_languages

Dargin
Region	Southcentral Dagestan^[1]
Native speakers	490,000 (2010 census)^[1]
Language family	Northeast Caucasian Dargin
Dialects	Dargwa Kajtak Kubachi Itsari Chirag
Language codes
ISO 639-2	`dar`
ISO 639-3	`dar`
Glottolog	`darg1242`
Dargin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dargin_languages

Shahrisabz Шаҳрисабз
City
Left: Statue of Amir Temur and heritage twin buildings in Ak-Saray Palace, Jahangir Mausoleum, Shahrisabz Kok-Gunbaz Mosque, Panoramic view of Shahrisabz, from Ak-Saray Palace Right: Shahrisabz Ancient Chorsu, Shahrisabz Wall, Shahrisabz Mosque (all items were from above to bottom)
Shahrisabz Show map of UzbekistanShow map of West and Central AsiaShow map of Hindu-KushShow all
Coordinates: 39°03′N 66°50′ECoordinates: 39°03′N 66°50′E
Country	Uzbekistan
Region	Qashqadaryo Region
Population (2022)^[1]
• Total	142,700
Time zone	UTC+5

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Historic Centre of Shakhrisyabz
Criteria	Cultural: (iii), (iv)
Designated	2000 (24th session)
Reference no.	885
Endangered	2016–

Shakhrisabz (Uzbek: Шаҳрисабз Shahrisabz; Tajik: Шаҳрисабз; Persian: شهر سبز, romanized: shahr-e sabz: "city of green" / "verdant city"; Russian: Шахрисабз) is a district-level city in Qashqadaryo Region in southern Uzbekistan.^[2] The Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) has selected Shakhrisabz as its tourism capital for 2024.^[3]

It is located approximately 80 km south of Samarkand, at an altitude of 622 m. Its population is 140,500 (2021).^[1] Historically known as Kesh or Kish, Shahrisabz was once a major city of Central Asia and was an important urban center of Sogdiana, a province of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. It is primarily known today as the birthplace of 14th-century Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur.^[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahrisabz

The Illyro-Roman Wars were a series of wars fought between the Roman Republic and the Ardiaei kingdom. In the First Illyrian War, which lasted from 229 BC to 228 BC,^[1] Rome's concern was that the trade across the Adriatic Sea increased after the First Punic War at a time when Ardiaei power increased under queen Teuta.^[2] Attacks on trading vessels of Rome's Italic allies by Illyrian pirates and the death of a Roman envoy named Coruncanius^[3] on Teuta's orders,^[4] prompted the Roman senate to dispatch a Roman army under the command of the consuls Lucius Postumius Albinus and Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus. Rome expelled Illyrian garrisons from a number of Greek cities including Epidamnus, Apollonia, Corcyra, Pharos and established a protectorate over these Greek towns. The Romans also set up^[5] Demetrius of Pharos as a power in Illyria to counterbalance the power of Teuta.^[6]

The Second Illyrian War lasted from 220 BC to 219 BC. In 219 BC, the Roman Republic was at war with the Celts of Cisalpine Gaul, and the Second Punic War with Carthage^[7] was beginning. These distractions gave Demetrius the time he needed to build a new Illyrian war fleet. Leading this fleet of 90 ships, Demetrius sailed south of Lissus, violating his earlier treaty and starting the war.^[8] Demetrius' fleet first attacked Pylos, where he captured 50 ships after several attempts. From Pylos, the fleet sailed to the Cyclades, quelling any resistance that they found on the way. Demetrius foolishly sent a fleet across the Adriatic, and, with the Illyrian forces divided, the fortified^[9] city of Dimale^[10] was captured by the Roman fleet under Lucius Aemilius Paulus.^[11] From Dimale the navy went towards Pharos.^[12] The forces of Rome routed the Illyrians and Demetrius fled to Macedon, where he became a trusted councillor at the court of Philip V of Macedon, and remained there until his death at Messene in 214 BC.^[13]

In 171 BC, the Illyrian king Gentius was allied with the Romans against the Macedonians. But in 169 BC he changed sides and allied himself with Perseus of Macedon. During the Third Illyrian War, in 168 BC, he arrested two Roman legati and destroyed the cities of Apollonia and Dyrrhachium, which were allied to Rome. He was defeated at Scodra by a Roman force under L. Anicius Gallus,^[14] and in 167 BC he was brought to Rome as a captive to participate in Gallus' triumph, after which he was interned at Iguvium.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars

Alliance with Dardania and Macedonia

In 169 BC, Gentius arranged the murder of his brother, Plator, because Plator's plan to marry Etuta, daughter of the Dardanian king, Monunius II of Dardania, would have made him too powerful. Gentius then married Plator's fiancée for himself, securing the alliance of the powerful Dardanian State.

Perseus of Macedon, having recaptured several Roman outposts in Roman occupied Illyria, controlled the route leading west to the Ardiaean State. At this point, Perseus sent his first embassy to Gentius, consisting of the Illyrian exile Pleuratus, for his command of the Illyrian language, and the Macedonians Adaeus and Beroea. They found Gentius at Lissus and informed him of Perseus' successes against the Romans and Dardanians and his recent victory against the Penestae. Gentius replied that he lacked not the will to fight the Romans, but only the money. No promises were made on this point either by this embassy or another sent from Stuberra shortly afterwards. Perseus continued his efforts to involve Gentius in the war—preferably, it was said, at no cost to his treasury. The Illyrian exile Pleuratus raised 1,000 infantry and 200 cavalry from the Penestae. The Roman invasion of Macedonia in 168 BC forced the king to promise a subsidy to Gentius, whose ships might be employed to attack the Romans. A sum of 300 talents was mentioned and Perseus sent his companion Pantauchus to make the arrangements. In the city of Meteon, hostages were agreed and Gentius accepted the oath of the king. He sent Olympio with a delegation to Perseus to collect the money, and the treaty was concluded with some ceremony at Dium on the Thermaic Gulf. A formal parade of the Macedonian cavalry was held, which may have impressed the Illyrians; the cavalry may have represented the Macedonians in the ratification of the treaty.

The 300 talents were counted out of the royal treasure at Pella and the Illyrians were permitted to mark it with their own stamp. An advance of this money was forwarded to Gentius; and when this was passed over by Pantauchus, the king was urged to commence hostilities against the Romans. When Gentius imprisoned two Roman envoys sent by Appius Claudius at Lychnidus, Perseus recalled the rest of the subsidy in the belief that Gentius was now his ally, come what may.^[53]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars#Alliance_with_Dardania_and_Macedonia

Polybius (2.8) furnishes a suspiciously vivid account of a Roman embassy to Teuta, a version of events that was intended to justify the Roman invasion of Illyria.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars#Alliance_with_Dardania_and_Macedonia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:3rd_century_BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos

lhaq (rus. Илхак uzb. Ilhaq) is a 2020 Uzbek military drama directed and written by Jahongir Akhmedov. The Film Agency of Uzbekistan acted as the general producer of the film. The film is the first joint project with the "Belarusfilm" studio.^[2] According to the creators of the film, the script is based on the work of Zulfiya Zokirova "Life".^[3] The picture tells about the resilience of a mother who lost five children during the Great Patriotic War. Starring Dilorom Karimova, Tahir Saidov, Dilrabo Mirzayeva Fotik Nasimov and Husan Rashidov. The tape was released on May 9, 2020.^[4]

The premiere of the film "Ilhak", based on the events of life, is dedicated to the 75th anniversary of the Great Patriotic War, took place on May 9, 2020, on all TV channels of Uzbekistan, including «Sevimli TV», «MY5», «Zoʻr TV», «Milliy TV».^[5] The film was the first in Uzbekistan to be released in theaters after restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.^[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilhaq

Sparta^[1] was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων, Lakedaímōn), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese.^[2] Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.

Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the leading force of the unified Greek military during the Greco-Persian Wars, in rivalry with the rising naval power of Athens.^[3] Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC),^[4] from which it emerged victorious after the Battle of Aegospotami. The decisive Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC ended the Spartan hegemony, although the city-state maintained its political independence until its forced integration into the Achaean League in 192 BC. The city nevertheless recovered much autonomy after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC and prospered during the Roman Empire, as its antiquarian customs attracted many Roman tourists. However, Sparta was sacked in 396 AD by the Visigothic king Alaric, and underwent a long period of decline, especially in the Middle Ages, when many of its citizens moved to Mystras. Modern Sparta is the capital of the southern Greek region of Laconia and a center for processing citrus and olives.

Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured the Spartan society to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), perioikoi (free non-Spartiates), and helots (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals). Spartiate men underwent the rigorous agoge training regimen, and Spartan phalanx brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights than elsewhere in classical antiquity.

Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in Western culture following the revival of classical learning. The admiration of Sparta is known as Laconophilia. Bertrand Russell wrote:

Sparta had a double effect on Greek thought: through the reality, and through the myth.... The reality enabled the Spartans to defeat Athens in war; the myth influenced Plato's political theory, and that of countless subsequent writers.... [The] ideals that it favors had a great part in framing the doctrines of Rousseau, Nietzsche, and National Socialism.^[5]

Names

The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the Mycenaean Greek 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀖𐀛𐀍, ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo, "Lakedaimonian", written in Linear B syllabic script,^[6]^{[n 1]} the equivalent of the later Greek Λακεδαιμόνιος, Lakedaimonios (Latin: Lacedaemonius).^[12]^[13]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta

Prussia Preußen (German) Prūsa (Prussian)
1525–1947^[a]
State flag (1803–92) Coat of arms (1701–1871)
Motto: Gott mit uns Nobiscum deus ("God with us")
Anthem: (1820–1830) Borussia [de] "Prussia" (1830–1840) Preußenlied "Song of Prussia" 0:00 Royal anthem: (1795–1918) Heil dir im Siegerkranz ("Hail to thee in the Victor's Crown")^[1] 2:54
The Kingdom of Prussia (dark green) at its greatest extent in 1870 within the North German Confederation (light green)
The Kingdom of Prussia (blue) within the German Empire in 1914
Capital	Königsberg (1525–1701; 1806) Berlin (1701–1806; 1806–1947)
Common languages	Official: German

Population
Minorities:
Religion	Religious confessions in the Kingdom of Prussia 1880 Majority: 64.64% United Protestant (Lutheran, Calvinist) Minorities: 33.75% Catholic 1.33% Jewish 0.19% Other Christian 0.09% Other
Demonym(s)	Prussian
Government	Feudal monarchy (1525–1701) Absolute monarchy (1701–1848) Federal parliamentary semi-constitutional monarchy (1848–1918) Federal semi-presidential constitutional republic (1918–1932) Authoritarian presidential republic (1932–1933) Nazi single-party dictatorship (1933–1945) Allied-occupied Germany (1945–1947)
Duke¹

• 1525–1568	Albert I (first)
• 1688–1701	Frederick I (last)
King¹

• 1701–1713	Frederick I (first)
• 1888–1918	Wilhelm II (last)
Minister-President^{1, 2}

• 1918	Friedrich Ebert (first)
• 1933–1945	Hermann Göring (last)
Historical era	Early modern Europe to Contemporary

• Duchy of Prussia	10 April 1525
• Union with Brandenburg	27 August 1618
• Kingdom of Prussia	18 January 1701
• Free State of Prussia	9 November 1918
• Abolition (de facto, loss of independence)	30 January 1934
• Abolition (de jure)	25 February 1947^[a]

• 1816^[2]	10,349,000
• 1871^[2]	24,689,000
• 1939^[2]	41,915,040
Currency	Reichsthaler (until 1750) Prussian thaler (1750–1857) Vereinsthaler (1857–1873) German gold mark (1873–1914) German Papiermark (1914–1923) Reichsmark (1924–1947)
¹ The heads of state listed here are the first and last to hold each title over time. For more information, see individual Prussian state articles (links in above History section). ² The position of Ministerpräsident was introduced in 1792 when Prussia was a Kingdom; the Minister-Presidents shown here are the heads of the Prussian republic.

Prussia (/ˈprʌʃə/; German: Preußen, pronounced [ˈpʁɔʏsn̩] (listen), Old Prussian: Prūsa or Prūsija) was a German state located on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire when it united the German states in 1871. It was de facto dissolved by an emergency decree transferring powers of the Prussian government to German Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932 and de jure by an Allied decree in 1947. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, expanding its size with the Prussian Army. Prussia, with its capital at Königsberg and then, when it became the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Berlin, decisively shaped the history of Germany.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia

Spanish language
A manuscript of the Cantar de mio Cid, 13th century
Overview
Pronunciation stress Orthography Names
History
Old Middle Influences
Grammar
Determiners Nouns gender Pronouns personal object Adjectives Prepositions Verbs conjugation irregular verbs
Dialects
Andalusian Andean Argentine Belizean Bolivian Canarian Caribbean Central American Chilean Colombian Costa Rican Cuban Dominican Ecuadorian Equatoguinean Guatemalan Honduran Mexican Murcian New Mexican Nicaraguan Panamanian Peninsular Peruvian Philippine status Puerto Rican Rioplatense Saharan Salvadoran Standard Uruguayan
Dialectology
seseo yeísmo voseo leísmo loísmo
Interlanguages
Belgranodeutsch Llanito Jopara Judaeo-Spanish Portuñol Spanglish Castrapo Creoles Roquetas Pidgin Chavacano or Chabacano Palenquero or Palenque
Teaching
Hispanism RAE Instituto Cervantes
v t e

In Spanish grammar, voseo (Spanish pronunciation: [boˈse.o]) is the use of vos as a second-person singular pronoun, along with its associated verbal forms, in certain regions where the language is spoken. In those regions it replaces tuteo, i.e. the use of the pronoun tú and its verbal forms. Voseo can also be found in the context of using verb conjugations for vos with tú as the subject pronoun (verbal voseo),^[1] as in the case of Chilean Spanish, where this form coexists with the ordinary form of voseo.^{[citation needed]}

In all regions with voseo, the corresponding unstressed object pronoun is te and the corresponding possessive is tu / tuyo.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voseo

Bombyliidae Temporal range: Cenomanian–Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N

Bombylius major
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Diptera
Superfamily:	Asiloidea
Family:	Bombyliidae Latreille, 1802
Subfamilies
Anthracinae Antoniinae Bombyliinae Crocidiinae Cythereinae Ecliminae Heterotropinae Lomatiinae Mariobezziinae Oligodraninae Oniromyiinae Phthiriinae Tomomyzinae Toxophorinae Usiinae Xenoprosopinae
Synonyms
Phthiriidae Usiidae Systropodidae

The Bombyliidae are a family of flies, commonly known as bee flies. Adults generally feed on nectar and pollen, some being important pollinators. Larvae are mostly parasitoids of other insects.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombyliidae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stinging_plant#Plants_with_stinging_hairs

Ussingite
Ussingite from Shkatulka pegmatite, Umbozero mine (Umbozerskii mine), Alluaiv Mt, Lovozero Massif, Kola Peninsula, Murmanskaja Oblast', Northern Region, Russia
General
Category	Phyllosilicate minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	Na₂AlSi₃O₈OH
IMA symbol	Usg^[1]
Strunz classification	9.EH.20
Crystal system	Triclinic
Crystal class	Pinacoidal (1) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P1
Identification
Color	pale to medium violet, reddish violet; sometimes barely tinted purple
Fracture	irregular/ uneven
Tenacity	brittle
Mohs scale hardness	6-7
Luster	sub-vitreous
Streak	white
Diaphaneity	transparent, translucent
References	^[2]^[3]

Ussingite is a silicate mineral with formula Na₂AlSi₃O₈(OH).^[4]

It was named for Niels Viggo Ussing (1864–1911), Copenhagen, Denmark.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussingite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Triclinic_minerals

Bultfonteinite
Bultfonteinite from Shijiangshan mine, China
General
Category	Nesosilicates
Formula (repeating unit)	Ca₂SiO₂(OH,F)₄
IMA symbol	Bul^[1]
Strunz classification	9.AG.80^[2]
Dana classification	52.4.7.2^[2]
Crystal system	Triclinic
Crystal class	Pinacoidal (1) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P1
Unit cell	a = 10.99 Å, b = 8.18 Å c = 5.67 Å, α = 93.95° β = 91.32°, γ = 89.85°;^[2] Z = 4
Identification
Color	Colorless, pink
Twinning	Interpenetrating on {100} and {010}; polysynthetic
Cleavage	Good on {100} and {010}
Fracture	Conchoidal
Mohs scale hardness	4.5
Luster	Vitreous
Streak	White^[2]
Diaphaneity	Transparent
Optical properties	Biaxial (+)
Refractive index	n_α = 1.587 n_β = 1.590 n_γ = 1.597^[2]
Birefringence	δ = 0.010^[2]
2V angle	70° (measured)
Dispersion	r > v; barely perceptible
Solubility	Soluble in hydrochloric acid^[3]
References	^[4]

Bultfonteinite, originally dutoitspanite, is a pink to colorless mineral with chemical formula Ca₂SiO₂(OH,F)₄. It was discovered in 1903 or 1904 in the Bultfontein mine in South Africa, for which the mineral is named, and described in 1932.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bultfonteinite

Babefphite
General
Category	Phosphate mineral
Formula (repeating unit)	BaBe(PO₄)(F,OH)
IMA symbol	Bbf^[1]
Strunz classification	8.BA.15
Crystal system	Triclinic^[2]^[3]
Crystal class	Pedial (1) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	F1
Unit cell	a = 6.889 Å, b = 16.814 Å, c = 6.902 Å; α = 90.01°, β = 89.99°, γ = 90.32°; Z = 8^[3]
Identification
Color	White
Crystal habit	As anhedral, equant to flattened grains, to 1.5 mm; may be in aggregates, (pseudotetragonal)
Tenacity	Brittle
Mohs scale hardness	3.5
Luster	Vitreous
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	Transparent
Specific gravity	4.31
Optical properties	Uniaxial (+)^[4] - biaxial positive (pseudouniaxial)^[3]
Refractive index	nω = 1.629 nε = 1.632
Birefringence	0.003
References	^[2]^[4]^[5]^[3]

Babefphite is a rare phosphate mineral with the general formula BaBe(PO₄)(F,OH). The name is given for its composition (Ba meaning barium, Be meaning beryllium, F meaning fluorine, and P for phosphorus).^[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babefphite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate_mineral

Pyromorphite

General
Category	Phosphate mineral Apatite group
Formula (repeating unit)	Pb₅(PO₄)₃Cl
IMA symbol	Pym^[1]
Strunz classification	8.BN.05
Crystal system	Hexagonal
Crystal class	Dipyramidal (6/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P6₃/m
Identification
Color	Dark green to grass-green or green, yellow, yellow-orange, reddish orange, yellow-brown, greenish-yellow or yellowish-green, shades of brown, tan, grayish, white and may be colorless; colourless or faintly tinted in transmitted light.
Crystal habit	Prismatic to acicular crystals, globular to reniform
Twinning	Rarely on {1122}
Cleavage	Imperfect- [1011]
Fracture	Uneven to sub-conchoidal
Tenacity	Brittle
Mohs scale hardness	3.5-4
Luster	Resinous to subadamantine
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity	7.04 measured, 7.14 calculated
Optical properties	Uniaxial (-) May be anomalously biaxial -
Refractive index	n_ω = 2.058 n_ε = 2.048
Birefringence	δ = 0.010
Pleochroism	Weak
Ultraviolet fluorescence	May fluoresce yellow to orange under LW and SW UV
Other characteristics	Piezoelectric if biaxial
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]

Pyromorphite is a mineral species composed of lead chlorophosphate: Pb₅(P O₄)₃Cl, sometimes occurring in sufficient abundance to be mined as an ore of lead. Crystals are common, and have the form of a hexagonal prism terminated by the basal planes, sometimes combined with narrow faces of a hexagonal pyramid. Crystals with a barrel-like curvature are not uncommon. Globular and reniform masses are also found. It is part of a series with two other minerals: mimetite (Pb₅(AsO₄)₃Cl) and vanadinite (Pb₅(VO₄)₃Cl), the resemblance in external characters is so close that, as a rule, it is only possible to distinguish between them by chemical tests. They were formerly confused under the names green lead ore and brown lead ore (German: Grünbleierz and Braunbleierz).

The phosphate was first distinguished chemically by M. H. Klaproth in 1784,^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] and it was named pyromorphite by J. F. L. Hausmann in 1813.^[9]^[10] The name is derived from the Greek for pyr (fire) and morfe (form) due to its crystallization behavior after being melted.^[3]

Paecilomyces javanicus is a mold collected from a lead-polluted soil that is able to form biominerals of pyromorphite.^[11]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyromorphite

Phosphophyllite

General
Category	Phosphate minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	hydrated zinc phosphate (Zn₂Fe(PO₄)₂·4H₂O)
IMA symbol	Pp^[1]
Strunz classification	8.CA.40
Crystal system	Monoclinic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P2₁/c
Identification
Formula mass	448.40 g/mol
Color	Blue-green to colourless
Crystal habit	Prismatic
Twinning	Common
Cleavage	[100] Perfect, [010] Distinct, [102] Distinct
Fracture	Conchoidal
Mohs scale hardness	3.5
Luster	Vitreous
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	Transparent
Specific gravity	3.1
Optical properties	Biaxial (-)
Refractive index	n_α = 1.595 - 1.599, n_β = 1.614 - 1.617, n_γ = 1.616 - 1.620
Birefringence	0.021
2V angle	Measured 44°, Calculated 34°
Common impurities	Manganese
References	^[2]

Phosphophyllite (from Ancient Greek phyllon 'leaf', and phosphate^[3]) is a rare mineral with the chemical formula Zn₂Fe(PO₄)₂·4H₂O, composed of hydrated zinc phosphate. It is highly prized by collectors for its rarity and for its delicate bluish green colour. Phosphophyllite is rarely cut because it is fragile and brittle, and large crystals are too valuable to be broken up.^[4]

Twinned Phosphophyllite, Unificada Mine, Cerro de Potosí, Potosí Department, Bolivia. 2.1 x 1.4 x 1 cm.

The finest phosphophyllite crystals come from Potosí, Bolivia, but it is no longer mined there. Other sources include New Hampshire, United States and Hagendorf, Bavaria, Germany. It is often found in association with the minerals chalcopyrite and triphylite.^[5]

Phosphophyllite has been synthesized synthetically by the addition of diammonium phosphate to a solution of zinc and iron sulfate.^[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphophyllite

Xenotime
Xenotime with rutile
General
Category	Phosphate minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	YPO₄
IMA symbol	Xtm^[1]
Strunz classification	8.AD.35
Crystal system	Tetragonal
Crystal class	Dipyramidal (4/mmm) H-M symbol: (4/m)
Space group	I4₁/a
Identification
Color	Brown, brownish yellow, gray
Crystal habit	Prismatic, radial aggregates, granular
Cleavage	Perfect [100]
Fracture	Uneven to splintery
Mohs scale hardness	4.5
Luster	Vitreous to resinous
Streak	Pale brown, yellowish or reddish, to white
Diaphaneity	Translucent to opaque
Specific gravity	4.4–5.1
Refractive index	1.720–1.815
Birefringence	δ = 0.096
Pleochroism	Dichroic
Other characteristics	Not radioactive or luminescent
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]

Xenotime is a rare-earth phosphate mineral, the major component of which is yttrium orthophosphate (Y P O₄). It forms a solid solution series with chernovite-(Y) (Y As O₄) and therefore may contain trace impurities of arsenic, as well as silicon dioxide and calcium. The rare-earth elements dysprosium, erbium, terbium and ytterbium, as well as metal elements such as thorium and uranium (all replacing yttrium) are the expressive secondary components of xenotime. Due to uranium and thorium impurities, some xenotime specimens may be weakly to strongly radioactive. Lithiophyllite, monazite and purpurite are sometimes grouped with xenotime in the informal "anhydrous phosphates" group. Xenotime is used chiefly as a source of yttrium and heavy lanthanide metals (dysprosium, ytterbium, erbium and gadolinium). Occasionally, gemstones are also cut from the finest xenotime crystals.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenotime

Struvite
Crystals of struvite from dog urine
General
Category	Phosphate mineral
Formula (repeating unit)	NH₄MgPO₄·6H₂O
IMA symbol	Suv^[1]
Strunz classification	8.CH.40
Crystal system	Orthorhombic
Crystal class	Pyramidal (mm2) H-M symbol: (mm2)
Space group	Pmn2₁
Identification
Color	Colorless, white (dehydrated), yellow or brownish, light gray
Crystal habit	Euhedral to platy
Twinning	On {001}
Cleavage	{100} perfect
Fracture	Uneven
Mohs scale hardness	1.5–2
Luster	Vitreous to dull
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity	1.7
Optical properties	Biaxial (+) 2V Measured: 37°
Refractive index	nα = 1.495 nβ = 1.496 nγ = 1.504
Birefringence	δ = 0.009
Solubility	Slightly soluble, dehydrates in dry, warm air
Other characteristics	Pyroelectric and piezoelectric
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]

Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) is a phosphate mineral with formula: NH₄MgPO₄·6H₂O. Struvite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system as white to yellowish or brownish-white pyramidal crystals or in platy mica-like forms. It is a soft mineral with Mohs hardness of 1.5 to 2 and has a low specific gravity of 1.7. It is sparingly soluble in neutral and alkaline conditions, but readily soluble in acid.

Struvite urinary stones and crystals form readily in the urine of animals and humans that are infected with ammonia-producing organisms. They are potentiated by alkaline urine and high magnesium excretion (high magnesium/plant-based diets). They also are potentiated by a specific urinary protein in domestic cats.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struvite

Arseniosiderite
Arseniosiderite, size: 6.4×6.2×5.6 mm
General
Category	Arsenate mineral
Formula (repeating unit)	Ca₂Fe³⁺₃(AsO₄)₃O₂·3H₂O
IMA symbol	Assd^[1]
Strunz classification	8.DH.30 08
Dana classification	42.09.02.03
Crystal system	Monoclinic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	A2/a
Unit cell	a = 17.76, b = 19.53 c = 11.3 [Å], Z = 12
Identification
Formula mass	766.50 g/mol
Color	Bronze brown; yellow to black
Crystal habit	Fibrous
Cleavage	{100} good
Mohs scale hardness	4.5
Luster	Submetallic
Streak	Ochraceous
Diaphaneity	Translucent to opaque
Specific gravity	3.5–3.9, average = 3.7
Optical properties	Biaxial (-)
Refractive index	n_α = 1.815, n_β = 1.898, n_γ = 1.898
Birefringence	δ = 0.083
Other characteristics	Non-fluorescent
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]

Arseniosiderite is a rare arsenate mineral formed by the oxidation of other arsenic-containing minerals, such as scorodite or arsenopyrite. It occurs in association with beudantite, carminite, dussertite, pharmacolite, pitticite, adamite and erythrite. The name arseniosiderite reflects two major elements of the mineral, arsenic and iron (Greek sideros means iron).^[4]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arseniosiderite}

Arsenopyrite

General
Category	Sulfide mineral
Formula (repeating unit)	FeAsS
Strunz classification	2.EB.20
Crystal system	Monoclinic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P2₁/c
Unit cell	a = 5.744, b = 5.675 c = 5.785 [Å]; β = 112.3°; Z = 4
Identification
Colour	Steel grey to silver white
Crystal habit	Acicular, off-square prismatic, stubby; striated; also compact, granular, columnar
Twinning	Common on {100} and {001}, contact/penetration twinning on {101}
Cleavage	110 (distinct)
Fracture	Subconchoidal to rough
Tenacity	Brittle
Mohs scale hardness	5.5 - 6
Lustre	Metallic
Streak	Black
Diaphaneity	Opaque
Specific gravity	5.9 - 6.2
Optical properties	Anisotropism - strong red-violet
Pleochroism	Weak, white or bluish tint, faint reddish yellow
Fusibility	Yes
Solubility	Nitric acid
Other characteristics	Garlic odour when struck, greenish tinge when weathered, green staining of wall rocks
References	^[1]^[2]^[3]

Arsenopyrite (IMA symbol: Apy^[4]) is an iron arsenic sulfide (FeAsS). It is a hard (Mohs 5.5-6) metallic, opaque, steel grey to silver white mineral with a relatively high specific gravity of 6.1.^[1] When dissolved in nitric acid, it releases elemental sulfur. When arsenopyrite is heated, it produces sulfur and arsenic vapor. With 46% arsenic content, arsenopyrite, along with orpiment, is a principal ore of arsenic. When deposits of arsenopyrite become exposed to the atmosphere, the mineral slowly converts into iron arsenates. Arsenopyrite is generally an acid-consuming sulfide mineral, unlike iron pyrite which can lead to acid mine drainage.^{[citation needed]}

The crystal habit, hardness, density, and garlic odour when struck are diagnostic. Arsenopyrite in older literature may be referred to as mispickel, a name of German origin.^[5]

Arsenopyrite also can be associated with significant amounts of gold. Consequently, it serves as an indicator of gold bearing reefs. Many arsenopyrite gold ores are refractory, i.e. the gold is not easily cyanide leached from the mineral matrix.

Arsenopyrite is found in high temperature hydrothermal veins, in pegmatites, and in areas of contact metamorphism or metasomatism.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenopyrite

Glaucodot
Glaucodot from Håkansboda, Lindesberg, Sweden. Size: 3.3 x 2.7 x 2.6 cm.
General
Category	Sulfide minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	(Co,Fe)AsS (Co_0.75Fe²⁺_0.25AsS)
IMA symbol	Gl^[1]
Strunz classification	2.EB.10c
Crystal system	Orthorhombic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P2₁/c
Identification
Formula mass	165.15 g/mol
Color	Grayish tin white, Reddish silver white
Crystal habit	Massive , prismatic habits with elongated sphenoids, granular masses- Uniformly indistinguishable crystals forming large masses.
Cleavage	None
Fracture	Brittle - Uneven - Very brittle fracture producing uneven fragments.
Mohs scale hardness	5
Luster	Metallic
Streak	black
Diaphaneity	Opaque
Specific gravity	5.9 - 6.01, Average = 5.95
Ultraviolet fluorescence	inert
Other characteristics	Nonmagnetic, non-radioactive

Glaucodot is a cobalt iron arsenic sulfide mineral with formula (Co,Fe)AsS. The cobalt:iron(II) ratio is typically 3:1 with minor nickel substituting. It forms a series with arsenopyrite (FeAsS). It is an opaque grey to tin-white typically found as massive forms without external crystal form. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. The locality at Håkansboda, Sweden has rare twinned dipyramidal crystals (see photo). It is brittle with a Mohs hardness of 5 and a specific gravity of 5.95. It occurs in high temperature hydrothermal deposits with pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. Glaucodot is classed as a sulfide in the arsenopyrite löllingite group.

Glaucodot was first described in 1849 in Huasco, Valparaíso Province, Chile. Its name originates from the Greek Ancient Greek: γλανκός ("blue") in reference to its use in the dark blue glass called smalt.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucodot

Robertsite
Robertsite spheres (reddish brown) on beraunite
General
Category	Phosphate minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	Ca₃(Mn³⁺)₄[(OH)₃\| (PO₄)₂]₂·3H₂O
IMA symbol	Rbt^[1]
Strunz classification	8.DH.30
Dana classification	42.08.04.02 Mitridatite group
Crystal system	Monoclinic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	A2/a
Unit cell	a = 17.36 Å, b = 19.53 Å c = 11.30 Å; β = 96.0°; Z = 12
Identification
Color	Red, red-brown, deep red, bronzy brown, black
Crystal habit	laty to wedge-shaped, pseudorhombohedral crystals; fibrous, in botryoidal to feathery aggregates
Twinning	Common perpendicular to {100}
Cleavage	Very good {100}
Fracture	Micaceous
Mohs scale hardness	3+1⁄2
Luster	Vitreous to resinous or waxy
Streak	Chocolate-brown
Diaphaneity	Translucent
Specific gravity	3.13 - 3.17
Optical properties	Biaxial (-)
Refractive index	n_α = 1.775 n_β = 1.820 n_γ = 1.820
Birefringence	δ = 0.045
Pleochroism	Strong, X pale red to pink Y,Z deep red brown
2V angle	Measured: 8°
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]

Robertsite, Ca₃(Mn³⁺)₄[(OH)₃| (PO₄)₂]₂·3(H₂O) (alternatively formulated Ca₂(Mn₃(PO₄)₃O₂)(H₂O)₃), is a secondary phosphate mineral named for Willard Lincoln Roberts (1923–1987), mineralogist and professor at South Dakota School of Mines in Rapid City, South Dakota.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertsite

Nickel–Strunz classification -08- phosphates

IMA-CNMNC proposes a new hierarchical scheme (Mills et al., 2009). This list uses it to modify the classification of Nickel–Strunz (mindat.org, 10 ed, pending publication).

Abbreviations:
- "*" – discredited (IMA/CNMNC status).
- "?" – questionable/doubtful (IMA/CNMNC status).
- "REE" – Rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu)
- "PGE" – Platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt)
- 03.C Aluminofluorides, 06 Borates, 08 Vanadates (04.H V^[5,6] Vanadates), 09 Silicates:
  - Neso: insular (from Greek νησος nēsos, island)
  - Soro: grouping (from Greek σωροῦ sōros, heap, mound (especially of corn))
  - Cyclo: ring
  - Ino: chain (from Greek ις [genitive: ινος inos], fibre)
  - Phyllo: sheet (from Greek φύλλον phyllon, leaf)
  - Tekto: three-dimensional framework
Nickel–Strunz code scheme: NN.XY.##x
- NN: Nickel–Strunz mineral class number
- X: Nickel–Strunz mineral division letter
- Y: Nickel–Strunz mineral family letter
- ##x: Nickel–Strunz mineral/group number, x add-on letter

Class: phosphates

08.A Phosphates, etc. without additional anions, without H₂O
- 08.AA With small cations (some also with larger ones): 05 Berlinite, 05 Rodolicoite; 10 Beryllonite, 15 Hurlbutite, 20 Lithiophosphate, 25 Nalipoite, 30 Olympite
- 08.AB With medium-sized cations: 05 Farringtonite; 10 Ferrisicklerite, 10 Heterosite, 10 Natrophilite, 10 Lithiophilite, 10 Purpurite, 10 Sicklerite, 10 Simferite, 10 Triphylite; 15 Chopinite, 15 Sarcopside; 20 Beusite, 20 Graftonite
- 08.AC With medium-sized and large cations: 10 IMA2008-054, 10 Alluaudite, 10 Hagendorfite, 10 Ferroalluaudite, 10 Maghagendorfite, 10 Varulite, 10 Ferrohagendorfite*; 15 Bobfergusonite, 15 Ferrowyllieite, 15 Qingheiite, 15 Rosemaryite, 15 Wyllieite, 15 Ferrorosemaryite; 20 Maricite, 30 Brianite, 35 Vitusite-(Ce); 40 Olgite?, 40 Bario-olgite; 45 Ferromerrillite, 45 Bobdownsite, 45 Merrillite-(Ca)*, 45 Merrillite, 45 Merrillite-(Y)*, 45 Whitlockite, 45 Tuite, 45 Strontiowhitlockite; 50 Stornesite-(Y), 50 Xenophyllite, 50 Fillowite, 50 Chladniite, 50 Johnsomervilleite, 50 Galileiite; 55 Harrisonite, 60 Kosnarite, 65 Panethite, 70 Stanfieldite, 90 IMA2008-064
- 08.AD With only large cations: 05 Nahpoite, 10 Monetite, 15 Archerite, 15 Biphosphammite; 20 Phosphammite, 25 Buchwaldite; 35 Pretulite, 35 Xenotime-(Y), 35 Xenotime-(Yb); 45 Ximengite, 50 Monazite-(Ce), 50 Monazite-(La), 50 Monazite-(Nd), 50 Monazite-(Sm), 50 Brabantite?
08.B Phosphates, etc. with Additional Anions, without H₂O
- 08.BA With small and medium-sized cations: 05 Vayrynenite; 10 Hydroxylherderite, 10 Herderite; 15 Babefphite
- 08.BB With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ £1:1: 05 Amblygonite, 05 Natromontebrasite?, 05 Montebrasite?, 05 Tavorite; 10 Zwieselite, 10 Triplite, 10 Magniotriplite?, 10 Hydroxylwagnerite; 15 Joosteite, 15 Stanekite, 15 Triploidite, 15 Wolfeite, 15 Wagnerite; 20 Satterlyite, 20 Holtedahlite; 25 Althausite; 30 Libethenite, 30 Zincolibethenite; 35 Tarbuttite; 40 Barbosalite, 40 Hentschelite, 40 Scorzalite, 40 Lazulite; 45 Trolleite, 55 Phosphoellenbergerite; 90 Zinclipscombite, 90 Lipscombite, 90 Richellite
- 08.BC With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ > 1:1 and < 2:1: 10 Plimerite, 10 Frondelite, 10 Rockbridgeite
- 08.BD With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 2:1: 05 Pseudomalachite, 05 Reichenbachite, 10 Gatehouseite, 25 Ludjibaite
- 08.BE With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ > 2:1: 05 Augelite, 10 Grattarolaite, 15 Cornetite, 30 Raadeite, 85 Waterhouseite
- 08.BF With medium-sized and large cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ < 0.5:1: 05 Arrojadite, 05 Arrojadite-(BaFe), 05 Arrojadite-(KFe), 05 Arrojadite-(NaFe), 05 Arrojadite-(SrFe), 05 Arrojadite-(KNa), 05 Arrojadite-(PbFe), 05 Arrojadite-(BaNa), 05 Fluorarrojadite-(BaNa), 05 Fluorarrojadite-(KNa), 05 Fluorarrojadite-(BaFe), 05 Ferri-arrojadite-(BaNa), 05 Dickinsonite, 05 Dickinsonite-(KNa), 05 Dickinsonite-(KMnNa), 05 Dickinsonite-(KNaNa), 05 Dickinsonite-(NaNa); 10 Samuelsonite, 15 Griphite, 20 Nabiasite
- 08.BG With medium-sized and large cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 0.5:1: 05 Bearthite, 05 Goedkenite, 05 Tsumebite; 10 Melonjosephite, 15 Tancoite
- 08.BH With medium-sized and large cations, (OH,etc.):RO₄ = 1:1: 05 Thadeuite; 10 Lacroixite, 10 Isokite, 10 Panasqueiraite; 15 Drugmanite; 20 Bjarebyite, 20 Kulanite, 20 Penikisite, 20 Perloffite, 20 Johntomaite; 25 Bertossaite, 25 Palermoite; 55 Jagowerite, 60 Attakolite
- 08.BK With medium-sized and large cations, (OH, etc.): 05 Brazilianite, 15 Curetonite, 25 Lulzacite
- 08.BL With medium-sized and large cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 3:1: 05 Corkite, 05 Hinsdalite, 05 Orpheite, 05 Woodhouseite, 05 Svanbergite; 10 Kintoreite, 10 Benauite, 10 Crandallite, 10 Goyazite, 10 Springcreekite, 10 Gorceixite; 10 Lusungite?, 10 Plumbogummite, 10 Ferrazite?; 13 Eylettersite, 13 Florencite-(Ce), 13 Florencite-(La), 13 Florencite-(Nd), 13 Waylandite, 13 Zairite; 15 Viitaniemiite, 20 Kuksite, 25 Pattersonite
- 08.BM With medium-sized and large cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 4:1: 10 Paulkellerite, 15 Brendelite
- 08.BN With only large cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 0.33:1: 05 IMA2008-068, 05 Phosphohedyphane, 05 IMA2008-009, 05 Alforsite, 05 Apatite*, 05 Apatite-(CaOH), 05 Apatite-(CaCl), 05 Apatite-(CaF), 05 Apatite-(SrOH), 05 Apatite-(CaOH)-M, Carbonate-fluorapatite?, 05 Carbonate-hydroxylapatite?, 05 Belovite-(Ce), 05 Belovite-(La), 05 Fluorcaphite, 05 Pyromorphite, 05 Hydroxylpyromorphite, 05 Deloneite-(Ce), 05 Kuannersuite-(Ce), 10 Arctite
- 08.BO With only large cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ 1:1: 05 Nacaphite, 10 Petitjeanite, 15 Smrkovecite, 25 Heneuite, 30 Nefedovite, 40 Artsmithite
08.C Phosphates without Additional Anions, with H₂O
- 08.CA With small and large/medium cations: 05 Fransoletite, 05 Parafransoletite; 10 Ehrleite, 15 Faheyite; 20 Gainesite, 20 Mccrillisite, 20 Selwynite; 25 Pahasapaite, 30 Hopeite, 40 Phosphophyllite; 45 Parascholzite, 45 Scholzite; 65 Gengenbachite, 70 Parahopeite
- 08.CB With only medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O = 1:1: 05 Serrabrancaite, 10 Hureaulite
- 08.CC With only medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O = 1:1.5: 05 Garyansellite, 05 Kryzhanovskite, 05 Landesite, 05 Phosphoferrite, 05 Reddingite
- 08.CD With only medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O = 1:2: 05 Kolbeckite, 05 Metavariscite, 05 Phosphosiderite; 10 Strengite, 10 Variscite; 20 Ludlamite
- 08.CE With only medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O £1:2.5: 10 Newberyite, 20 Phosphorrosslerite; 25 Metaswitzerite, 25 Switzerite; 35 Bobierrite; 40 Arupite, 40 Baricite, 40 Vivianite, 40 Pakhomovskyite; 50 Cattiite, 55 Koninckite; 75 IMA2008-046, 75 Malhmoodite; 80 Santabarbaraite, 85 Metavivianite
- 08.CF With large and medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O > 1:1: 05 Tassieite, 05 Wicksite, 05 Bederite; 10 Haigerachite
- 08.CG With large and medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O = 1:1: 05 Collinsite, 05 Cassidyite, 05 Fairfieldite, 05 Messelite, 05 Hillite, (05 Uranophane-beta but Uranophane 09.AK.15); 20 Phosphogartrellite
- 08.CH With large and medium-sized cations, RO₄:H₂O < 1:1: 10 Anapaite, 20 Dittmarite, 20 Niahite, 25 Francoanellite, 25 Taranakite, 30 Schertelite, 35 Hannayite, 40 Hazenite, 40 Struvite, 40 Struvite-(K), 45 Rimkorolgite, 50 Bakhchisaraitsevite, 55 IMA2008-048
- 08.CJ With only large cations: 05 Stercorite, 10 Mundrabillaite, 10 Swaknoite, 15 Nastrophite, 15 Nabaphite, 45 Brockite, 45 Grayite, 45 Rhabdophane-(Ce), 45 Rhabdophane-(La), 45 Rhabdophane-(Nd), 45 Tristramite, 50 Brushite, 50 Churchite-(Dy)*, 50 Churchite-(Nd), 50 Churchite-(Y), 50 Ardealite, 60 Dorfmanite, 70 Catalanoite, 80 Ningyoite
08.D Phosphates
- 08.DA With small (and occasionally larger) cations: 05 Moraesite, 10 Footemineite, 10 Ruifrancoite, 10 Guimaraesite, 10 Roscherite, 10 Zanazziite, 10 Atencioite, 10 Greifensteinite; 15 Uralolite, 20 Weinebeneite, 25 Tiptopite, 30 Veszelyite, 35 Kipushite, 40 Spencerite, 45 Glucine
- 08.DB With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ < 1:1: 05 Diadochite, 10 Vashegyite, 15 Schoonerite, 20 Sinkankasite, 25 Mitryaevaite, 30 Sanjuanite, 50 Giniite, 55 Sasaite, 60 Mcauslanite, 65 Goldquarryite, 70 Birchite
- 08.DC With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 1:1 and < 2:1: 05 Nissonite; 15 Kunatite, 15 Earlshannonite, 15 Whitmoreite; 17 Kleemanite, 20 Bermanite, 207? Oxiberaunite*, 22 Kovdorskite; 25 Ferrostrunzite, 25 Ferristrunzite, 25 Metavauxite, 25 Strunzite; 27 Beraunite; 30 Gordonite, 30 Laueite, 30 Sigloite, 30 Paravauxite, 30 Ushkovite, 30 Ferrolaueite, 30 Mangangordonite, 30 Pseudolaueite, 30 Stewartite, 30 Kastningite, 35 Vauxite, 37 Vantasselite, 40 Cacoxenite; 45 Gormanite, 45 Souzalite; 47 Kingite; 50 Wavellite, 50 Allanpringite, 52 Kribergite, 60 Nevadaite
- 08.DD With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 2:1: 15 Aheylite, 15 Chalcosiderite, 15 Faustite, 15 Planerite, 15 Turquoise; 20 Ernstite, 20 Childrenite, 20 Eosphorite
- 08.DE With only medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 3:1: 05 Senegalite, 10 Fluellite, 20 Zapatalite, (35 Alumoakermanite, Mindat.org: 09.BB.10), 35 Aldermanite
- 08.DF With only medium-sized cations, (OH,etc.):RO₄ > 3:1: 05 Hotsonite-VII, 05 Hotsonite-VI; 10 Bolivarite, 10 Evansite, 10 Rosieresite, 25 Sieleckiite, 40 Gladiusite
- 08.DG With large and medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ < 0.5:1: 05 Sampleite
- 08.DH With large and medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ < 1:1: 05 Minyulite; 10 Leucophosphite, 10 Spheniscidite, 10 Tinsleyite; 15 Kaluginite*, 15 Keckite, 15 Jahnsite-(CaMnFe), 15 Jahnsite-(CaMnMg), 15 Jahnsite-(CaMnMn), 15 Jahnsite-(MnMnMn)*, 15 Jahnsite-(CaFeFe), 15 Jahnsite-(NaFeMg), 15 Jahnsite-(CaMgMg), 15 Jahnsite-(NaMnMg), 15 Rittmannite, 15 Whiteite-(MnFeMg), 15 Whiteite-(CaFeMg), 15 Whiteite-(CaMnMg); 20 Manganosegelerite, 20 Overite, 20 Segelerite, 20 Wilhelmvierlingite, 20 Juonniite; 25 Calcioferrite, 25 Kingsmountite, 25 Montgomeryite, 25 Zodacite; 30 Lunokite, 30 Pararobertsite, 30 Robertsite, 30 Mitridatite; 35 Matveevite?, 35 Mantienneite, 35 Paulkerrite, 35 Benyacarite, 40 Xanthoxenite, 55 Englishite
- 08.DJ With large and medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 1:l: 05 Johnwalkite, 05 Olmsteadite, 10 Gatumbaite, 20 Meurigite-Na, 20 Meurigite-K, 20 Phosphofibrite, 25 Jungite, 30 Wycheproofite, 35 Ercitite, 40 Mrazekite
- 08.DK With large and medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ > 1:1 and < 2:1: 15 Matioliite, 15 IMA2008-056, 15 Dufrenite, 15 Burangaite, 15 Natrodufrenite; 20 Kidwellite, 25 Bleasdaleite, 30 Matulaite, 35 Krasnovite
- 08.DL With large and medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ = 2:1: 05 Foggite; 10 Cyrilovite, 10 Millisite, 10 Wardite; 15 Petersite-(Y), 15 Calciopetersite; 25 Angastonite
- 08.DM With large and medium-sized cations, (OH, etc.):RO₄ > 2:1: 05 Morinite, 15 Melkovite, 25 Gutsevichite?, 35 Delvauxite
- 08.DN With only large cations: 05 Natrophosphate, 10 Isoclasite, 15 Lermontovite, 20 Vyacheslavite
- 08.DO With CO₃, SO₄, SiO₄: 05 Girvasite, 10 Voggite, 15 Peisleyite, 20 Perhamite, 25 Saryarkite-(Y), 30 Micheelsenite, 40 Parwanite, 45 Skorpionite
08.E Uranyl Phosphates
- 08.EA UO₂:RO₄ = 1:2: 05 Phosphowalpurgite, 10 Parsonsite, 15 Ulrichite, 20 Lakebogaite
- 08.EB UO₂:RO₄ = 1:1: 05 Autunite, 05 Uranocircite, 05 Torbernite, 05 Xiangjiangite, 05 Saleeite; 10 Bassetite, 10 Meta-autunite, 10 Metauranocircite, 10 Metatorbernite, 10 Lehnerite, 10 Przhevalskite; 15 Chernikovite, 15 Meta-ankoleite, 15 Uramphite; 20 Threadgoldite, 25 Uranospathite, 30 Vochtenite, 35 Coconinoite, 40 Ranunculite, 45 Triangulite, 50 Furongite, 55 Sabugalite
- 08.EC UO₂:RO₄ = 3:2: 05 Francoisite-(Ce), 05 Francoisite-(Nd), 05 Phuralumite, 05 Upalite; 10 Kivuite?, 10 Yingjiangite, 10 Renardite, 10 Dewindtite, 10 Phosphuranylite; 15 Dumontite; 20 Metavanmeersscheite, 20 Vanmeersscheite; 25 Althupite, 30 Mundite, 35 Phurcalite, 40 Bergenite
- 08.ED Unclassified: 05 Moreauite, 10 Sreinite, 15 Kamitugaite
08.F Polyphosphates
- 08.FA Polyphosphates, without OH and H₂O; dimers of corner-sharing RO₄ tetrahedra: 20 Pyrocoproite*, 20 Pyrophosphite*
- 08.FC Polyphosphates, with H₂O only: 10 Canaphite, 20 Arnhemite*, 25 Wooldridgeite, 30 Kanonerovite
08.X Unclassified Strunz Phosphates
- 08.XX Unknown: 00 Sodium-autunite, 00 Pseudo-autunite*, 00 Cheralite-(Ce)?, 00 Laubmannite?, 00 Spodiosite?, 00 Sodium meta-autunite, 00 Kerstenite?, 00 Lewisite, 00 Coeruleolactite, 00 Viseite, 00 IMA2009-005

References

Mindat Arseniosiderite-Mitridatite Series

Mindat Arseniosiderite-Robertsite Series

Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0-471-80580-7
Stuart J. Mills; Frédéric Hatert; Ernest H. Nickel & Giovanni Ferraris (2009). "The standardisation of mineral group hierarchies: application to recent nomenclature proposals" (PDF). Eur. J. Mineral. 21 (5): 1073–1080. Bibcode:2009EJMin..21.1073M. doi:10.1127/0935-1221/2009/0021-1994.
Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols (March 2009). "IMA-CNMNC List of Mineral Names" (PDF). IMA-CNMNC.
Ferraiolo, Jim. "Nickel–Strunz (Version 10) Classification System". webmineral.com.
Webmineral - Dana
- Australian Mineral Atlas

Category:

Phosphate minerals

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate_mineral

Category:Beryllium minerals

Help

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Minerals containing the chemical element beryllium.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beryllium minerals.

Subcategories

This category has only the following subcategory.

B

Beryl group‎ (2 C, 8 P)

Pages in category "Beryllium minerals"

The following 24 pages are in this category, out of 24 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.

A

B

C

Chrysoberyl

D

Danalite

E

Euclase

G

H

L

Leucophanite

M

Milarite

N

Nabesite

P

T

W

Wilancookite

Z

Zanazziite

Categories:

Hidden category:

Commons category link is on Wikidata

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Beryllium_minerals

Greifensteinite
Greifensteinite (picture size: 3 mm)
General
Category	Phosphate mineral Roscherite group
Formula (repeating unit)	Ca₂Fe²⁺₅Be₄(PO₄)₆(OH)₄·6H₂O
IMA symbol	Gfs^[1]
Strunz classification	8.DA.10
Dana classification	42.7.7.4
Crystal system	Monoclinic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	C2/c
Unit cell	a = 15.903, b = 11.885 c = 6.677 [Å]; β = 94.68°; Z = 2
Identification
Color	Yellow green, olive green, light brown
Crystal habit	Prismatic
Cleavage	Good on {100} (or parting on {100})^[2]
Fracture	Uneven
Tenacity	brittle
Mohs scale hardness	4.5
Luster	Vitreous
Streak	White, greenish
Diaphaneity	Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity	2.93
Optical properties	Biaxial (-)
Refractive index	n_α: 1.624 n_β: 1.634 n_γ: 1.638
Birefringence	0.014
2V angle	80°
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]

Greifensteinite is beryllium phosphate mineral with formula: Ca₂Fe²⁺₅Be₄(PO₄)₆(OH)₄·6H₂O. It is the Fe²⁺ dominant member of the roscherite group.^[5] It crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system and typically forms prismatic dark olive green crystals.^[2]

It was first described in Germany at Greifenstein Rocks, Ehrenfriedersdorf, and was named for the location. At the type locality, it occurs within a lithium-rich pegmatite in miarolitic cavities. It was approved by the International Mineralogical Association in 2002.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greifensteinite

An example of the monoclinic crystal orthoclase

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclinic_crystal_system

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravais_lattice}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gino}

Adularia (KAlSi₃O₈) with pyrite (FeS₂) incrustations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoclase

Orthoclase is a common constituent of most granites and other felsic igneous rocks and often forms huge crystals and masses in pegmatite.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoclase

Orthoclase

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Orthoclase

General
Category	Silicate mineral
Formula (repeating unit)	KAlSi₃O₈
IMA symbol	Or^[1]
Strunz classification	9.FA.30
Crystal system	Monoclinic
Crystal class	Prismatic (2/m) (same H–M symbol)
Space group	C2/m
Identification
Color	Colorless, greenish, greyish yellow, white, pink
Crystal habit	Can be anhedral or euhedral. Grains are commonly elongate with a tabular appearance.
Twinning	Typically displays Carlsbad twinning. Baveno and manebach twins have also been reported in orthoclase.
Cleavage	Has perfect cleavage on {001} and good cleavage on {010}. Cleavages intersect at 90°. It can be difficult to see cleavage in thin section due to orthoclase's low relief.
Fracture	Uneven
Mohs scale hardness	6 (defining mineral)
Luster	Vitreous, pearly on cleavage surfaces
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity	2.55–2.63
Optical properties	Biaxial (−), 2V = 65–75
Refractive index	n_α = 1.518–1.520 n_β = 1.522–1.524 n_γ = 1.522–1.525
Birefringence	0.0050–0.0060
Dispersion	Relatively strong
Extinction	Parallel to cleavage
Length fast/slow	No slow or fast length
Diagnostic features	Distinguishable from microcline by a lack in gridiron twinning. Distinguishable from sanidine by a larger 2V_x.
Other characteristics	Low negative relief; alters to sericite or clay (commonly)
References	^[2]^[3]^[4]

Orthoclase, or orthoclase feldspar (endmember formula K Al Si₃O₈), is an important tectosilicate mineral which forms igneous rock. The name is from the Ancient Greek for "straight fracture", because its two cleavage planes are at right angles to each other. It is a type of potassium feldspar, also known as K-feldspar. The gem known as moonstone (see below) is largely composed of orthoclase.

Formation and subtypes

Orthoclase is a common constituent of most granites and other felsic igneous rocks and often forms huge crystals and masses in pegmatite.

Typically, the pure potassium endmember of orthoclase forms a solid solution with albite, the sodium endmember (NaAlSi₃O₈), of plagioclase. While slowly cooling within the earth, sodium-rich albite lamellae form by exsolution, enriching the remaining orthoclase with potassium. The resulting intergrowth of the two feldspars is called perthite.

Adularia (KAlSi₃O₈) with pyrite (FeS₂) incrustations

The higher-temperature polymorph of KAlSi₃O₈ is sanidine. Sanidine is common in rapidly cooled volcanic rocks such as obsidian and felsic pyroclastic rocks, and is notably found in trachytes of the Drachenfels, Germany. The lower-temperature polymorph of KAlSi₃O₈ is microcline.

Adularia is a low temperature form of either microcline or orthoclase originally reported from the low temperature hydrothermal deposits in the Adula Alps of Switzerland.^[5] It was first described by Ermenegildo Pini in 1781.^[6] The optical effect of adularescence in moonstone is typically due to adularia.^[7]

The largest documented single crystal of orthoclase was found in the Ural mountains in Russia. It measured around 10 m × 10 m × 0.4 m (33 ft × 33 ft × 1 ft) and weighed around 100 tonnes (110 short tons).^[8]

Uses

Together with the other potassium feldspars, orthoclase is a common raw material for the manufacture of some glasses and some ceramics such as porcelain, and as a constituent of scouring powder.

Some intergrowths of orthoclase and albite have an attractive pale luster and are called moonstone when used in jewellery. Most moonstones are translucent and white, although grey and peach-colored varieties also occur. In gemology, their luster is called adularescence and is typically described as creamy or silvery white with a "billowy" quality. It is the state gem of Florida.

The gemstone commonly called rainbow moonstone is more properly a colorless form of labradorite and can be distinguished from "true" moonstone by its greater transparency and play of color, although their value and durability do not greatly differ.

Orthoclase is one of the ten defining minerals of the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, on which it is listed as having a hardness of 6.

NASA's Curiosity rover discovery of high levels of orthoclase in Martian sandstones suggested that some Martian rocks may have experienced complex geological processing, such as repeated melting.^[9]

References

Warr, L. N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.

"Orthoclase: Orthoclase mineral information and data". www.mindat.org. Retrieved 17 April 2018.

"Handbook of Mineralogy" (PDF).

Barthelmy, Dave. "Orthoclase Mineral Data". www.webmineral.com. Retrieved 17 April 2018.

"Adularia: Adularia mineral information and data". www.mindat.org. Retrieved 17 April 2018.

Roth, Philippe (2006). "The early history of Tremolite" (PDF). Axis. 2 (3): 1–10.

"Moonstone Value, Price, and Jewelry Information". gemsociety.org. Retrieved 17 April 2018.

P. C. Rickwood (1981). "The largest crystals" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 66: 885–907.

"NASA's Mars Curiosity Rover Marks First Martian Year with Mission Successes". 23 June 2014.

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoclase

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Pyroclastic)

USGS scientist examines pumice blocks at the edge of a pyroclastic flow from Mount St. Helens

Rocks from the Bishop Tuff, uncompressed with pumice on left; compressed with fiamme on right.

0:13

Flight through a μCT-image stack of a lapillus of the volcano Katla in Iceland. Find spot: Beach near Vik at the end of road 215. Acquisition done using "CT Alpha" by "Procon X-Ray GmbH", Garbsen, Germany. Resolution 11,2μm/Voxel, width approx. 24 mm.

3D-Rendering of the above image stack, in parts transparent. Heavy particles in red.

Pyroclastic rocks (derived from the Greek: πῦρ, meaning fire; and κλαστός, meaning broken) are clastic rocks composed of rock fragments produced and ejected by explosive volcanic eruptions. The individual rock fragments are known as pyroclasts. Pyroclastic rocks are a type of volcaniclastic deposit, which are deposits made predominantly of volcanic particles.^[1]^[2] 'Phreatic' pyroclastic deposits are a variety of pyroclastic rock that forms from volcanic steam explosions and they are entirely made of accidental clasts. 'Phreatomagmatic' pyroclastic deposits are formed from explosive interaction of magma with groundwater.^[3]

Unconsolidated accumulations of pyroclasts are described as tephra. Tephra may become lithified to a pyroclastic rock by cementation or chemical reactions as the result of the passage of hot gases (fumarolic alteration) or groundwater (e.g. hydrothermal alteration and diagenesis) and burial, or, if it is emplaced at temperatures so hot that the soft glassy pyroclasts stick together at point contacts, and deform: this is known as welding.^[4]

One of the most spectacular types of pyroclastic deposit is an ignimbrite, which is the deposit of a ground-hugging pumiceous pyroclastic density current (a rapidly flowing hot suspension of pyroclasts in gas). Ignimbrites may be loose deposits or solid rock, and they can bury entire landscapes. An individual ignimbrite can exceed 1000 km³ in volume, can cover 20,000 km² of land, and may exceed 1 km in thickness, for example where it is ponded within a volcanic caldera.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock

Obsidian

General
Category	Volcanic glass
Identification
Color	usually black; sometimes green or brown; rarely yellow, orange, red or blue^[1]
Fracture	Conchoidal
Mohs scale hardness	5–6^[2]
Luster	Vitreous
Specific gravity	c. 2.4^[3]
Optical properties	Translucent
Other characteristics	Texture: Smooth; glassy
References	^[4]

Obsidian (/əbˈsɪdi.ən, ɒb-/)^[5] is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock.^[6]

Obsidian is produced from felsic lava, rich in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. It is commonly found within the margins of rhyolitic lava flows known as obsidian flows. These flows have a high content of silica, granting them a high viscosity. The high viscosity inhibits diffusion of atoms through the lava, which inhibits the first step (nucleation) in the formation of mineral crystals. Together with rapid cooling, this results in a natural glass forming from the lava.^[7]

Obsidian is hard, brittle, and amorphous; it therefore fractures with sharp edges. In the past, it was used to manufacture cutting and piercing tools, and it has been used experimentally as surgical scalpel blades.^[8]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder

Obsidian talus at Obsidian Dome, California

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

Glass Mountain, a large obsidian flow at Medicine Lake Volcano in California

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

Obsidian arrowhead

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

The first known archaeological evidence of usage was in Kariandusi (Kenya) and other sites of the Acheulian age (beginning 1.5 million years BP) dated 700,000 BC, although only very few objects have been found at these sites relative to the Neolithic.^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37] Manufacture of obsidian bladelets at Lipari had reached a high level of sophistication by the late Neolithic, and was traded as far as Sicily, the southern Po river valley, and Croatia.^[38] Obsidian bladelets were used in ritual circumcisions and cutting of umbilical cords of newborns.^[39] Anatolian sources of obsidian are known to have been the material used in the Levant and modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan from a time beginning sometime about 12,500 BC.^[40] Obsidian artifacts are common at Tell Brak, one of the earliest Mesopotamian urban centers, dating to the late fifth millennium BC.^[41] Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint, it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads in a process called knapping. Like all glass and some other naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture. It was also polished to create early mirrors. Modern archaeologists have developed a relative dating system, obsidian hydration dating, to calculate the age of obsidian artifacts.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

Obsidian tools from Tilkitepe, Turkey, 5th millennium BC. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherulite

Plinths for audio turntables have been made of obsidian since the 1970s, such as the grayish-black SH-10B3 plinth by Technics.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian

Matrix (geology)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Orthoclase phenocrysts within a finer-grained matrix of a granite porphyry

The matrix or groundmass of a rock is the finer-grained mass of material in which larger grains, crystals, or clasts are embedded.

The matrix of an igneous rock consists of finer-grained, often microscopic, crystals in which larger crystals, called phenocrysts, are embedded. This porphyritic texture is indicative of multi-stage cooling of magma. For example, porphyritic andesite will have large phenocrysts of plagioclase in a fine-grained matrix. Also in South Africa, diamonds are often mined from a matrix of weathered clay-like rock (kimberlite) called "yellow ground".

The matrix of sedimentary rocks is finer-grained sedimentary material, such as clay or silt, in which larger grains or clasts are embedded. It is also used to describe the rock material in which a fossil is embedded.

Cementation

All sediments are at first in an incoherent condition (e.g. sands, clays and gravels, beds of shells), and they may remain in this state for an indefinite period. Millions of years have elapsed since some of the early Tertiary strata gathered on the ocean floor, yet they are quite friable (e.g. the London Clay) and differ little from many recent accumulations. There are few exceptions to the rule that with increasing age sedimentary rocks become more and more indurated. Generally, the older the strata the more likely it is that they will have the firm consistency generally implied in the term "rock".^[1]

The pressure of newer sediments on underlying masses is apparently one cause of this hardening, though not in itself a very powerful one. More efficiency is generally ascribed to the action of percolating water, which takes up water-soluble materials and then redeposits them in pores and cavities. This operation is probably accelerated by the increased pressure produced by superincumbent masses, and to some extent also by the rise of temperature which inevitably takes place in rocks buried to some depth beneath the surface. The rise of temperature, however, may be only a tiny increase; we know more than one instance of sedimentary deposits which have been buried beneath four or five miles of similar strata (e.g. parts of the Old Red Sandstone), and yet no perceptible difference is apparent between beds of similar composition at the top of the series and near its base. Should the deposits have been truly "baked", that is, subject to a large increase in temperature, then differences would be evident.^[1]

The redeposited cementing material is most commonly calcareous or siliceous. Limestones, which were originally a loose accumulation of shells, corals, etc., become compacted into firm rock in this manner; and the process often takes place with surprising ease, as for example, in the deeper parts of coral reefs, or even in wind-blown masses of shelly sand exposed merely to the action of rain. The cementing substance may be regularly deposited in crystalline continuity on the original grains, where these were crystalline, and even in sandstones (such as Kentish rag), a crystalline matrix of calcite often envelops the sand grains. The change of aragonite to calcite and of calcite to dolomite, by forming new crystalline masses in the interior of the rock, usually also accelerates consolidations. Silica is less easily soluble in ordinary waters, but even this ingredient of rocks is dissolved and redeposited with great frequency. Many sandstones are held together by an infinitesimal amount of colloid or cryptocrystalline silica; when freshly dug from the quarry they are soft and easily trimmed, but after exposure to the air for some time they become much harder, as their siliceous cement sets and passes into a rigid condition. Others contain fine scales of kaolin or of mica. Argillaceous materials may be compacted by mere pressure, like graphite and other scaly minerals.^[1]

References

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Flett, John Smith (1911). "Petrology". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 332.

Category:

Petrology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(geology)

Map of Southwest Asia showing the main archaeological sites of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, c. 7500 BC.

The Neolithic Revolution, or the (First) Agricultural Revolution, was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures during the Neolithic period from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making an increasingly large population possible.^[1] These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants, learning how they grew and developed.^[2] This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants into crops.^[2]^[3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution}

The Ubaid period (c. 5500–3700 BC)^[1] is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially in 1919 by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley.^[2]^[3]

In South Mesopotamia the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium.^[4] In the south it has a very long duration between about 5500 and 3800 BC when it is replaced by the Uruk period.^[5]

In Northern Mesopotamia the period runs only between about 5300 and 4300 BC.^[5] It is preceded by the Halaf period and the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubaid_period

Uruk period

Geographical range	Mesopotamia
Period	Copper Age
Dates	ca. 4000–3100 BC
Type site	Uruk
Preceded by	Ubaid period
Followed by	Jemdet Nasr period

The Uruk period (ca. 4000 to 3100 BC; also known as Protoliterate period) existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, after the Ubaid period and before the Jemdet Nasr period.^[1] Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and the Sumerian civilization.^[2] The late Uruk period (34th to 32nd centuries) saw the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script and corresponds to the Early Bronze Age; it has also been described as the "Protoliterate period".^[3]^[4]

It was during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along with cylinder seals.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk_period

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Uruk
History
𒀕𒆠, Unug^ki (Sumerian) 𒌷𒀕 or 𒌷𒀔, Uruk (Akkadian) وركاء or أوروك Warkāʼ or Auruk (Arabic)
White Temple ziggurat in Uruk in 2020
Shown within Near East Show map of Near EastShow map of IraqShow all
Location	Al-Warka, Muthanna Governorate, Iraq
Region	Mesopotamia
Coordinates	31°19′27″N 45°38′14″ECoordinates: 31°19′27″N 45°38′14″E
Type	Settlement
Area	6 km² (2.3 sq mi)
Founded	4th millennium BC
Abandoned	Approximately 700 AD
Periods	Uruk period to Early Middle Ages
Site notes

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Uruk Archaeological City
Part of	Ahwar of Southern Iraq
Criteria	Mixed: (iii)(v)(ix)(x)
Reference	1481-005
Inscription	2016 (40th Session)
Area	541 ha (2.09 sq mi)
Buffer zone	292 ha (1.13 sq mi)

Uruk, today known as Warka, was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia) situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates River on the dried-up ancient channel of the Euphrates 30 km (19 mi) east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq.^[1]

Uruk is the type site for the Uruk period. Uruk played a leading role in the early urbanization of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium BC. By the final phase of the Uruk period around 3100 BC, the city may have had 40,000 residents,^[2] with 80,000–90,000 people living in its environs,^[3] making it the largest urban area in the world at the time. The legendary king Gilgamesh, according to the chronology presented in the Sumerian King List (henceforth SKL), ruled Uruk in the 27th century BC. The city lost its prime importance around 2000 BC in the context of the struggle of Babylonia against Elam, but it remained inhabited throughout the Seleucid (312–63 BC) and Parthian (227 BC to 224 AD) periods until it was finally abandoned shortly before or after the Islamic conquest of 633–638.

William Kennett Loftus visited the site of Uruk in 1849, identifying it as "Erech", known as "the second city of Nimrod", and led the first excavations from 1850 to 1854.^[4]

Etymology

Uruk (/ˈʊrʊk/;^[5]) has several spellings in cuneiform; in Sumerian it is 𒀕𒆠 unug^ki;^[6] in Akkadian, 𒌷𒀕 or 𒌷𒀔 Uruk (^URUUNUG). Its names in other languages include: Arabic: وركاء or أوروك, Warkāʼ or Auruk; Syriac: ܐܘܿܪܘܿܟ,‘Úrūk; Hebrew: אֶרֶךְ‎ ʼÉreḵ; Ancient Greek: Ὀρχόη, romanized: Orkhóē, Ὀρέχ Orékh, Ὠρύγεια Ōrúgeia.

Though the Arabic name of the present-day country of al-ʿIrāq is often thought to be derived from the name Uruk, it is more likely loaned via Middle Persian (Erāq) and then Aramaic ’yrg^[7] transmission.^[8]

Prominence

Uruk expansion and colonial outposts, c. 3600–3200 BC

In myth and literature, Uruk was famous as the capital city of Gilgamesh, hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Scholars identify Uruk as the biblical Erech (Genesis 10:10), the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar.^[9]

Uruk Period

In addition to being one of the first cities, Uruk was the main force of urbanization and state formation during the Uruk period, or 'Uruk expansion' (4000–3200 BC). This period of 800 years saw a shift from small, agricultural villages to a larger urban center with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society. Although other settlements coexisted with Uruk, they were generally about 10 hectares while Uruk was significantly larger and more complex. The Uruk period culture exported by Sumerian traders and colonists had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. Ultimately, Uruk could not maintain long-distance control over colonies such as Tell Brak by military force.

Geographic Factors

Map of Sumer.

Geographic factors underpin Uruk's unprecedented growth. The city was located in the southern part of Mesopotamia, an ancient site of civilization, on the Euphrates river. Through the gradual and eventual domestication of native grains from the Zagros foothills and extensive irrigation techniques, the area supported a vast variety of edible vegetation. This domestication of grain and its proximity to rivers enabled Uruk's growth into the largest Sumerian settlement, in both population and area, with relative ease.^[10]

Uruk's agricultural surplus and large population base facilitated processes such as trade, specialization of crafts and the evolution of writing; writing may have originated in Uruk around 3300 BC.^[11] Evidence from excavations such as extensive pottery and the earliest known tablets of writing support these events. Excavation of Uruk is highly complex because older buildings were recycled into newer ones, thus blurring the layers of different historic periods. The topmost layer most likely originated in the Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC) and is built on structures from earlier periods dating back to the Ubaid period.

History

Devotional scene to Inanna, Warka Vase, c. 3200–3000 BC, Uruk. This is one of the earliest surviving works of narrative relief sculpture.

According to the SKL, Uruk was founded by the king Enmerkar. Though the king-list mentions a father before him, the epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta relates that Enmerkar constructed the House of Heaven (Sumerian: e₂-anna; cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭 E₂.AN) for the goddess Inanna in the Eanna District of Uruk. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh builds the city wall around Uruk and is king of the city.

Uruk went through several phases of growth, from the Early Uruk period (4000–3500 BC) to the Late Uruk period (3500–3100 BC).^[1] The city was formed when two smaller Ubaid settlements merged. The temple complexes at their cores became the Eanna District and the Anu District dedicated to Inanna and Anu, respectively.^[1] The Anu District was originally called 'Kullaba' (Kulab or Unug-Kulaba) prior to merging with the Eanna District. Kullaba dates to the Eridu period when it was one of the oldest and most important cities of Sumer. There are different interpretations about the purposes of the temples. However, it is generally believed they were a unifying feature of the city. It also seems clear that temples served both an important religious function and state function. The surviving temple archive of the Neo-Babylonian period documents the social function of the temple as a redistribution center.

The Eanna District was composed of several buildings with spaces for workshops, and it was walled off from the city. By contrast, the Anu District was built on a terrace with a temple at the top. It is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna from the earliest Uruk period throughout the history of the city.^[12] The rest of the city was composed of typical courtyard houses, grouped by profession of the occupants, in districts around Eanna and Anu. Uruk was extremely well penetrated by a canal system that has been described as, "Venice in the desert."^[13] This canal system flowed throughout the city connecting it with the maritime trade on the ancient Euphrates River as well as the surrounding agricultural belt.

The original city of Uruk was situated southwest of the ancient Euphrates River, now dry. Currently, the site of Warka is northeast of the modern Euphrates river. The change in position was caused by a shift in the Euphrates at some point in history, which, together with salination due to irrigation, may have contributed to the decline of Uruk.

Archaeological Levels of Uruk

Archeologists have discovered multiple cities of Uruk built atop each other in chronological order.^[14]

Uruk XVIII Eridu period (c. 5000 BC); the founding of Uruk
Uruk XVIII–XVI Late Ubaid period (4800–4200 BC)
Uruk XVI–X Early Uruk period (4000–3800 BC)
Uruk IX–VI Middle Uruk period (3800–3400 BC)
Uruk V–IV Late Uruk period (3400–3100 BC); The earliest monumental temples of Eanna District are built
Uruk III Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC); The 9 km city wall is built
Uruk II
Uruk I

Anu District

Anu/ White Temple ziggurat

Anu/ White Temple ziggurat at Uruk. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat" dates to around 4000 BC, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BC.^[15]

The great Anu district is older than the Eanna district; however, few remains of writing have been found here. Unlike the Eanna district, the Anu district consists of a single massive terrace, the Anu Ziggurat, dedicated to the Sumerian sky god Anu. Sometime in the Uruk III period the massive White Temple was built atop of the ziggurat. Under the northwest edge of the ziggurat an Uruk VI period structure, the Stone Temple, has been discovered.

The Stone Temple was built of limestone and bitumen on a podium of rammed earth and plastered with lime mortar. The podium itself was built over a woven reed mat called ĝipar, which was ritually used as a nuptial bed. The ĝipar was a source of generative power which then radiated upward into the structure.^[16] The structure of the Stone Temple further develops some mythological concepts from Enuma Elish, perhaps involving libation rites as indicated from the channels, tanks, and vessels found there. The structure was ritually destroyed, covered with alternating layers of clay and stone, then excavated and filled with mortar sometime later.

The Anu Ziggurat began with a massive mound topped by a cella during the Uruk period (ca. 4000 BC), and was expanded through 14 phases of construction. These phases have been labeled L to A₃ (L is sometimes called X).^[17] The earliest phase used architectural features similar to PPNA cultures in Anatolia: a single chamber cella with a terrazzo floor beneath which bucrania were found. In phase E, corresponding to the Uruk III period (ca. 3000 BC), the White Temple was built. The White Temple could be seen from a great distance across the plain of Sumer, as it was elevated 21 m and covered in gypsum plaster which reflected sunlight like a mirror. For this reason it is believed the White Temple is a symbol of Uruk's political power at the time.^{[citation needed]} In addition to this temple the Anu Ziggurat had a monumental limestone-paved staircase, which was used in religious processions. A trough running parallel to the staircase was used to drain the ziggurat.

Eanna District

Eanna IVa (light brown) and IVb (dark brown)

The Eanna district is historically significant as both writing and monumental public architecture emerged here during Uruk periods VI–IV. The combination of these two developments places Eanna as arguably the first true city and civilization in human history. Eanna during period IVa contains the earliest examples of cuneiform writing and possibly the earliest writing in history. Although some of these cuneiform tablets have been deciphered, difficulty with site excavations has obscured the purpose and sometimes even the structure of many buildings.

The first building of Eanna, Stone-Cone Temple (Mosaic Temple), was built in period VI over a preexisting Ubaid temple and is enclosed by a limestone wall with an elaborate system of buttresses. The Stone-Cone Temple, named for the mosaic of colored stone cones driven into the adobe brick façade, may be the earliest water cult in Mesopotamia. It was ritually demolished in Uruk IVb period and its contents interred in the Riemchen Building.

An Uruk period cylinder-seal and its impression, c.3100 BC. Louvre

In the following period, Uruk V, about 100 m east of the Stone-Cone Temple the Limestone Temple was built on a 2 m high rammed-earth podium over a pre-existing Ubaid temple, which like the Stone-Cone Temple represents a continuation of Ubaid culture. However, the Limestone Temple was unprecedented for its size and use of stone, a clear departure from traditional Ubaid architecture. The stone was quarried from an outcrop at Umayyad about 60 km east of Uruk. It is unclear if the entire temple or just the foundation was built of this limestone. The Limestone temple is probably the first Inanna temple, but it is impossible to know with certainty. Like the Stone-Cone temple the Limestone temple was also covered in cone mosaics. Both of these temples were rectangles with their corners aligned to the cardinal directions, a central hall flanked along the long axis flanked by two smaller halls, and buttressed façades; the prototype of all future Mesopotamian temple architectural typology.

Tablet from Uruk III (c. 3200–3000 BC) recording beer distributions from the storerooms of an institution,^[18] British Museum.

Between these two monumental structures a complex of buildings (called A–C, E–K, Riemchen, Cone-Mosaic), courts, and walls was built during Eanna IVb. These buildings were built during a time of great expansion in Uruk as the city grew to 250 hectares and established long-distance trade, and are a continuation of architecture from the previous period. The Riemchen Building, named for the 16×16 cm brick shape called Riemchen by the Germans, is a memorial with a ritual fire kept burning in the center for the Stone-Cone Temple after it was destroyed. For this reason, Uruk IV period represents a reorientation of belief and culture. The facade of this memorial may have been covered in geometric and figural murals. The Riemchen bricks first used in this temple were used to construct all buildings of Uruk IV period Eanna. The use of colored cones as a façade treatment was greatly developed as well, perhaps used to greatest effect in the Cone-Mosaic Temple. Composed of three parts: Temple N, the Round Pillar Hall, and the Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, this temple was the most monumental structure of Eanna at the time. They were all ritually destroyed and the entire Eanna district was rebuilt in period IVa at an even grander scale.

During Eanna IVa, the Limestone Temple was demolished and the Red Temple built on its foundations. The accumulated debris of the Uruk IVb buildings were formed into a terrace, the L-Shaped Terrace, on which Buildings C, D, M, Great Hall, and Pillar Hall were built. Building E was initially thought to be a palace, but later proven to be a communal building. Also in period IV, the Great Court, a sunken courtyard surrounded by two tiers of benches covered in cone mosaic, was built. A small aqueduct drains into the Great Courtyard, which may have irrigated a garden at one time. The impressive buildings of this period were built as Uruk reached its zenith and expanded to 600 hectares. All the buildings of Eanna IVa were destroyed sometime in Uruk III, for unclear reasons.^{[citation needed]}

The architecture of Eanna in period III was very different from what had preceded it. The complex of monumental temples was replaced with baths around the Great Courtyard and the labyrinthine Rammed-Earth Building. This period corresponds to Early Dynastic Sumer c. 2900 BC, a time of great social upheaval when the dominance of Uruk was eclipsed by competing city-states. The fortress-like architecture of this time is a reflection of that turmoil. The temple of Inanna continued functioning during this time in a new form and under a new name, 'The House of Inanna in Uruk' (Sumerian: e₂-^dinanna unu^ki-ga). The location of this structure is currently unknown.^[12]

Uruk into Late Antiquity

Although it had been a thriving city in Early Dynastic Sumer, especially Early Dynastic II, Uruk was ultimately annexed by the Akkadian Empire and went into decline. Later, in the Neo-Sumerian period, Uruk enjoyed revival as a major economic and cultural center under the sovereignty of Ur. The Eanna District was restored as part of an ambitious building program, which included a new temple for Inanna. This temple included a ziggurat, the 'House of the Universe' (Cuneiform: E₂.SAR.A) to the northeast of the Uruk period Eanna ruins.

Partially reconstructed facade and access staircase of the Ziggurat of Ur, originally built by Ur-Nammu, Neo-Sumerian period, circa 2100 BC.

The ziggurat is also cited as Ur-Nammu Ziggurat for its builder Ur-Nammu. Following the collapse of Ur (c. 2000 BC), Uruk went into a steep decline until about 850 BC when the Neo-Assyrian Empire annexed it as a provincial capital. Under the Neo-Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians, Uruk regained much of its former glory. By 250 BC, a new temple complex the 'Head Temple' (Akkadian: Bīt Reš) was added to northeast of the Uruk period Anu district. The Bīt Reš along with the Esagila was one of the two main centers of Neo-Babylonian astronomy. All of the temples and canals were restored again under Nabopolassar. During this era, Uruk was divided into five main districts: the Adad Temple, Royal Orchard, Ištar Gate, Lugalirra Temple, and Šamaš Gate districts.^[19]

Uruk, known as Orcha (Ὄρχα) to the Greeks, continued to thrive under the Seleucid Empire. During this period, Uruk was a city of 300 hectares and perhaps 40,000 inhabitants.^[19]^[20]^[21] In 200 BC, the 'Great Sanctuary' (Cuneiform: E₂.IRI₁₂.GAL, Sumerian: eš-gal) of Ishtar was added between the Anu and Eanna districts. The ziggurat of the temple of Anu, which was rebuilt in this period, was the largest ever built in Mesopotamia.^[21] When the Seleucids lost Mesopotamia to the Parthians in 141 BC, Uruk again entered a period of decline from which it never recovered. The decline of Uruk may have been in part caused by a shift in the Euphrates River. By 300 AD, Uruk was mostly abandoned, but a group of Mandaeans settled there,^[22] and by c. 700 AD it was completely abandoned.

Political History

Uruk King-Priest

Mesopotamian king as Master of Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife (c. 3300-3200 BC, Abydos, Egypt), a work indicating Egypt-Mesopotamia relations and showing the early influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography in the Uruk period. Louvre.^[23]^[24]

Probable Uruk King-Priest with a beard and hat (c. 3300 BC, Uruk). Louvre.^[25]

"In Uruk, in southern Mesopotamia, Sumerian civilization seems to have reached its creative peak. This is pointed out repeatedly in the references to this city in religious and, especially, in literary texts, including those of mythological content; the historical tradition as preserved in the Sumerian king-list confirms it. From Uruk the center of political gravity seems to have moved to Ur."
—Oppenheim^[26]

Uruk played a very important part in the political history of Sumer. Starting from the Early Uruk period, the city exercised hegemony over nearby settlements. At this time (c. 3800 BC), there were two centers of 20 hectares, Uruk in the south and Nippur in the north surrounded by much smaller 10 hectare settlements.^[27] Later, in the Late Uruk period, its sphere of influence extended over all Sumer and beyond to external colonies in upper Mesopotamia and Syria. Uruk was prominent in the national struggles of the Sumerians against the Elamites up to 2004 BC, in which it suffered severely; recollections of some of these conflicts are embodied in the Gilgamesh epic, in the literary and courtly form.

The recorded chronology of rulers over Uruk includes both mythological and historic figures in five dynasties. As in the rest of Sumer, power moved progressively from the temple to the palace. Rulers from the Early Dynastic period exercised control over Uruk and at times over all of Sumer. In myth, kingship was lowered from heaven to Eridu then passed successively through five cities until the deluge which ended the Uruk period. Afterwards, kingship passed to Kish at the beginning of the Early Dynastic period, which corresponds to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in Sumer. In the Early Dynastic I period (2900–2800 BC), Uruk was in theory under the control of Kish. This period is sometimes called the Golden Age. During the Early Dynastic II period (2800–2600 BC), Uruk was again the dominant city exercising control of Sumer. This period is the time of the First Dynasty of Uruk sometimes called the Heroic Age. However, by the Early Dynastic IIIa period (2600–2500 BC) Uruk had lost sovereignty, this time to Ur. This period, corresponding to the Early Bronze Age III, is the end of the First Dynasty of Uruk. In the Early Dynastic IIIb period (2500–2334 BC), also called the Pre-Sargonic period (referring to Sargon of Akkad^[28]), Uruk continued to be ruled by Ur.

Early Dynastic, Akkadian, and Neo-Sumerian Rulers of Uruk

Clay impression of a cylinder seal with monstrous lions and lion-headed eagles, Mesopotamia, Uruk Period (4100 BC–3000 BC). Louvre Museum.

Foundation peg of Lugal-kisal-si, king of Uruk, Ur and Kish, circa 2380 BC. The inscription reads "For (goddess) Namma, wife of (the god) An, Lugalkisalsi, King of Uruk, King of Ur, erected this temple of Namma". Pergamon Museum VA 4855.^[29]

Dedication tablet of Sîn-gāmil, ruler of Uruk, 18th century BC.

Dynastic categorizations are described solely from the Sumerian King List, which is of problematic historical accuracy;^[30]^[31] the organization might be analogous to Manetho's.

In 2009, two different copies of an inscription were put forth as evidence of a 19th-century BC ruler of Uruk named Naram-sin^[32]

Uruk continued as principality of Ur, Babylon, and later Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian Empires. It enjoyed brief periods of independence during the Isin-Larsa period, under kings such as (possibly) Ikūn-pî-Ištar (c. 1800 BC), Sîn-kāšid, his son Sîn-irībam, his son Sîn-gāmil, Ilum-gāmil, brother of Sîn-gāmil, Etēia, Anam, ÌR-ne-ne, who was defeated by Rīm-Sîn I of Larsa in his year 14 (c. 1740 BC), Rīm-Anum and Nabi-ilīšu.^[33] It is now believed that another king, Narām-Sîn, briefly ruled before Sîn-kāšid.^[34] The city was finally destroyed by the Arab invasion of Mesopotamia and abandoned c. 700 AD.^{[citation needed]}

Architecture

Relief on the front of the Inanna temple of Karaindash from Uruk. Mid 15th century BC. Pergamon Museum, Berlin

Male deity pouring a life-giving water from a vessel. Facade of Inanna Temple at Uruk, Iraq. 15th century BC. The Pergamon Museum

The Parthian Temple of Charyios at Uruk

Ruins of the Temple of Gareus at Uruk, c. 100 CE

Uruk has some of the first monumental constructions in architectural history, and certainly the largest of its era. Much of Near Eastern architecture can trace its roots to these prototypical buildings. The structures of Uruk are cited by two different naming conventions, one in German from the initial expedition, and the English translation of the same. The stratigraphy of the site is complex and as such much of the dating is disputed. In general, the structures follow the two main typologies of Sumerian architecture, Tripartite with 3 parallel halls and T-Shaped also with three halls, but the central one extends into two perpendicular bays at one end. The following table summarizes the significant architecture of the Eanna and Anu Districts.^[35] Temple N, Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, and Round Pillar Hall are often referred to as a single structure; the Cone-Mosaic Temple.

Eanna district: 4000–2000 BC
Structure name	German name	Period	Typology	Material	Area in m²
Stone-Cone Temple	Steinstifttempel	Uruk VI	T-shaped	Limestone and bitumen	x
Limestone Temple	Kalksteintempel	Uruk V	T-shaped	Limestone and bitumen	2373
Riemchen Building	Riemchengebäude	Uruk IVb	unique	Adobe brick	x
Cone-Mosaic Temple	Stiftmosaikgebäude	Uruk IVb	unique	x	x
Temple A	Gebäude A	Uruk IVb	Tripartite	Adobe brick	738
Temple B	Gebäude B	Uruk IVb	Tripartite	Adobe brick	338
Temple C	Gebäude C	Uruk IVb	T-shaped	Adobe brick	1314
Temple/Palace E	Gebäude E	Uruk IVb	unique	Adobe brick	2905
Temple F	Gebäude F	Uruk IVb	T-shaped	Adobe brick	465
Temple G	Gebäude G	Uruk IVb	T-shaped	Adobe brick	734
Temple H	Gebäude H	Uruk IVb	T-shaped	Adobe brick	628
Temple D	Gebäude D	Uruk IVa	T-shaped	Adobe brick	2596
Room I	Gebäude I	Uruk V	x	x	x
Temple J	Gebäude J	Uruk IVb	x	Adobe brick	x
Temple K	Gebäude K	Uruk IVb	x	Adobe brick	x
Temple L	Gebäude L	Uruk V	x	x	x
Temple M	Gebäude M	Uruk IVa	x	Adobe brick	x
Temple N	Gebäude N	Uruk IVb	unique	Adobe brick	x
Temple O	Gebäude O	x	x	x	x
Hall Building/Great Hall	Hallenbau	Uruk IVa	unique	Adobe brick	821
Pillar Hall	Pfeilerhalle	Uruk IVa	unique	x	219
Bath Building	Bäder	Uruk III	unique	x	x
Red Temple	Roter Tempel	Uruk IVa	x	Adobe brick	x
Great Court	Großer Hof	Uruk IVa	unique	Burnt Brick	2873
Rammed-Earth Building	Stampflehm	Uruk III	unique	x	x
Round Pillar Hall	Rundpeifeilerhalle	Uruk IVb	unique	Adobe brick	x
Anu district: 4000–2000 BC
Stone Building	Steingebäude	Uruk VI	unique	Limestone and bitumen	x
White Temple	x	Uruk III	Tripartite	Adobe brick	382

It is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna symbolized by Venus from the Uruk period. At that time, she was worshipped in four aspects as Inanna of the netherworld (Sumerian: ^dinanna-kur), Inanna of the morning (Sumerian: ^dinanna-hud₂), Inanna of the evening (Sumerian: ^dinanna-sig), and Inanna (Sumerian: ^dinanna-NUN).^[12] The names of four temples in Uruk at this time are known, but it is impossible to match them with either a specific structure and in some cases a deity.^[12]

sanctuary of Inanna (Sumerian: eš-^dinanna)
sanctuary of Inanna of the evening (Sumerian: eš-^dinanna-sig)
temple of heaven (Sumerian: e₂-an)
temple of heaven and netherworld (Sumerian: e₂-an-ki)

Architecture of Uruk
Plan of Eanna VI–V
Plan of Eanna IVb
Plan of Eanna IVa
Plan of Eanna III
Plan of Neo-Sumerian Eanna
Plan of Anu District Phase E
Reconstruction of a mosaic from the Eanna temple.
Detail of Reconstruction of a mosaic from the Eanna temple.

Archaeology

Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium BC. From north to south: Nineveh, Qattara (or Karana), Dūr-Katlimmu, Assur, Arrapha, Terqa, Nuzi, Mari, Eshnunna, Dur-Kurigalzu, Der, Sippar, Babylon, Kish, Susa, Borsippa, Nippur, Isin, Uruk, Larsa and Ur

The site, which lies about 50 mi (80 km) northwest of ancient Ur, is one of the largest in the region at around 5.5 km² (2.1 sq mi) in area. The maximum extent is 3 km (1.9 mi) north/south, and 2.5 km (1.6 mi) east/west. There are three major tells within the site: The Eanna district, Bit Resh (Kullaba), and Irigal.

The location of Uruk was first scouted by William Loftus in 1849. He excavated there in 1850 and 1854. By Loftus' own account, he admits that the first excavations were superficial at best, as his financiers forced him to deliver large museum artifacts at a minimal cost.^[36] Warka was also scouted by archaeologist Walter Andrae in 1902.^[37]

Reconstruction of Uruk (English subtitles)

From 1912 to 1913, Julius Jordan and his team from the German Oriental Society discovered the temple of Ishtar, one of four known temples located at the site. The temples at Uruk were quite remarkable as they were constructed with brick and adorned with colorful mosaics. Jordan also discovered part of the city wall. It was later discovered that this 40-to-50-foot (12 to 15 m) high brick wall, probably utilized as a defense mechanism, totally encompassed the city at a length of 9 km (5.6 mi). Utilizing sedimentary strata dating techniques, this wall is estimated to have been erected around 3000 BC.

The GOS returned to Uruk in 1928 and excavated until 1939, when World War II intervened. The team was led by Jordan until 1931, then by A. Nöldeke, Ernst Heinrich, and H. J. Lenzen.^[38]^[39]

The German excavations resumed after the war and were under the direction of Heinrich Lenzen from 1953 to 1967.^[40]^[41]^[42] He was followed in 1968 by J. Schmidt, and in 1978 by R.M. Boehmer.^[43]^[44] In total, the German archaeologists spent 39 seasons working at Uruk. The results are documented in two series of reports:

Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk (ADFU), 17 volumes, 1912–2001 (titles listed at the German Archaeological Institute Index 38e378adbb1f14a174490017f0000011)
Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka, Endberichte (AUWE), 25 volumes, 1987–2007 (titles listed at the German Archaeological Institute Index 108)

Most recently, from 2001 to 2002, the German Archaeological Institute team led by Margarete van Ess, with Joerg Fassbinder and Helmut Becker, conducted a partial magnetometer survey in Uruk. In addition to the geophysical survey, core samples and aerial photographs were taken. This was followed up with high-resolution satellite imagery in 2005.^[45] Work resumed in 2016 and is currently concentrated on the city wall area and a survey of the surrounding landscape.^[46]^[47]^[48]

Cuneiform Tablets

A massive ziggurat dating from the 4th millennium BC stands at the entrance to Uruk (Warka), 39 km east of Samawah, Iraq

Proto-cuneiform clay tablets were found at Uruk with Sumerian and pictorial inscriptions that are thought to be some of the earliest recorded writing, dating to approximately 3300 BC.^[49]^[50] Later cuneiform tablets were deciphered and include the famous SKL, a record of kings of the Sumerian civilization. There was an even larger cache of legal and scholarly tablets of the Neo-Babylonian, Late Babylonian, and Seleucid period, that have been published by Adam Falkenstein and other Assyriological members of the German Archaeological Institute in Baghdad as Jan J. A. Djik,^[51] Hermann Hunger, Antoine Cavigneaux, Egbert von Weiher,^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55] and Karlheinz Kessler, or others as Erlend Gehlken.^[56]^[57] Many of the cuneiform tablets form acquisitions by museums and collections as the British Museum, Yale Babylonian Collection, and the Louvre. The later holds a unique cuneiform tablet in Aramaic known as the Aramaic Uruk incantation.

The oldest known writing to feature a person's name was found in Uruk, in the form of several tablets that mention Kushim, who (assuming they are an individual person) served as an accountant recording transactions made in trading barley – 29,086 measures barley 37 months Kushim.^[58]

Late Uruk Period beveled rim bowls used for ration distribution.

Beveled rim bowls were the most common type of container used during the Uruk period. They are believed to be vessels for serving rations of food or drink to dependent laborers. The introduction of the fast wheel for throwing pottery was developed during the later part of the Uruk period, and made the mass production of pottery simpler and more standardized.^[59]

Artifacts

The Mask of Warka, also known as the 'Lady of Uruk' and the 'Sumerian Mona Lisa', dating from 3100 BC, is one of the earliest representations of the human face. The carved marble female face is probably a depiction of Inanna. It is approximately 20 cm tall, and may have been incorporated into a larger cult image. The mask was looted from the Iraq Museum during the fall of Baghdad in April 2003. It was recovered in September 2003 and returned to the museum.

Lugal-kisalsi, king of Uruk
Mask of Warka
Bull sculpture, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3000 BC

List of rulers of Uruk

The following list should not be considered complete:

Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approximated dates	Notes and references
Prehistoric Uruk (r. c. 4000 – c. 3400 BC)
	Priest-kings	r. c. 4000 – 3400 BC	Various priest-kings of Uruk are represented in reliefs, statues or cylinders, but their names are not known.^{[citation needed]}
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approximated dates	Notes and references
First dynasty of Uruk
Meshkiangasher		Uncertain; these rulers may have r. c. 3400 – c. 2900 BC sometime during the Late Uruk and/or Jemdet Nasr period(s).	Son of the god Utu and founder of Uruk who received kingship from the 1st Dynasty of Kish.
Enmerkar			Led an assault on the city of Arrata.
Lugalbanda			A soldier in the army of Enmerkar.
Dumuzid			Defeated invading forces headed by Gudam?
	Gilgamesh	Uncertain; these rulers may have r. c. 2900 – c. 2500 BC sometime during the Early Dynastic (ED) I and/or II period(s).	Built the walls of Uruk and defeated Aga of Kish.
	Ur-Nungal		Little is known of these rulers; the existence of most is unconfirmed.
	Udul-kalama
	La-ba'shum
	En-nun-tarah-ana
	Mesh-he
	Melem-ana
	Lugal-kitun
Lumma		Uncertain; these rulers may have r. c. 2500 – c. 2450 BC sometime during the ED IIIa period.^[60]
Ursangpae
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approximated dates	Notes and references
Second dynasty of Uruk
Lugalnamniršumma		Uncertain; these rulers may have r. c. 2500 – c. 2350 BC sometime during the ED IIIb period.^[60]
	Lugalsilâsi I		Assaulted Girsu on ten separate occasions.^[61]
Urzage
	Lugal-kinishe-dudu		King of Uruk and Ur.
	Lugal-kisal-si		King of Uruk and Ur.
Lugalsilâsi II
Urni
	Enshakushanna	Uncertain; may have r. c. 2350 – c. 2334 BC sometime during the ED IIIb, Proto-Imperial, and/or Akkadian period(s).	Established kingship over most of Sumer; his kingdom was taken by Lugalzagesi.
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approximated dates	Notes and references
Third dynasty of Uruk
	Lugalzagesi	Uncertain; may have r. c. 2350 – c. 2154 BC sometime during the EDIIIb, Proto-Imperial, and/or Akkadian period(s).^[60]	Originally of Umma, he made Uruk his new capital after conquering all Sumer. Defeated Urukagina of Lagash and was in turn defeated by Sargon of Akkad.^[62]
Girimesi
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approximated dates	Notes and references
Fourth dynasty of Uruk
Ur-nigin		Uncertain; these rulers may have r. c. 2334 – c. 2119 BC sometime during the Akkadian and/or Gutian period(s).	May have served as ensis of Uruk under the Akkadian empire. Known from the SKL; very little otherwise.
Ur-gigir
Kuda
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approximated dates	Notes and references
Fifth dynasty of Uruk
	Utu-hengal	Uncertain; may have r. c. 2154 – c. 2112 BC sometime during the Gutian and/or Ur III period(s).	An ensi of Uruk who overthrew the Gutians and briefly ruled Sumer until he was succeeded by Ur-Nammu, who he had appointed governor of Ur, thus ending the final Sumerian dynasty of Uruk.^[63]

Notes

Harmansah, 2007

Nissen, Hans J (2003). "Uruk and the formation of the city". In Aruz, J (ed.). Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 11–20. ISBN 9780300098839.

Algaze, Guillermo (2013). "The end of prehistory and the Uruk period". In Crawford, Harriet (ed.). The Sumerian World (PDF). London: Routledge. pp. 68–95. ISBN 9781138238633. Retrieved 26 July 2020.^{[dead link]}

William Kennett Loftus (1857). Travels and researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: with an account of excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52. Robert Carter & Brothers. Of the primeval cities founded by Nimrod, the son of Gush, four are represented, in Genesis x. 10, as giving origin to the rest : — 'And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Galneh, in the land of Shinar.' ...let us see if there be any site which will correspond with the biblical Erech — the second city of Nimrod. About 120 miles southeast of Babylon, are some enormous piles of mounds, which, from their name and importance, appear at once to justify their claim to consideration. The name of Warka is derivable from Erech without unnecessary contortion. The original Hebrew word 'Erk,' or 'Ark,' is transformed into 'Warka,' either by changing the aleph into vau, or by simply prefixing the vau for the sake of euphony, as is customary in the conversion of Hebrew names to Arabic. If any dependence can be placed upon the derivation of modern from ancient names, this is more worthy of credence than most others of like nature.... Sir Henry Rawlinson states his belief that Warka is Erech, and in this he is supported by concurrent testimony.... [Footnote: See page xvi. of the Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1852 ; and Proceedings of the Royal Geogr. Society, vol. i., page 47]

"Uruk". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

"Sumerian Dictionary". oracc.iaas.upenn.edu.

Stephen A. Kaufman (1983). "Appendix C. Alphabetic Texts." In McGuire Gibson. Excavations at Nippur Eleventh Season. Oriental Institute Communications, 22, pp. 151–152. https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oic/oic-22-excavations-nippur-eleventh-season

"The name al-ʿIrāq, for all its Arabic appearance, is derived from Middle Persian erāq 'lowlands'" W. Eilers (1983), "Iran and Mesopotamia" in E. Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

While earlier scholars such as Jerome (4th century) had identified Erech with the Syrian city of Edessa (now within Turkey), the modern consensus is that it refers to the Sumerian city-state of Uruk in southern Mesopotamia. See Warwick Ball, 2001, Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire, p. 89. Ball further speculates that the earlier traditions connecting Edessa (Orhai) with Erech might have arisen because the ancient Uruk was possibly 'transferred' to the more northerly location in the reign of Nabonidus of Babylon, 6th century BC.

Tertius Chandler, Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987, ISBN 0-88946-207-0

Asimov, I. (1968) The Near East, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 16–18

Beaulieu, 2003

Fassbinder, 2003

Charvát 2002, p.119

Crüsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019). Uruk: First City of the Ancient World. Getty Publications. p. 325. ISBN 978-1-60606-444-3.

Charvát, 2002 p.122

Charvát, 2002 p.126

"Tablet MSVO 3,12 /BM 140855 : description on CDLI". Archived from the original on 2013-10-29.

Baker, 2009

R. van der Spek, “The Latest on Seleucid Empire Building in the East.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 138.2 (2018): 385–94.

R. van der Spek, “Feeding Hellenistic Seleucia on the Tigris.” In Feeding the Ancient Greek City, edited by R. Alston & O. van Nijf, 36. Leuven ; Dudley, MA: Peeters Publishers, 2008.

According to some finds of Mandaic incantation bowls Rudolf Macuch, "Gefäßinschriften," in Eva Strommenger (ed.), Gefässe aus Uruk von der Neubabylonischen Zeit bis zu den Sasaniden (= Ausgrabungen der deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka 7) (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1967), pp. 55–57, pl. 57.1–3.

"Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.

Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996). The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference. Eisenbrauns. pp. 10–14. ISBN 9780931464966.

"Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.

Oppenheim 1977, p.?

Crawford 2004, p.53

Chisholm 1911.

Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-1-58839-043-1.

Kesecker, Nshan (January 2018). "Lugalzagesi: The First Emperor of Mesopotamia?". ARAMAZD Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies.

"The Sumerian King List and the Early History of Mesopotamia". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2021-01-27.

"Narām-Sîn of Uruk: A New King in an Old Shoebox" (Journal of Cuneiform Studies)

Douglas Frayne (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003–1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4. University of Toronto Press. pp. 439–483, 825.

von Dassow, Eva. “Narām-Sîn of Uruk: A New King in an Old Shoebox.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 61, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2009, pp. 63–91

Charvát 2002, p.122–126

[1] William K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52, Robert Carter & Brothers, 1857

Walter Andrae, Die deutschen Ausgrabungen in Warka (Uruk), Berlin 1935

Julius Jordan, Uruk-Warka nach dem ausgrabungen durch die Deutsche Orient-gesellschaft, Hinrichs, 1928 (German)

Ernst Heinrich, Kleinfunde aus den archaischen Tempelschichten in Uruk, Harrassowitz, Leipzig 1936 (German)

H. J. Lenzen, The Ningiszida Temple Built by Marduk-Apla-Iddina II at Uruk (Warka), Iraq, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 146–150, 1957

H. J. Lenzen, The E-anna district after excavations in the winter of 1958–59, Sumer, vol. 16, pp. 3–11, 1960

H. J. Lenzen, New discoveries at Warka in southern Iraq, Archaeology, vol. 17, pp. 122–131, 1964

J. Schmidt, Uruk-Warka, Susammenfassender Bericht uber die 27. Kampagne 1969, Baghdader, vol. 5, pp. 51–96, 1970

Rainer Michael Boehmer, Uruk 1980–1990: a progress report, Antiquity, vol. 65, pp. 465–78, 1991

M. van Ess and J. Fassbinder, Magnetic prospection of Uruk (Warka) Iraq, in: La Prospection Géophysique, Dossiers d'Archeologie Nr. 308, pp. 20–25, Nov. 2005

Van Ess, Margarete, and J. Fassbinder, "Uruk-Warka. Archaeological Research 2016–2018, Preliminary Report.", SUMER Journal of Archaeology of Iraq 65, pp. 47–85, 2019

[2]Margarete van Ess, "Uruk, Irak. Wissenschaftliche Forschungen 2019", e-Forschungsberichte des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, vol. 2, pp. 117–121, 2019

[3]van Ess, Margarete, et al., "Uruk, Irak. Wissenschaftliche Forschungen und Konservierungsarbeiten. Die Arbeiten der Jahre 2020 bis 2022.", e-Forschungsberichte, pp. 1-31, 2022

Hans J. Nissen, The Archaic Texts from Uruk, World Archaeology, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 317–334, 1986

M. W. Green, Archaic Uruk Cuneiform, American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 90, no. 4, pp. 464–466, 1986

Jan J. A. Djik, Texte aus dem Rēš-Heiligtum in Uruk-Warka (= Baghdader Mitteilungen. Beiheft 2) (Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1980) ISBN 3-7861-1282-7

Egbert von Weiher, Spätbabylonischen Texte aus Uruk, Teil II (= Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka 10) (Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1983). ISBN 3-7861-1336-X

Egbert von Weiher, Spätbabylonischen Texte aus Uruk, Teil III (= Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka 12) (Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1988). ISBN 3-7861-1508-7

Egbert von Weiher, Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Texte aus aus dem Planquadrat U 18, Teil IV (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 12) (Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1993). ISBN 3-8053-1504-X

Egbert von Weiher, Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Texte aus aus dem Planquadrat U 18, Teil V (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 13) (Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1998). ISBN 3-8053-1850-2

Erlend Gehlken, Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Wirtschaftstext aus dem Eanna-Archiv, Teil 1 (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 5) (Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1990). ISBN 3-8053-1217-2

Erlend Gehlken, Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Wirtschaftstext aus dem Eanna-Archiv, Teil 2 (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 11) (Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1996). ISBN 3-8053-1545-7

Badenhorst, Francois (2015-08-20). "Meet Kushim, the accountant from ancient Sumer". AccountingWEB. Retrieved 2022-10-28.

Stefan, Burmeister (2017). The Interplay of People and Technologies Archaeological Case Studies on Innovations – Berlin Studies of the Ancient World 43. Bernbeck, Reinhard, Excellence Cluster Topoi (1., 1. Auflage 2017 ed.). Berlin. ISBN 9783981675184. OCLC 987573072.

Marchesi, Gianni (January 2015). "Toward a Chronology of Early Dynastic Rulers in Mesopotamia". In W. Sallaberger and I. Schrakamp (Eds.), History & Philology (ARCANE 3; Turnhout), Pp. 139–156.

Kesecker, Nshan (January 2018). "Lugalzagesi: The First Emperor of Mesopotamia?". ARAMAZD Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies.

, Jerold S. Cooper, "Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions: Presargonic Inscriptions", Eisenbrauns, 1986, ISBN 0-940490-82-X

C.J Gadd, A Sumerian reading-book, The Clarendon Press, 1924

References

Baker, H.D. "The Urban Landscape in First Millennium BC Babylonia". University of Vienna.
Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2003). The Pantheon of Uruk During the Neo-Babylonian Period. BRILL. p. 424. ISBN 90-04-13024-1.
Charvát, Petr; Zainab Bahrani; Marc Van de Mieroop (2002). Mesopotamia Before History. London: Routledge. p. 281. ISBN 0-415-25104-4.
Crawford, Harriet E. W. (2004). Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 252. ISBN 0-521-53338-4.
Fassbinder, J.W.E., and H. Becker, Magnetometry at Uruk (Iraq): The city of King Gilgamesh, Archaeologia Polona, vol. 41, pp. 122–124, 2003
Harmansah, Ömür (2007-12-03). "The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: Ceremonial centers, urbanization and state formation in Southern Mesopotamia". Archived from the original on 2012-07-12. Retrieved 2011-08-28.
Oppenheim, A. Leo; Erica Reiner (1977). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 445. ISBN 0-226-63187-7. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization.

External Links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Uruk.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Uruk.

Archaeologists unearth ancient Sumerian riverboat in Iraq – Ars Technica – 4/8/2022
News from Old Uruk – Margarete van Ess 2021 Oriental Institute lecture on recent work
Earliest evidence for large scale organized warfare in the Mesopotamian world (Hamoukar vs. Uruk?)
Uruk at CDLI wiki
Lament for Unug (in Sumerian)
Archaeological Expedition Mapping Ancient City Of Uruk in 2002
[http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/search_results.php?SearchMode=Text&PrimaryPublication=&MuseumNumber=&Provenience=uruk&Period=&TextSearch=&ObjectID=&requestFrom=Submit Digital images of tablets from Uruk –

CDLI]

Categories:

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk}

La Fin de Satan ("The End of Satan", 1886) is a long religious epic by Victor Hugo, of which 5,700 lines were written between 1854 and 1862, but left unfinished and published after his death.

When it was rejected by his publisher in 1857, Hugo tried to integrate it into Petites Epopées (later La Légende des siècles), eventually announcing that it would form a companion work, along with Dieu. His intention, apparently, was to invest the storming of the Bastille with a religious significance; after making various efforts, he ceased work on it in 1862 and returned to novels. There are many gaps large and small.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fin_de_Satan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Nimrod

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bal%C4%B1kl%C4%B1g%C3%B6l

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Babel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Babylons

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/akhal-teke

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic

The first plausible mention of a people speaking a Uralic language is in Tacitus's Germania (c. 98 AD),^[9] mentioning the Fenni (usually interpreted as referring to the Sami) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia.

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages}

Olof Rudbeck d.y. (1660–1740). Oil-painted portrait in Uppsala University's Universitethuset

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Rudbeck_the_Younger

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala

Coronation of King Gustav II

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Swedish_monarch

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiliaen_van_Rensselaer_(merchant)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Andriessen_Bradt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:1686_deaths

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/clone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Allestry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=pembreys&title=Special%3ASearch&ns0=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_Farm,_Pembrey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobins

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Baroque_architecture

Wanstead House (1722) – among the first, and largest, of the Neo-Palladian houses; the image is from Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladian_architecture#English_Palladian_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_and_Mary_style

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococco

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

St Paul's
Cathedral Church of St Paul the Apostle
Aerial view
St Paul's

History
Wikimedia \| © OpenStreetMap Interactive fullscreen map
51°30′49″N 0°05′53″WCoordinates: 51°30′49″N 0°05′53″W
Location	London, EC4
Country	United Kingdom
Denomination	Church of England
Previous denomination	Roman Catholicism
Website	stpauls.co.uk
Status	Active
Consecrated	1697; 326 years ago
Architecture
Heritage designation	Grade I Listed
Previous cathedrals	4
Architect(s)	Sir Christopher Wren
Style	English Baroque
Years built	1675–1710
Groundbreaking	1675
Completed	1710
Specifications
Length	518 ft (158 m)
Nave width	121 ft (37 m)
Width across transepts	246 ft (75 m)
Height	365 ft (111 m)
Dome height (outer)	278 ft (85 m)
Dome height (inner)	225 ft (69 m)
Dome diameter (outer)	112 ft (34 m)
Dome diameter (inner)	102 ft (31 m)
Number of towers	2
Tower height	221 ft (67 m)
Administration
Province	Canterbury
Diocese	London (since 604)
Clergy
Bishop(s)	Sarah Mullally
Dean	Andrew Tremlett
Precentor	James Milne
Chancellor	Paula Gooder (lay reader)
Canon Treasurer	vacant
Laity
Director of music	Andrew Carwood
Organist(s)	William Fox (acting)

St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in London, England, and is the seat of the Bishop of London. The cathedral serves as the mother church of the Diocese of London. It is on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade I listed building. Its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD 604.^[1] The present structure, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren. Its construction, completed in Wren's lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the city after the Great Fire of London.^[2] The earlier Gothic cathedral (Old St Paul's Cathedral), largely destroyed in the Great Fire, was a central focus for medieval and early modern London, including Paul's walk and St Paul's Churchyard, being the site of St Paul's Cross.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral

Liverpool Cathedral
Cathedral Church of Christ in Liverpool
Liverpool Anglican Cathedral, St James's Mount
Liverpool Cathedral Shown within Liverpool
53°23′51″N 2°58′23″WCoordinates: 53°23′51″N 2°58′23″W
Location	Liverpool
Country	United Kingdom
Denomination	Church of England
Tradition	Central churchmanship
Website	www.liverpoolcathedral.org.uk
History
Dedication	Christ
Architecture
Architect(s)	Sir Giles Gilbert Scott
Style	Gothic Revival
Years built	1904–1978
Specifications
Length	188.67 m (619.0 ft)
Nave height	35.3 m (116 ft)
Choir height	35.3 m (116 ft)
Number of towers	1
Tower height	100.8 m (331 ft)1
Bells	14
Tenor bell weight	82-0-11 (4171kg) in A♭
Administration
Province	York
Diocese	Liverpool (since 1880)
Clergy
Bishop(s)	John Perumbalath
Dean	Sue Jones
Precentor	Philip Anderson
Canon Chancellor	Ellen Loudon (Dir. Social Justice)
Canon(s)	Mike Kirby (Scientist)
Canon Missioner	Neal Barnes
Laity
Director of music	Stephen Mannings
Organist(s)	Ian Tracey; Daniel Bishop (Associate Organist)

Liverpool Cathedral is the Cathedral of the Anglican Diocese of Liverpool, built on St James's Mount in Liverpool, and the seat of the Bishop of Liverpool. It may be referred to as the Cathedral Church of Christ in Liverpool (as recorded in the Document of Consecration) or the Cathedral Church of the Risen Christ, Liverpool, being dedicated to Christ 'in especial remembrance of His most glorious Resurrection'.^[1] Liverpool Cathedral is the largest cathedral and religious building in Britain,^[2] and the eighth largest church in the world.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_Cathedral

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s,_Smith_Square

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Stephen%27s_Church,_Rochester_Row

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klais_Orgelbau

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Baroque_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese_Baroque_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrine_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Baroque_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churrigueresque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Spanish_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_in_Poland#/media/File:Pl-gdansk-kaplica-krolewska-2006.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naryshkin_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Baroque_architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_Equipment_Transport_System

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouadane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire

Interior of a Reading vardo, as used by the British Romani (Romanichal), donated to the transport museum in Glasgow by a family from the Scottish village of Rhu.

A vardo (also wag(g)on, living wagon, van, and caravan) is a traditional horse-drawn wagon used by British Romanichal Travellers as their home. A vardo must have four wheels, with two being used for steering. The vehicle is typically highly decorated, intricately carved, brightly painted, and even gilded. The Romanichal Traveller tradition of the vardo is seen as a high cultural point of both artistic design and a masterpiece of woodcrafter's art.^[1]

The heyday of the caravan lasted for roughly 70 years, from the mid-nineteenth century through the first two decades of the twentieth century. Not used for year-round living today, they are shown at the cultural gatherings held throughout the year, the best known of which is Appleby Horse Fair in the town of Appleby-in-Westmorland in Cumbria, North West England.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardo_(Romani_wagon)

Gypsy horse
Traits

Other names	Cob Gypsy Horse Gypsy Vanner Irish Cob Tinker Horse
Country of origin	Ireland, United Kingdom
Distinguishing features	Cob conformation, often piebald or skewbald, feathered heels
Breed standards
Traditional Gypsy Cob Association (UK Based but can register Worldwide) www.tgca.co.uk Gypsy Vanner Horse Society (USA) Gypsy Cob and Drum Horse Association (USA) [[1] Gypsy Horse Registry of America (USA)] Gypsy Horse Association (USA) Australasian Gypsy Horse Society
Equus ferus caballus

The Gypsy Cob, also known as the Traditional Gypsy Cob, Irish Cob, Romani Cob, Gypsy Horse or Gypsy Vanner, is a type or breed of domestic horse from the islands Great Britain and Ireland. It is a small, solidly-built horse of cob conformation and is often, but not always, piebald or skewbald; it is particularly associated with Irish Travellers and English Romanichal Travellers of Ireland and Great Britain. There was no stud-book or breed registry for horses of this type until 1996,^[1]^: 58 but as breeders developed standards and recorded pedigrees, there are now organizations that register qualifying horses.^[1]^: 58^[a].

From about 1850, travelling people in the British Isles began to use a distinct type of horse to pull their vardos, the caravans in which they had just begun to live and travel. The color and look of the breed were refined in the years after the Second World War. Horses of this type were first exported to the United States in 1996.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsy_horse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardo_(Romani_wagon)

These smaller wagons were called "vardo" in the Romani language (originating from the Ossetic word vurdon) for cart.^[16] The Romani vardo evolved into some of the most advanced forms of travelling wagon, and are prized for their practicality as well as aesthetic design and beauty. There is no more iconic or recognizable Romani symbol than a highly decorated Romanichal vardo, and the time of its use is often affectionately called "the wagon time" by Romanichal travellers. The vardos were typically commissioned by families or by a newlywed couple from specialist coach builders. Building the vardo took between six months to a year; a variety of woods including oak, ash, elm, cedar, and pine were utilized in its construction. Prized by the Romani, and later by non-Romani, including other traveller groups, for their practicality as well as aesthetic beauty, vardos can be categorized into six main styles; these being the Brush wagon, Reading, Ledge, Bow Top, Open lot, and Burton. The general design evolved over time and were named after the home's owners, for their traditional style (Ledge), for the town of its construction (Reading), or for the name of the builder.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardo_(Romani_wagon)

Much of the wealth of the vardo was on display in the carvings, which incorporated aspects of the Romani lifestyle such as horses and dogs, as well as stock decorative designs of birds, lions, griffins, flowers, vines and elaborate scrollwork. Carved details were often accented with gold, either painted or, in the most expensive wagons, the use of between 4-15 books of gold leaf applied as decoration.^[15] Many individual makers were identified by their particular designs.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardo_(Romani_wagon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appleby-in-Westmorland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_Protection_Act_1882

Category:Romani culture

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Culture of Roma people.

Subcategories

This category has the following 12 subcategories, out of 12 total.

C

Romani cuisine‎ (19 P)

D

Romani dances‎ (7 P)

F

Romani folklore‎ (2 C, 7 P)

L

Romani language‎ (8 C, 10 P)

LGBT Romani culture‎ (1 C, 2 P)

Romani literature‎ (1 C, 1 P)

M

Romani mass media‎ (1 C, 8 P)

Romani museums‎ (5 P)

Romani music‎ (6 C, 12 P)

R

Romani religion‎ (5 C, 7 P)

S

Stereotypes of Romani people‎ (5 P)

Romani surnames‎ (2 P)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Romani_culture

Two Romani women in Spain wearing their traditional dress, by Francisco Iturrino

Romani dress is the traditional attire of the Romani people, widely known in English by the exonymic slur Gypsies.^[a] Romani traditional clothing is closely connected to the history, culture, and national identity of the Roma people.^[2]^[3]

Certain scholars connect similarities of Romani dress with South Asian populations due to the general consensus of the South Asian origins^[b] of Romani people. However, they also note that there are many differences as well, which is indicative of the contact Romani people have had with various other groups. Because of this, Romani dress can vary drastically among different tribes, however, there are certain constant similarities that define Romani dress as a whole. Romani people are often recognizable to other Roma through their appearance and cultural dress codes. Moreover, Romani people value the outwardly display of their wealth and prosperity which is reflective in their traditional dress.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_dress

The title King of the Gypsies has been claimed or given over the centuries to many different people. It is both culturally and geographically specific. It may be inherited, acquired by acclamation or action, or simply claimed. The extent of the power associated with the title varied; it might be limited to a small group in a specific place, or many people over large areas. In some cases the claim was clearly a public-relations exercise. As the term Gypsy is also used in many different ways, the King of the Gypsies may be someone with no connection with the Romani.

It has also been suggested that in places where their crimes were prosecuted closely by local authorities the "King of the Gypsies" is an individual, usually of low standing, who places himself in the risky position of an ad hoc liaison between the Romani and the "gadje" (non-Romani). The arrest of such a "King" limited the criminal liability of the Romani.^[1]

Bulgaria

Mustafa Shibil

Mustafa Shibil (killed in 1856),^[2] a Muslim Roma, claimed the title during his time in the Balkan Mountains near Sliven during and after the Crimean War.

The Gypsy King is associated with mythical powers of being able to part water with his sword, a spade, and his head, after it had been cut off, according to tales collected in 1981 from the Romani people in Bulgaria.^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_Gypsies

Kris (Romani: kris) or Kris-Romani is a traditional court for conflict resolution in the culture of Vlax branch of the Romani people. The term derives from the Greek language, "κρίση" (judgment). It is a key institution for enforcing the Romani Code (Romani: romano zakono; zakonuri) within Romanipen. It developed in the area of present-day Romania, during the times of the slavery, as a judicial institution of the local Romanies, in order to enforce the community cohesion and its internal balance. After the abolition, from the half of the 19th century onwards, many Vlax Romanies emigrated in the rest of the world, bringing with them the kris as part of their cultural luggage. More or less formal proceedings exist also among other Romani branches. Some non-Vlax Romanies adopted this institution, like the Drzara from Sweden (originally from Serbia), in contact with the local Kalderash.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_(Romani_court)

The judgements of the kris are designed to maintain the integrity of the Romani community and uphold the Romanipen. Its proceedings are oriented to reinforce the kintala (balance), an important notion of the Romanipen. Considering that there is no absolute truth (as a shame society, in contrast with the usually local non-Romani guilt societies) and each party has its own truth, the krisnitorya seek mainly to restore the mutual respect between the involved parties. Their final decisions should consider a future harmony, since, according to its success and durability in time, the Romani community will consider whether they keep being qualified krisnitorya. If it is concluded that an imbalance happened and its nature and gravity make very difficult restoring the balance with reconciliation, then reparations and punishments are also considered. These may range from fines (Romani: glaba) paid by the guilty to the injured party, to the guilty party being declared marime ('unclean') for a period of time, and banished (Romani: shudine/chhudine) from the community. The period of time may be fixed, or until the guilty will pay the fine or will restore a former status quo. The most extreme sentence is for a Romani person to be declared marime for all time, and thus permanently excluded from the Romani community, a horrific fate amongst the Roma. In former times, the death sentence was also a possible punishment in some Romani groups, although it is not known to have been practiced for a very long time. If all parties are found guilty and fines are paid, usually these are given to the poor Romanies. Also the punishment may include unpaid work for the local Romani community. The injured party, also in order to reinforce the balance and restore the harmony with the guilty, may renounce a part of the reparations they are entitled to. The decisions of the kris are definitive (there are no higher Romani courts) and they are enforced by the moral pressure of the Romani community.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_(Romani_court)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalderash

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlax_Romani_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinker

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian

A traditional Kalderash Roma metalsmith from Hungary in 1892

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalderash

Kalderash Roma family in Sweden, early 20th century

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalderash

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servitka_Roma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruska_Roma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polska_Roma

Roma women in the Lublin ghetto, 1940

Roma in Galicia, 1895
Crowning of the "Gypsy King" in Warsaw, 1937
Crowning of the "Gypsy King" in Warsaw, 1937
Roma convoy leaving Lemberg (Lviv), 1941

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polska_Roma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergitka_Roma

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1570%E2%80%931711)}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Speyer_(1570)

A vassal^[1] or liege subject^[2] is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. The rights and obligations of a vassal are called vassalage, while the rights and obligations of a suzerain are called suzerainty. The obligations of a vassal often included military support by knights in exchange for certain privileges, usually including land held as a tenant or fief.^[3] The term is also applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies.

In contrast, fealty (fidelitas) was sworn, unconditional loyalty to a monarch.^[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal

Saint Denis of Paris
Saint Denis holding his head. Statue at the left portal of Notre Dame de Paris.
Bishop and Martyr
Born	3rd century Italia, Roman Empire
Died	c. 250, 258,^[1] or 270 Mons Martis, Lutetia, Roman Gaul (modern day Paris, France)
Venerated in	Catholic Church Anglican Communion
Major shrine	Saint Denis Basilica
Feast	9 October
Attributes	A martyr carrying his severed head in his hands; a bishop's mitre; city; furnace^[2]
Patronage	Paris; against frenzy, strife, headaches, hydrophobia, San Dionisio (Parañaque), possessed people

Denis of Paris was a 3rd-century Christian martyr and saint. According to his hagiographies, he was bishop of Paris (then Lutetia) in the third century and, together with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, was martyred for his faith by decapitation. Some accounts placed this during Domitian's persecution and incorrectly identified St Denis of Paris with the Areopagite who was converted by Paul the Apostle and who served as the first bishop of Athens. Assuming Denis's historicity, it is now considered more likely that he suffered under the persecution of the emperor Decius shortly after AD 250.

Denis is the most famous cephalophore in Christian legend, with a popular story claiming that the decapitated bishop picked up his head and walked several miles while preaching a sermon on repentance. He is venerated in the Catholic Church as the patron saint of France and Paris and is accounted one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. A chapel was raised at the site of his burial by a local Christian woman; it was later expanded into an abbey and basilica, around which grew up the French city of Saint-Denis, now a suburb of Paris.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Denis_of_Paris

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Caravan

Tar is a dark brown or black viscous liquid of hydrocarbons and free carbon, obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat.^[1]

Mineral products resembling tar can be produced from fossil hydrocarbons, such as petroleum. Coal tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_tar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal

Since the Iron Age, high temperatures have had to be produced for iron smelting, for glassmaking, and for the working of precious metals. Charcoal has been used to do this for centuries and, in order to produce it, entire forests were felled. With the increasing use of stone coal from the 18th century, the charcoal burning industry declined.^{[citation needed]}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal_burner

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Obsolete_occupations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Nazi_concentration_camp_occupations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurrying

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_cutting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorthandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%27s_companion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_dwarf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drummer_(military)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drummer_(military)#/media/File:Sprit_of_'76.2.jpeg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drysalter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_crier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltigeur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_carrier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinsetter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toad_doctors

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphist

Blog Archive

Saturday, May 20, 2023

Etymology

Linguistics

History

Tribal origins and early history

Rise of the Khazar state

Khazar state: culture and institutions

Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate

Ruling elite

Demographics

Economy

Khazars and Byzantium

Arab–Khazar wars

Khazars and Hungarians

Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state

Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion

Religion

Tengrism

Christianity

Judaism

History of discussions about Khazar Jewishness

Islam

Genetics

Claims of Khazar ancestry

Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks

Ashkenazi-Khazar theories

Use in antisemitic polemic

Genetic studies

In literature

Cities associated with the Khazars

See also

Notes

Footnotes

Resource notes

Citations

Bibliography

External links

Classification

Traditional classification

Lexical isoglosses

Phonological isoglosses

Honkola, et al. (2013)

Typology

Grammar

Phonology

Lexicography

Selected cognates

Mutual intelligibility

Comparison

Proposed relations with other language families

Uralic-Yukaghir

Eskimo-Uralic

Uralo-Siberian

Ural-Altaic

Indo-Uralic

Uralo-Dravidian

Nostratic

Eurasiatic

Uralic skepticism

Other comparisons

Comparison

See also

Notes

References

External classification

Linguistic issues

Further reading

External links

"Rebel" Uralists

Notes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolghar

List of Kazan khans

First List

Second List with short biographies

notes

List of artificial islands

Table

Brazil

Peru/Bolivia