Common structure
Polyhalogenated compounds (PHCs) are any compounds with multiple substitutions of halogens. They are of particular interest and importance because they bioaccumulate in humans, and comprise a superset of which has many toxic and carcinogenic industrial chemicals as members. PBDEs, PCBs, dioxins (PCDDs) and PFCs are all polyhalogenated compounds. They are generally non-miscible in organic solvents or water, but miscible in some hydrocarbons from which they often derive.
Despite bioaccumulating in humans, patents have been filed for removal of halogen by electrolysis[1] during manufacturing, though toxic chlorinated compounds may be created as byproducts of chlorinated compounds. Another method during manufacture is to use anaerobic bacteria [2]
Gravitational microlensing is an astronomical phenomenon due to the gravitational lens effect. It can be used to detect objects that range from the mass of a planet to the mass of a star, regardless of the light they emit. Typically, astronomers can only detect bright objects that emit much light (stars) or large objects that block background light (clouds of gas and dust). These objects make up only a minor portion of the mass of a galaxy. Microlensing allows the study of objects that emit little or no light.
When a distant star or quasar gets sufficiently aligned with a massive compact foreground object, the bending of light due to its gravitational field, as discussed by Albert Einstein in 1915, leads to two distorted unresolved images resulting in an observable magnification. The time-scale of the transient brightening depends on the mass of the foreground object as well as on the relative proper motion between the background 'source' and the foreground 'lens' object.
Ideally aligned microlensing produces a clear buffer between the radiation from the lens and source objects. It magnifies the distant source, revealing it or enhancing its size and/or brightness. It enables the study of the population of faint or dark objects such as brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, planets, white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, and massive compact halo objects. Such lensing works at all wavelengths, magnifying and producing a wide range of possible warping for distant source objects that emit any kind of electromagnetic radiation.
Such lensing works at all wavelengths, magnifying and producing a wide range of possible warping for distant source objects that emit any kind of electromagnetic radiation.
Microlensing by an isolated object was first detected in 1989. Since then, microlensing has been used to constrain the nature of the dark matter, detect exoplanets, study limb darkening in distant stars, constrain the binary star population, and constrain the structure of the Milky Way's disk. Microlensing has also been proposed as a means to find dark objects like brown dwarfs and black holes, study starspots, measure stellar rotation, and probe quasars[1][2] including their accretion disks.[3][4][5][6] Microlensing was used in 2018 to detect Icarus, the most distant star ever observed.[7][8]
In 1704 Isaac Newton suggested that a light ray could be deflected by gravity.[citation needed] In 1801, Johann Georg von Soldner calculated the amount of deflection of a light ray from a star under Newtonian gravity. In 1915 Albert Einstein correctly predicted the amount of deflection under General Relativity, which was twice the amount predicted by von Soldner. Einstein's prediction was validated by a 1919 expedition led by Arthur Eddington, which was a great early success for General Relativity.[18] In 1924 Orest Chwolson found that lensing could produce multiple images of the star. A correct prediction of the concomitant brightening of the source, the basis for microlensing, was published in 1936 by Einstein.[19] Because of the unlikely alignment required, he concluded that "there is no great chance of observing this phenomenon". Gravitational lensing's modern theoretical framework was established with works by Yu Klimov (1963), Sidney Liebes (1964), and Sjur Refsdal (1964).[1]
Gravitational lensing was first observed in 1979, in the form of a quasar lensed by a foreground galaxy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_microlensing
Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low densities, electrons can occupy excited metastable energy levels in atoms and ions that would otherwise be de-excited by collisions that would occur at higher densities.[16] Electron transitions from these levels in nitrogen and oxygen ions (O+, O2+ (a.k.a. O iii), and N+) give rise to the 500.7 nm emission line and others.[8] These spectral lines, which can only be seen in very low density gases, are called forbidden lines. Spectroscopic observations thus showed that nebulae were made of extremely rarefied gas.[17]
Great Andromeda "Nebula" (M110 to upper left), as photographed by Isaac Roberts, 1899.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula
At such high temperatures photodisintegration becomes a significant effect, so some neon nuclei decompose, releasing alpha particles:[1]
Alternatively:
where the neutron consumed in the first step is regenerated in the second.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon-burning_process
Carbon detonation or Carbon deflagration is the violent reignition of thermonuclear fusion in a white dwarf star that was previously slowly cooling. It involves a runaway thermonuclear process which spreads through the white dwarf in a matter of seconds, producing a Type Ia supernova which releases an immense amount of energy as the star is blown apart. The carbon detonation/deflagration process leads to a supernova by a different route than the better known Type II (core-collapse) supernova (the type II is caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core implodes).[1]
A white dwarf is the remnant of a small to medium size star (our sun is an example of these). At the end of its life, the star has burned its hydrogen and helium fuel, and thermonuclear fusion processes cease. The star does not have enough mass to either burn much heavier elements, or to implode into a neutron star or type II supernova as a larger star can, from the force of its own gravity, so it gradually shrinks and becomes very dense as it cools, glowing white and then red, for a period many times longer than the present age of the Universe.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_detonation
The triple-alpha process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium-4 nuclei (alpha particles) are transformed into carbon.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-alpha_process
In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to an isobar of that nuclide. For example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino; or, conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron with a neutrino in so-called positron emission.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay
energy of the electrons increases to the point where it is energetically favorable for them to combine with protons to produce neutrons (via inverse beta decay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Degenerate_gases
The momentum of the fermions in the fermion gas nevertheless generates pressure, termed "degeneracy pressure".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Degenerate_gases
Electron capture is sometimes included as a type of beta decay,[3] because the basic nuclear process, mediated by the weak force, is the same. In electron capture, an inner atomic electron is captured by a proton in the nucleus, transforming it into a neutron, and an electron neutrino is released.
Degenerate matter[1] is a highly dense state of fermionic matter in which the Pauli exclusion principle exerts significant pressure in addition to, or in lieu of thermal pressure. The description applies to matter composed of electrons, protons, neutrons or other fermions. The term is mainly used in astrophysics to refer to dense stellar objects where gravitational pressure is so extreme that quantum mechanical effects are significant. This type of matter is naturally found in stars in their final evolutionary states, such as white dwarfs and neutron stars, where thermal pressure alone is not enough to avoid gravitational collapse.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Degenerate_gases
The momentum of the fermions in the fermion gas nevertheless generates pressure, termed "degeneracy pressure".
pressure in a degenerate gas does not depend on the temperature
Electron stripping with angular_momentum(n val)-pressure-etc., inc. weights, measures, values, variables, conditions, constraints, bounds, eqn, purpose, materials, etc..
Phosphorous special particle matters (trihydrogen cations, reduced nitro, nitro splints, particle frags, drags, props, wheels, etc.) can be compressed to very high densities, typical values being in the range of 10,000 kilograms per cubic centimeter.
When gas manf compressed, particle alignment rate exceed published measure/perceps/etc.;
One machine one particle find, may or may not exist in nature.
Light flash imaging; flash drive; flash imaging; optics. Gas n smk n mirr n grid n glit.
gas that behaves more like a solid.
In degenerate gases the kinetic energies (???)of electrons are high and rate of collision between electrons and other particles is low (???), therefore degenerate electrons can travel great distances at velocities that approach the speed of light. (???)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Degenerate_gases
energy of the electrons increases to the point where it is energetically favorable for them to combine with protons to produce neutrons (via inverse beta decay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Degenerate_gases
The momentum of the fermions in the fermion gas nevertheless generates pressure, termed "degeneracy pressure".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Degenerate_gases
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen
In particle physics, a fermion is a particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics and generally has half odd integer spin: spin 1/2, spin 3/2, etc. These particles obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as all composite particles made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atomsand nuclei. Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose–Einstein statistics.
Some fermions are elementary particles, such as the electrons, and some are composite particles, such as the protons. According to the spin-statistics theorem in relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons, while particles with half-integer spin are fermions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion
Electron degeneracy pressure is a particular manifestation of the more general phenomenon of quantum degeneracy pressure. The Pauli exclusion principle disallows two identical half-integer spin particles (electrons and all other fermions) from simultaneously occupying the same quantum state. The result is an emergent pressure against compression of matter into smaller volumes of space. Electron degeneracy pressure results from the same underlying mechanism that defines the electron orbital structure of elemental matter. For bulk matter with no net electric charge, the attraction between electrons and nuclei exceeds (at any scale) the mutual repulsion of electrons plus the mutual repulsion of nuclei; so in absence of electron degeneracy pressure, the matter would collapse into a single nucleus. In 1967, Freeman Dyson showed that solid matter is stabilized by quantum degeneracy pressure rather than electrostatic repulsion.[1][2][3] Because of this, electron degeneracy creates a barrier to the gravitational collapse of dying stars and is responsible for the formation of white dwarfs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure
White Drwrarf
fusion against gravitational collapse
The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions (??), so the star has no source of energy. As a result, it cannot support itself by the heat generated by fusion against gravitational collapse, but is supported only by electron degeneracy pressure, causing it to be extremely dense.
After the hydrogen-fusing period of a main-sequence star of low or medium mass ends, such a star will expand to a red giant during which it fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core by the triple-alpha process.
the core temperature will be sufficient to fuse carbon but not neon, in which case an oxygen–neon–magnesium (ONeMgor ONe) white dwarf may form.[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf
Electron degeneracy pressure is a particular manifestation of the more general phenomenon of quantum degeneracy pressure. The Pauli exclusion principle disallows two identical half-integer spin particles (electrons and all other fermions) from simultaneously occupying the same quantum state. The result is an emergent pressure against compression of matter into smaller volumes of space. Electron degeneracy pressure results from the same underlying mechanism that defines the electron orbital structure of elemental matter. For bulk matter with no net electric charge, the attraction between electrons and nuclei exceeds (at any scale) the mutual repulsion of electrons plus the mutual repulsion of nuclei; so in absence of electron degeneracy pressure, the matter would collapse into a single nucleus. In 1967, Freeman Dyson showed that solid matter is stabilized by quantum degeneracy pressure rather than electrostatic repulsion.[1][2][3] Because of this, electron degeneracy creates a barrier to the gravitational collapse of dying stars and is responsible for the formation of white dwarfs.
Electron degeneracy pressure will halt the gravitational collapse of a star if its mass is below the Chandrasekhar limit (1.44 solar masses[6]). This is the pressure that prevents a white dwarf star from collapsing. A star exceeding this limit and without significant thermally generated pressure will continue to collapse to form either a neutron star or black hole, because the degeneracy pressure provided by the electrons is weaker than the inward pull of gravity.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure
