05-08-2023-1105 - spondee ; Libation ; Canaan ; Nomadic_pastoralism ; Epipalaeolithic

A spondee (Latin: spondeus) is a metrical foot consisting of two long syllables, as determined by syllable weight in classical meters, or two stressed syllables in modern meters.^[1] The word comes from the Greek σπονδή, spondḗ, 'libation'. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spondee

A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid, or grains such as rice, as an offering to a deity or spirit, or in memory of the dead. It was common in many religions of antiquity and continues to be offered in cultures today.

Various substances have been used for libations, most commonly wine or other alcoholic drinks, olive oil, honey, and in India, ghee. The vessels used in the ritual, including the patera, often had a significant form which differentiated them from secular vessels. The libation could be poured onto something of religious significance, such as an altar, or into the earth.

In East Asia, pouring an offering of rice into a running stream symbolizes the detachment from karma and bad energy. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libation

And Jacob set up a Pillar in the place where he had spoken with him, a Pillar of Stone; and he poured out a drink offering on it, and poured oil on it.

— Genesis 35:14

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libation

 Canaan (/ˈkeɪnən/; Phoenician: 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – KNʿN;^[1] Hebrew: כְּנַעַן – Kənáʿan, in pausa כְּנָעַן – Kənāʿan; Biblical Greek: Χανααν – Khanaan;^[2] Arabic: كَنْعَانُ – Kan‘ān) was a Semitic-speaking civilization and region of the Southern Levant in the Ancient Near East during the late 2nd millennium BC. Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in the Late Bronze Age Amarna Period (14th century BC) as the area where the spheres of interest of the Egyptian, Hittite, Mitanni and Assyrian Empires converged or overlapped. Much of present-day knowledge about Canaan stems from archaeological excavation in this area at sites such as Tel Hazor, Tel Megiddo, En Esur, and Gezer. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan

Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism in which livestock are herded in order to seek for fresh pastures on which to graze. True nomads follow an irregular pattern of movement, in contrast with transhumance, where seasonal pastures are fixed.^[1] However, this distinction is often not observed and the term 'nomad' used for both—and in historical cases the regularity of movements is often unknown in any case. The herded livestock include cattle, water buffalo, yaks, llamas, sheep, goats, reindeer, horses, donkeys or camels, or mixtures of species. Nomadic pastoralism is commonly practised in regions with little arable land, typically in the developing world, especially in the steppe lands north of the agricultural zone of Eurasia.^[2]

Of the estimated 30–40 million nomadic pastoralists worldwide, most are found in central Asia and the Sahel region of North and West Africa, such as Fulani, Tuaregs, and Toubou, with some also in the Middle East, such as traditionally Bedouins, and in other parts of Africa, such as Nigeria and Somalia. Increasing numbers of stock may lead to overgrazing of the area and desertification if lands are not allowed to fully recover between one grazing period and the next. Increased enclosure and fencing of land has reduced the amount of land for this practice.

There is substantive uncertainty over the extent to which the various causes for degradation affect grassland. Different causes have been identified which include overgrazing, mining, agricultural reclamation, pests and rodents, soil properties, tectonic activity, and climate change.^[3] Simultaneously, it is maintained that some, such as overgrazing and overstocking, may be overstated while others, such as climate change, mining and agricultural reclamation, may be under reported. In this context, there is also uncertainty as to the long-term effect of human behavior on the grassland as compared to non-biotic factors.^[4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism

In archaeology, the Epipalaeolithic or Epipaleolithic (sometimes Epi-paleolithic etc.) is a period occurring between the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic during the Stone Age. Mesolithic also falls between these two periods, and the two are sometimes confused or used as synonyms. More often, they are distinct, referring to approximately the same period of time in different geographic areas. Epipaleolithic always includes this period in the Levant and, often, the rest of the Near East. It sometimes includes parts of Southeast Europe, where Mesolithic is much more commonly used. Mesolithic very rarely includes the Levant or the Near East; in Europe, Epipalaeolithic is used, though not very often, to refer to the early Mesolithic. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epipalaeolithic

A millennium (plural millennia or millenniums) is a period of one thousand years,^[1] sometimes called a kiloannum (ka), or kiloyear (ky). Normally, the word is used specifically for periods of a thousand years that begin at the starting point (initial reference point) of the calendar in consideration (typically the year "1") and at later years that are whole number multiples of a thousand years after the start point. The term can also refer to an interval of time beginning on any date. Millennia sometimes have religious or theological implications (see millenarianism).

The word millennium derives from the Latin mille, thousand, and annus, year.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium

A century is a period of 100 years. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. The word century comes from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred. Century is sometimes abbreviated as c.^[1]

A centennial or centenary is a hundredth anniversary, or a celebration of this, typically the remembrance of an event which took place a hundred years earlier.

A century from now will be 19:49, 6 May 2123. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century

Start and end of centuries

Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perception.

According to the strict construction, the 1st century AD began with AD 1 and ended with AD 100, the 2nd century spanning the years 101 to 200, with the same pattern continuing onward.^{[note 1]} In this model, the n-th century starts with the year that ends with "01", and ends with the year that ends with "00"; for example, the 20th century comprises the years 1901 to 2000 in strict usage.^[2]

In popular perception and practice, centuries are structured by grouping years based on sharing the 'hundreds' digit(s). In this model, the n-th century starts with the year that ends in "00" and ends with the year ending in "99";^[3] for example, the years 1900 to 1999, in popular culture, constitute the 20th century.^[4] (This is similar to the grouping of "0-to-9 decades" which share the 'tens' digit.)

To facilitate calendrical calculations by computer, the astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, with the astronomical year 0 corresponding to the year 1 BCE, the astronomical year -1 corresponding to 2 BCE, and so on.^[5][6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century

A decade (from Ancient Greek δεκάς (dekas) 'a group of ten') is a period of ten years. Decades may describe any ten-year period, such as those of a person's life, or refer to specific groupings of calendar years. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decade

Categories:

• 100 (number)
• Centuries
• Units of time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century

In physics and the philosophy of science, instant refers to an infinitesimal interval in time, whose passage is instantaneous. In ordinary speech, an instant has been defined as "a point or very short space of time," a notion deriving from its etymological source, the Latin verb instare, from in- + stare ('to stand'), meaning 'to stand upon or near.'^[1]

The continuous nature of time and its infinite divisibility was addressed by Aristotle in his Physics, where he wrote on Zeno's paradoxes. The philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell was still seeking to define the exact nature of an instant thousands of years later.^[2]

As of October 2020, the smallest time interval certify in regulated measurements is on the order of 397 zeptoseconds (397 × 10⁻²¹ seconds).^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant

In mathematics, an infinitesimal number is a quantity that is closer to zero than any standard real number, but that is not zero. The word infinitesimal comes from a 17th-century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, which originally referred to the "infinity-th" item in a sequence.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal

In mathematics, the system of hyperreal numbers is a way of treating infinite and infinitesimal (infinitely small but non-zero) quantities. The hyperreals, or nonstandard reals, *R, are an extension of the real numbers R that contains numbers greater than anything of the form

${\displaystyle 1+1+\cdots +1}$ (for any finite number of terms).

Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals. The term "hyper-real" was introduced by Edwin Hewitt in 1948.^[1]

The hyperreal numbers satisfy the transfer principle, a rigorous version of Leibniz's heuristic law of continuity. The transfer principle states that true first-order statements about R are also valid in *R. For example, the commutative law of addition, x + y = y + x, holds for the hyperreals just as it does for the reals; since R is a real closed field, so is *R. Since ${\displaystyle \sin (\pi n)=0}$ for all integers n, one also has ${\displaystyle \sin (\pi H)=0}$ for all hyperintegers ${\displaystyle H}$. The transfer principle for ultrapowers is a consequence of Łoś's theorem of 1955.

Concerns about the soundness of arguments involving infinitesimals date back to ancient Greek mathematics, with Archimedes replacing such proofs with ones using other techniques such as the method of exhaustion.^[2] In the 1960s, Abraham Robinson proved that the hyperreals were logically consistent if and only if the reals were. This put to rest the fear that any proof involving infinitesimals might be unsound, provided that they were manipulated according to the logical rules that Robinson delineated.

The application of hyperreal numbers and in particular the transfer principle to problems of analysis is called nonstandard analysis. One immediate application is the definition of the basic concepts of analysis such as the derivative and integral in a direct fashion, without passing via logical complications of multiple quantifiers. Thus, the derivative of f(x) becomes ${\displaystyle f^{\prime }(x)=\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{f(x+\mathrm{\Delta }x)-f(x)}{\mathrm{\Delta }x}\right)}$ for an infinitesimal ${\displaystyle \mathrm{\Delta }x}$, where st(·) denotes the standard part function, which "rounds off" each finite hyperreal to the nearest real. Similarly, the integral is defined as the standard part of a suitable infinite sum.

The transfer principle

Main article: Transfer principle

The idea of the hyperreal system is to extend the real numbers R to form a system *R that includes infinitesimal and infinite numbers, but without changing any of the elementary axioms of algebra. Any statement of the form "for any number x..." that is true for the reals is also true for the hyperreals. For example, the axiom that states "for any number x, x + 0 = x" still applies. The same is true for quantification over several numbers, e.g., "for any numbers x and y, xy = yx." This ability to carry over statements from the reals to the hyperreals is called the transfer principle. However, statements of the form "for any set of numbers S ..." may not carry over. The only properties that differ between the reals and the hyperreals are those that rely on quantification over sets, or other higher-level structures such as functions and relations, which are typically constructed out of sets. Each real set, function, and relation has its natural hyperreal extension, satisfying the same first-order properties. The kinds of logical sentences that obey this restriction on quantification are referred to as statements in first-order logic.

The transfer principle, however, does not mean that R and *R have identical behavior. For instance, in *R there exists an element ω such that

${\displaystyle 1<\omega ,1+1<\omega ,1+1+1<\omega ,1+1+1+1<\omega ,\dots .}$

but there is no such number in R. (In other words, *R is not Archimedean.) This is possible because the nonexistence of ω cannot be expressed as a first-order statement.

Use in analysis

Informal notations for non-real quantities have historically appeared in calculus in two contexts: as infinitesimals, like dx, and as the symbol ∞, used, for example, in limits of integration of improper integrals.

As an example of the transfer principle, the statement that for any nonzero number x, 2x ≠ x, is true for the real numbers, and it is in the form required by the transfer principle, so it is also true for the hyperreal numbers. This shows that it is not possible to use a generic symbol such as ∞ for all the infinite quantities in the hyperreal system; infinite quantities differ in magnitude from other infinite quantities, and infinitesimals from other infinitesimals.

Similarly, the casual use of 1/0 = ∞ is invalid, since the transfer principle applies to the statement that zero has no multiplicative inverse. The rigorous counterpart of such a calculation would be that if ε is a non-zero infinitesimal, then 1/ε is infinite.

For any finite hyperreal number x, the standard part, st(x), is defined as the unique closest real number to x; it necessarily differs from x only infinitesimally. The standard part function can also be defined for infinite hyperreal numbers as follows: If x is a positive infinite hyperreal number, set st(x) to be the extended real number ${\displaystyle +\mathrm{\infty }}$, and likewise, if x is a negative infinite hyperreal number, set st(x) to be ${\displaystyle -\mathrm{\infty }}$ (the idea is that an infinite hyperreal number should be smaller than the "true" absolute infinity but closer to it than any real number is).

Differentiation

One of the key uses of the hyperreal number system is to give a precise meaning to the differential operator d as used by Leibniz to define the derivative and the integral.

For any real-valued function ${\displaystyle f,}$ the differential ${\displaystyle df}$ is defined as a map which sends every ordered pair ${\displaystyle (x,dx)}$ (where ${\displaystyle x}$ is real and ${\displaystyle dx}$ is nonzero infinitesimal) to an infinitesimal

${\displaystyle df(x,dx):=\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{f(x+dx)-f(x)}{dx}\right)dx.}$

Note that the vary notation "${\displaystyle dx}$" used to denote any infinitesimal is consistent with the above definition of the operator ${\displaystyle d,}$ for if one interprets ${\displaystyle x}$ (as is commonly done) to be the function ${\displaystyle f(x)=x,}$ then for every ${\displaystyle (x,dx)}$ the differential ${\displaystyle d(x)}$ will equal the infinitesimal ${\displaystyle dx}$.

A real-valued function ${\displaystyle f}$ is said to be differentiable at a point ${\displaystyle x}$ if the quotient

${\displaystyle \frac{df(x,dx)}{dx}=\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{f(x+dx)-f(x)}{dx}\right)}$

is the same for all nonzero infinitesimals ${\displaystyle dx.}$ If so, this quotient is called the derivative of ${\displaystyle f}$ at ${\displaystyle x}$.

For example, to find the derivative of the function ${\displaystyle f(x)=x^2}$, let ${\displaystyle dx}$ be a non-zero infinitesimal. Then,

${\displaystyle \frac{df(x,dx)}{dx}}$	${\displaystyle =\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{f(x+dx)-f(x)}{dx}\right)}$
	${\displaystyle =\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{x^2+2x\cdot dx+(dx{)}^2-x^2}{dx}\right)}$
	${\displaystyle =\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{2x\cdot dx+(dx{)}^2}{dx}\right)}$
	${\displaystyle =\mathrm{st}\left(\frac{2x\cdot dx}{dx}+\frac{(dx{)}^2}{dx}\right)}$
	${\displaystyle =\mathrm{st}\left(2x+dx\right)}$
	${\displaystyle =2x}$

The use of the standard part in the definition of the derivative is a rigorous alternative to the traditional practice of neglecting the square^{[citation needed]} of an infinitesimal quantity. Dual numbers are a number system based on this idea. After the third line of the differentiation above, the typical method from Newton through the 19th century would have been simply to discard the dx² term. In the hyperreal system, dx² ≠ 0, since dx is nonzero, and the transfer principle can be applied to the statement that the square of any nonzero number is nonzero. However, the quantity dx² is infinitesimally small compared to dx; that is, the hyperreal system contains a hierarchy of infinitesimal quantities.

Integration

Another key use of the hyperreal number system is to give a precise meaning to the integral sign ∫ used by Leibniz to define the definite integral.

For any infinitesimal function${\displaystyle \epsilon (x),}$one may define the integral ${\displaystyle \int (\epsilon )}$as a map sending any ordered triple ${\displaystyle (a,b,dx)}$ (where${\displaystyle a}$and${\displaystyle b}$are real, and${\displaystyle dx}$is infinitesimal of the same sign as ${\displaystyle b-a}$) to the value

${\displaystyle {\int }_a^b(\epsilon ,dx):=\mathrm{st}\left(\sum _{n=0}^N\epsilon (a+ndx)\right),}$

where${\displaystyle N}$is any hyperinteger number satisfying${\displaystyle \mathrm{st}(Ndx)=b-a.}$

A real-valued function ${\displaystyle f}$ is then said to integrable over a closed interval${\displaystyle [a,b]}$if for any nonzero infinitesimal${\displaystyle dx,}$the integral

${\displaystyle {\int }_a^b(fdx,dx)}$

is independent of the choice of${\displaystyle dx.}$ If so, this integral is called the definite integral (or antiderivative) of ${\displaystyle f}$ on${\displaystyle [a,b].}$

This shows that using hyperreal numbers, Leibniz's notation for the definite integral can actually be interpreted as a meaningful algebraic expression (just as the derivative can be interpreted as a meaningful quotient).^[3]

Properties

The hyperreals *R form an ordered field containing the reals R as a subfield. Unlike the reals, the hyperreals do not form a standard metric space, but by virtue of their order they carry an order topology.

The use of the definite article the in the phrase the hyperreal numbers is somewhat misleading in that there is not a unique ordered field that is referred to in most treatments. However, a 2003 paper by Vladimir Kanovei and Saharon Shelah^[4] shows that there is a definable, countably saturated (meaning ω-saturated, but not, of course, countable) elementary extension of the reals, which therefore has a good claim to the title of the hyperreal numbers. Furthermore, the field obtained by the ultrapower construction from the space of all real sequences, is unique up to isomorphism if one assumes the continuum hypothesis.

The condition of being a hyperreal field is a stronger one than that of being a real closed field strictly containing R. It is also stronger than that of being a superreal field in the sense of Dales and Woodin.^[5]

Development

The hyperreals can be developed either axiomatically or by more constructively oriented methods. The essence of the axiomatic approach is to assert (1) the existence of at least one infinitesimal number, and (2) the validity of the transfer principle. In the following subsection we give a detailed outline of a more constructive approach. This method allows one to construct the hyperreals if given a set-theoretic object called an ultrafilter, but the ultrafilter itself cannot be explicitly constructed. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreal_number

A timekeeper is an instrument or person that measures the passage of time. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timekeeper

Horology (lit. 'the study of time'; related to Latin horologium; from Ancient Greek ὡρολόγιον (hōrológion) 'instrument for telling the hour'; from ὥρα (hṓra) 'hour, time', interfix -o-, and suffix -logy)^[1][2] is the study of the measurement of time. Clocks, watches, clockwork, sundials, hourglasses, clepsydras, timers, time recorders, marine chronometers, and atomic clocks are all examples of instruments used to measure time. In current usage, horology refers mainly to the study of mechanical time-keeping devices, while chronometry more broadly includes electronic devices that have largely supplanted mechanical clocks for the best accuracy and precision in time-keeping. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horology

An atomic clock is a clock that measures time by monitoring the resonant frequency of atoms. It is based on atoms having different energy levels. Electron states in an atom are associated with different energy levels, and in transitions between such states they interact with a very specific frequency of electromagnetic radiation. This phenomenon serves as the basis for the International System of Units' (SI) definition of a second:

The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency, ${\displaystyle \mathrm{\Delta }{\nu }_{\mathsf{C}\mathsf{s}}}$, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s⁻¹.

This definition is the basis for the system of International Atomic Time (TAI), which is maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world. The system of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) that is the basis of civil time implements leap seconds to allow clock time to track changes in Earth's rotation to within one second while being based on clocks that are based on the definition of the second.

The accurate timekeeping capabilities of atomic clocks are also used for navigation by satellite networks such as the European Union's Galileo Program and the United States' GPS. The timekeeping accuracy of the involved atomic clocks is important because the smaller the error in time measurement, the smaller the error in distance obtained by multiplying the time by the speed of light is (a timing error of a nanosecond or 1 billionth of a second (10⁻⁹ or 1⁄1,000,000,000 second) translates into an almost 30-centimetre (11.8 in) distance and hence positional error).

The main variety of atomic clock uses caesium atoms cooled to temperatures that approach absolute zero. The primary standard for the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)'s caesium fountain clock named NIST-F2, measures time with an uncertainty of 1 second in 300 million years (relative uncertainty 10⁻¹⁶). NIST-F2 was brought online on 3 April 2014.^[2][3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock

 

 

Time measurement and standards
Chronometry Orders of magnitude Metrology
International standards	Coordinated Universal Time offset UT ΔT DUT1 International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ISO 31-1 ISO 8601 International Atomic Time 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Barycentric Coordinate Time Barycentric Dynamical Time Civil time Daylight saving time Geocentric Coordinate Time International Date Line IERS Reference Meridian Leap second Solar time Terrestrial Time Time zone 180th meridian
Obsolete standards	Ephemeris time Greenwich Mean Time Prime meridian
Time in physics	Absolute space and time Spacetime Chronon Continuous signal Coordinate time Cosmological decade Discrete time and continuous time Proper time Theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Time domain Time translation symmetry T-symmetry
Horology	Clock Astrarium Atomic clock Complication History of timekeeping devices Hourglass Marine chronometer Marine sandglass Radio clock Watch stopwatch Water clock Sundial Dialing scales Equation of time History of sundials Sundial markup schema
Calendar	Gregorian Hebrew Hindu Holocene Islamic (lunar Hijri) Julian Solar Hijri Astronomical Dominical letter Epact Equinox Intercalation Julian date Leap year Lunar Lunisolar Solar Solstice Tropical year Weekday determination Weekday names
Archaeology and geology	Chronological dating Geologic time scale International Commission on Stratigraphy
Astronomical chronology	Galactic year Nuclear timescale Precession Sidereal time
Other units of time	Instant Flick Shake Jiffy Second Minute Moment Hour Day Week Fortnight Month Year Olympiad Lustrum Decade Century Saeculum Millennium
Related topics	Chronology Duration music Mental chronometry Decimal time Metric time System time Time metrology Time value of money Timekeeper

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century

 

During the 1930s, Isidor Rabi built equipment for atomic beam magnetic resonance frequency clocks.^[7][8]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock}

Before the demonstration of the frequency comb in 2000, terahertz techniques were needed to bridge the gap between radio and optical frequencies, and the systems for doing so were cumbersome and complicated. With the refinement of the frequency comb, these measurements have become much more accessible and numerous optical clock systems are now being developed around the world.^[113]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock}

The most accurate caesium clocks based on the caesium frequency of 9.19 GHz have an accuracy between 10⁻¹⁵–10⁻¹⁶. Unfortunately, they are big and only available in large metrology labs and not useful for factories or industrial environments that would use an atomic clock for GPS accuracy but can't afford to build a whole metrology laboratory for one atomic clock. Researchers have designed a strontium optical clock that can be moved around in an air-conditioned car trailer.^[153]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock}

A radio clock is a clock that automatically synchronizes itself by means of radio time signals received by a radio receiver. Some manufacturers may label radio clocks as atomic clocks,^[195] because the radio signals they receive originate from atomic clocks. Normal low-cost consumer-grade receivers that rely on the amplitude-modulated time signals have a practical accuracy uncertainty of ± 0.1 second. This is sufficient for many consumer applications.^[195] Instrument grade time receivers provide higher accuracy. Radio clocks incur a propagation delay of approximately 1 ms for every 300 kilometres (186 mi) of distance from the radio transmitter. Many governments operate transmitters for timekeeping purposes.^[196]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock}

2. See also

   • Electronics portal
   • Caesium standard
   • Clock drift
   • Dick effect
   • List of atomic clocks
   • Network Time Protocol
   • Primary Atomic Reference Clock in Space
   • Pulsar clock
   • Speaking clock
   • Time metrology
   • Time transfer
   • Optical clock

   Explanatory notes

   1. 
      
3. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have demonstrated a clock that will not lose a second in 300 billion years.^[60]
4. 
   
One second in 13.8 billion years, the age of the universe, is an accuracy of 2.3×10⁻¹⁸.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock

 

A speaking clock or talking clock is a live or recorded human voice service, usually accessed by telephone, that gives the correct time. The first telephone speaking clock service was introduced in France, in association with the Paris Observatory, on 14 February 1933.^[1]

The format of the service is similar to that of radio time signal services. At set intervals (e.g. ten seconds) a voice announces (for example) "At the third stroke, the time will be twelve forty-six and ten seconds……", with three beeps following. Some countries have sponsored time announcements and include the sponsor's name in the message. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaking_clock

In 1934, electronic engineer and inventor F.H. Leeuwrik built a speaking clock for the municipal telephone service of The Hague using optically recorded speech, looping on a large drum. The female voice was provided by the then 24-year-old school teacher Cor Hoogendam, hence the machine was nicknamed Tante Cor (Aunt Cor).^[23]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaking_clock}

In 1935, Soviet Central Scientific Research Institute of Communications received a government order to design the "Speaking Clock" for Moscow City Telephone Network.^[29][30] "Speaking Clock" was constructed based on cinematic techniques^[30] and consists of discs with pulse-density modulation optical marks on photographic tapes, photocell with actuator, and audio tube amplifier.^[31] On May 14, 1937 "speaking clock" connected to Moscow City Telephone Network for test operation and it was reachable on the numbers Russian: "Г 1-98-48" and Russian: "Г 1-98-49".^[29][30][31] It was speaking with the recorded voice of Soviet actor and broadcaster Emmanuil Tobiash.^[29][30][31] In 1937, the first cities to be equipped with this devices were Moscow and Leningrad.^[32] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaking_clock

The speaking clock in Sweden is run by Telia and can be reached by calling 90 510 from landline phones or 08-90 510 from mobile phones. The service is called Fröken Ur which means Miss Clock. It has been in use since 1934. Various voices have stated the time. Since 2000 the voice which states the time belongs to Johanna Hermann Lundberg. In 1977 the speaking clock in Sweden received 64 000 000 calls - which is the record for a year. In 2020 the number of calls was about 2 000 per day, meaning a total of a bit less than 1 000 000 calls annually.^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaking_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures#International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_signal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Defence_Forces

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_Atomic_Clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_noise

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto-optical_trap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_gas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_pumping

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortt%E2%80%93Synchronome_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomichron

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_redefinition_of_the_SI_base_units

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_comb

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip-scale_atomic_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_trap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_field

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Russian_Scientific_Research_Institute_for_Physical-Engineering_and_Radiotechnical_Metrology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Bureau_of_Weights_and_Measures

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLONASS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium_standard

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-controlled_oscillator#VCXO

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_synthesizer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfine_structure#Use_in_defining_the_SI_second_and_meter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_maser

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_disciplined_oscillator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-long-baseline_interferometry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_redshift

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_cavity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures#International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_broadening

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_fountain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_lattice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Clock_Ensemble_in_Space

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_logic_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_logic_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_isomer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terahertz_radiation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second#History_of_definition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance

 

05-08-2023-1105 - Dactylic hexameter

Dactylic hexameter (also known as heroic hexameter and the meter of epic) is a form of meter or rhythmic scheme frequently used in Ancient Greek and Latin poetry. The scheme of the hexameter is usually as follows (writing – for a long syllable, u for a short, and u u for a position that may be a long or two shorts):

| – u u | – u u | – u u | – u u | – u u | – –

Here, "|" (pipe symbol) marks the beginning of a foot in the line. Thus there are six feet, each of which is either a dactyl (– u u) or a spondee (– –). The first four feet can either be dactyls, spondees, or a mix. The fifth foot can also sometimes be a spondee, but this is rare, as it most often is a dactyl. The last foot is a spondee.

The hexameter is traditionally associated with classical epic poetry in both Greek and Latin and was consequently considered to be the grand style of Western classical poetry. Some well known examples of its use are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, Virgil's Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, Lucan's Pharsalia (an epic on Caesar's Civil War), Valerius Flaccus's Argonautica, and Statius's Thebaid.

However, hexameters had a wide use outside of epic. Greek works in hexameters include Hesiod's Works and Days and Theogony, Theocritus's Idylls, and Callimachus's hymns. In Latin famous works include Lucretius's philosophical De rerum natura, Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics, book 10 of Columella's manual on agriculture, as well as Latin satirical poems by the poets Lucilius, Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. The hexameter continued to be used in Christian times, for example in the Carmen paschale of the 5th-century Irish poet Sedulius and Bernard of Cluny's 12th-century satire De contemptu mundi among many others.

Hexameters also form part of elegiac poetry in both languages, the elegiac couplet being a dactylic hexameter line paired with a dactylic pentameter line. This form of verse was used for love poetry by Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, for Ovid's letters from exile, and for many of the epigrams of Martial.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter

05-08-2023-1103 - Arctinus of Miletus or Arctinus Milesius

Arctinus of Miletus or Arctinus Milesius (Ancient Greek: Ἀρκτῖνος Μιλήσιος) was a Greek epic poet whose reputation is purely legendary, as none of his works survive. Traditionally dated between 775 BC and 741 BC, he was said to have been a pupil of Homer. His father was Teleus son of Nauteus.[1] Phaenias of Eresus placed him in the 7th century BC and claimed that he was defeated by Lesches of Pyrrha in competition. One of the "cyclic poets", Arctinus composed the epics Aethiopis and Sack of Troy, which were contributions to the Trojan War cycle, and possibly Naupactia.

These poems are lost, but an idea of the first two can be obtained from the Chrestomathy ascribed (probably wrongly) to Proclus the Neo-Platonist of the 5th century AD.

The Aethiopis (Αἰθιοπίς), in five books, is so called from the Aethiopian Memnon, who became the ally of the Trojans after the death of Hector. According to Proclus, the poem took up the narrative from the close of the Iliad: "The Amazon Penthesilea arrives to aid the Trojans in war. She is the daughter of Ares and a Thracian by birth. Achilles kills her while she is fighting at her best, and the Trojans bury her. Achilles kills Thersites, who railed at him and reproached him for loving Penthesileia.”

The Aethiopis concluded with the death and burial of Achilles and the dispute between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms.

The Sack of Troy (Iliou Persis) told the stories of the Trojan Horse, Sinon, and Laocoön, the capture of the city, and the departure of the Greeks pursued by the anger of Athena at the rape of Cassandra by Ajax the Lesser. The Little Iliad, usually ascribed to Lesches, bridged the gap in the story-line between Aethiopis and the Sack of Troy.
References



Suda, alpha, 3960
SourcesEusebius, Chronicle Olympiad 1.2, 5.1.
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 1.131.6.
Suda s.lem. Arctinus (Alpha, 3960: Ἀρκτῖνος).
Further readingDavid Binning Monro, "On the Fragment of Proclus' Abstract of the Epic Cycle Contained in the Codex Venetus of the Iliad", Journal of Hellenic Studies, 4 (1883), 305-334.
T.W. Allen in Classical Quarterly, April 1908, pp. 82ff.






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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctinus_of_Miletus

05-08-2023-1102 - Aethiopis

The Aethiopis /iːˈθaɪəpɪs/, also spelled Aithiopis (Greek: Αἰθιοπίς, Aíthiopís; Latin: Aethiopis), is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. It was one of the Epic Cycle, that is, the Trojan cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic verse. The story of the Aethiopis comes chronologically immediately after that of the Homeric Iliad, and is followed by that of the Little Iliad. The Aethiopis was sometimes attributed by ancient writers to Arctinus of Miletus (8th century BC) (see Cyclic poets). The poem comprised five books of verse in dactylic hexameter. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethiopis

05-08-2023-1101 - Cypria (lost epic poem) [greek literature] (classical antiquity) (draft)

The Cypria (/ˈsɪpri.ə/;^[1] Greek: Κύπρια Kúpria; Latin: Cypria) is a lost epic poem of ancient Greek literature, which has been attributed to Stasinus and was quite well known in classical antiquity^[2] and fixed in a received text, but which subsequently was lost to view. It was part of the Epic Cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic hexameter verse. The story of the Cypria comes chronologically at the beginning of the Epic Cycle, and is followed by that of the Iliad; the composition of the two was apparently in the reverse order. The poem comprised eleven books of verse in epic dactylic hexameters.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypria

05-08-2023-1059 - Astyanax (survival)

Survival

There are numerous traditions up through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance that have Astyanax survive the destruction of Troy:

Astyanax, in Andromache's lap, reaches to touch his father's helmet before his duel with Achilles (Apulian red-figure column-crater, ca. 370–360 BC).

• In one version, either Talthybius finds he cannot bear to kill him or else kills a slave's child in his place. Astyanax survives to found settlements in Corsica and Sardinia.
• The Chronicle of Fredegar contains the oldest mention of a medieval legend linking the Franks to the Trojans.^[7] One legend, as further elaborated through the Middle Ages, established Astyanax, renamed "Francus", as the founder of the Merovingian dynasty and forefather of Charlemagne.
• In Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, "the sons of Hector" reigned in Troy after the expulsion of Antenor and his followers.^[8]
• In Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando innamorato (1495), Andromache saves Astyanax by hiding him in a tomb, replacing him with another child who is killed along with her by the Greeks. Taken to Sicily, Astyanax becomes the ruler of Messina, killing the giant-king of Agrigento (named Agranor) and marries the queen of Syracuse. He is killed treacherously by Aegisthus, but his wife escapes to Reggio and bears a son (Polidoro), from whom the epic hero Ruggiero is descended (III, v, 18-27). In this tradition, the epic hero Roland's sword Durendal is the very sword used by Hector, and Roland wins the sword by defeating a Saracen knight (Almonte, the son of Agolant) who had defeated Ruggiero II.
• In Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, a continuation of Boiardo's poem, Astyanax is saved from Odysseus (36.70) by substituting another boy of his age for himself. Astyanax arrives in Sicily, eventually becomes King of Messina, and his heirs later rule over Calabria (36.70–73). From these rulers is descended Ruggiero II, father of the hero Ruggiero, legendary founder of the house of Este.
• Based on the medieval legend, Jean Lemaire de Belges's Illustrations de Gaule et Singularités de Troie (1510–12) has Astyanax survive the fall of Troy and arrive in Western Europe. He changes his name to Francus and becomes King of Celtic Gaul (while, at the same time, Bavo, cousin of Priam, comes to the city of Trier) and founds the dynasty leading to Pepin and Charlemagne.^[9]
• Lemaire de Belges' work inspired Pierre de Ronsard's epic poem La Franciade (1572). In this poem, Jupiter saves Astyanax (renamed Francus). The young hero arrives in Crete and falls in love with the princess Hyanthe with whom he is destined to found the royal dynasty of France.
• In Jean Racine's play Andromaque (1667), Astyanax has narrowly escaped death at the hands of Odysseus, who has unknowingly been tricked into killing another child in his place. Andromache has been taken prisoner in Epirus by Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus) who is due to be married to Hermione, the only daughter of the Spartan king Menelaus and Helen of Troy. Orestes, son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, brother to Electra and Iphigenia, and by now absolved of the crime of matricide prophesied by the Delphic oracle, has come to the court of Pyrrhus to plead on behalf of the Greeks for the return of Astyanax.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astyanax

 

05-08-2023-1058 - Astyanax, in Andromache's lap, reaches to touch his father's helmet before his duel with Achilles (Apulian red-figure column-crater, ca. 370–360 BC).

Astyanax, in Andromache's lap, reaches to touch his father's helmet before his duel with Achilles (Apulian red-figure column-crater, ca. 370–360 BC).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astyanax

05-08-2023-1057 - An engraving showing the child Astyanax thrown from the walls of Troy as his mother Andromache looks on

In Greek mythology, Astyanax (/əˈstaɪ.ənæks/; Ancient Greek: Ἀστυάναξ Astyánax, "lord of the city") was the son of Hector, the crown prince of Troy, and his wife, Princess Andromache of Cilician Thebe.^[1] His birth name was Scamandrius (in Greek: Σκαμάνδριος Skamandrios, after the river Scamander^[2]), but the people of Troy nicknamed him Astyanax (i.e. high king, or overlord of the city), because he was the son of the city's great defender (Iliad VI, 403) and the heir apparent's firstborn son.

During the Trojan War, Andromache hid the child in Hector's tomb, but the child was discovered. His fate was debated by the Greeks, for if he were allowed to live, it was feared he would avenge his father and rebuild Troy.^[2] In the version given by the Little Iliad and repeated by Pausanias (x 25.4), he was killed by Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus), who threw the infant from the walls,^[1] as predicted by Andromache in the Iliad.^[3] Another version is given in Iliou persis, in which Odysseus kills Astyanax. It has also been depicted in some Greek vases that Neoptolemus kills Priam, who has taken refuge near a sacred altar, using Astyanax's dead body to club the old king to death, in front of horrified onlookers.^[4] In Ovid's Metamorphoses, the child is thrown from the walls by the Greek victors (13, 413ff). In Euripides's The Trojan Women (719 ff), the herald Talthybius reveals to Andromache that Odysseus has convinced the council to have the child thrown from the walls, and the child is in this way killed. In Seneca's version of The Trojan Women, the prophet Calchas declares that Astyanax must be thrown from the walls if the Greek fleet is to be allowed favorable winds (365–70), but once led to the tower, the child himself leaps off the walls (1100–3). For Hector's mother, Hecuba, Astyanax was the only hope and consolation, and his death's announcement was a terrible climax of the catastrophe.^[5] Other sources for the story of the Sack of Troy and Astyanax's death can be found in the Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus), Hyginus (Fabula 109), Tryphiodorus (Sack of Troy 644–6).^[6]

An engraving showing the child Astyanax thrown from the walls of Troy as his mother Andromache looks on

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astyanax#/media/File:Astianax.jpg

05-08-2023-1055 - Marmara Island

Marmara Island (Turkish: Marmara Adası) is a Turkish island in the Sea of Marmara. With an area of 117.8 km² (45.5 sq mi) it is the largest island in the Sea of Marmara and is the second largest island of Turkey after Gökçeada (older name in Turkish: İmroz; Greek: Ίμβρος Imvros). It is the center of Marmara district in Balıkesir Province. Transportation is possible from Istanbul by ship and ferry, and by motorboat from Tekirdağ and Erdek. Marmara island is full of historical treasures which increase its attractiveness. The town of "Mermer Plaj"/Marble Beach takes its name from the marble for which the town is famous and which gives the island and the sea their name. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmara_Island

05-08-2023-1054 - Tenedos

Tenedos (Greek: Τένεδος, Tenedhos; Latin: Tenedus), or Bozcaada in Turkish, is an island of Turkey in the northeastern part of the Aegean Sea. Administratively, the island constitutes the Bozcaada district of Çanakkale Province. With an area of 39.9 km² (15 sq mi) it is the third largest Turkish island after Imbros (Gökçeada) and Marmara. In 2018, the district had a population of 3023.^[3] The main industries are tourism, wine production and fishing. The island has been famous for its grapes, wines and red poppies for centuries. It is a former bishopric and presently a Latin Catholic titular see.

Bozcaada Clock Tower

Tenedos is mentioned in both the Iliad and the Aeneid, in the latter as the site where the Greeks hid their fleet near the end of the Trojan War in order to trick the Trojans into believing the war was over and into taking the Trojan Horse within their city walls. The island was important throughout classical antiquity despite its small size due to its strategic location at the entrance of the Dardanelles. In the following centuries, the island came under the control of a succession of regional powers, including the Persian Empire, the Delian League, the empire of Alexander the Great, the Attalid kingdom, the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, before passing to the Republic of Venice. As a result of the War of Chioggia (1381) between Genoa and Venice the entire population was evacuated and the town was demolished. The Ottoman Empire established control over the deserted island in 1455. During Ottoman rule, it was resettled by both Greeks and Turks. In 1807, the island was temporarily occupied by the Russians. During this invasion the town was burnt down and many Turkish residents left the island.

Under Greek administration between 1912 and 1923, Tenedos was ceded to Turkey with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which ended the Turkish War of Independence following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of World War I. The treaty called for a quasi-autonomous administration to accommodate the local Greek population and excluded the Greeks on the two islands of Imbros and Tenedos from the wider population exchanges that took place between Greece and Turkey. Tenedos remained majority Greek until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when many Greeks emigrated because of systemic discrimination and better opportunities elsewhere. Starting with the second half of the 20th century, there has been immigration from mainland Anatolia, especially Romani from the town of Bayramiç.

 

Antiquity

Tenedos next to ancient Troy, with Imbros to the north and Lesbos to the south.

Ancient Tenedos is referred to in Greek and Roman mythology, and archaeologists have uncovered evidence of its settlement from the Bronze Age. It would stay prominent through the age of classical Greece, fading by the time of the dominance of ancient Rome. Although a small island, Tenedos's position in the straits and its two harbors made it important to the Mediterranean powers over the centuries. For nine months of the year, the currents and the prevailing wind, the etesian, came, and still come, from the Black Sea hampering sailing vessels headed for Constantinople. They had to wait a week or more at Tenedos, waiting for the favorable southerly wind. Tenedos thus served as a shelter and way station for ships bound for the Hellespont, Propontis, Bosphorus, and places farther on. Several of the regional powers captured or attacked the island, including the Athenians, the Persians, the Macedonians under Alexander the Great, the Seleucids and the Attalids.^[20]

Mythology

Homer mentions Apollo as the chief deity of Tenedos in his time. According to him, the island was captured by Achilles during the siege of Troy.^[21] Nestor obtained his slave Hecamede there during one of Achilles's raids. Nestor also sailed back from Troy stopping at Tenedos and island-hopping to Lesbos.^[22] The Odyssey mentions the Greeks leaving Troy after winning the war first traveled to nearby Tenedos, sacrificed there,^[20] and then went to Lesbos before pausing to choose between alternative routes.^[23]

Homer, in the Iliad mention that between Tenedos and Imbros there was a wide cavern, in which Poseidon stayed his horses.^[24][25]

Virgil, in the Aeneid, described the Achaeans hiding their fleet at the bay of Tenedos, toward the end of the Trojan War, to trick Troy into believing the war was over and allowing them to take the Trojan Horse within Troy's city walls. In Aeneid, it is also the island from which twin serpents came to kill the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons as punishment for throwing a spear at the Trojan Horse.^[26] According to Pindar (Nemean Odes no. 11), the island was founded after the war by bronze-clad warriors from Amyklai, traveling with Orestes.^[27]

According to myth, Tenes was the son of Cycnus, himself the son of Poseidon and Calyce. Philonome, Cycnus's second wife and hence Tenes's stepmother, tried to seduce Tenes and was rejected. She then accused him of rape leading to his abandonment at sea along with his sister. They washed up on the island of Leucophrys where he was proclaimed king and the island renamed Tenedos in his honor. When Cycnus realized the lie behind the allegations he took a ship to apologize to his son. The myths differ on whether they reconciled.^[28] According to one version, when the father landed on the island of Tenedos, Tenes cut the cord holding his boat. The phrase 'hatchet of Tenes' came to mean resentment that could not be soothed.^[29] Another myth had Achilles landing on Tenedos, while sailing from Aulis to Troy. There his navy stormed the island, and Achilles fought Tenes, in this myth a son of Apollo, and killed him, not knowing Tenes's lineage and hence unaware of the danger of Apollo's revenge. Achilles would also later kill Tenes's father, Cycnus, at Troy.^[30] In Sophocles's Philoctetes, written in 409 BC, a serpent bit Philoctetes in the foot at Tenedos. According to Hyginus, the goddess Hera, upset with Philoctetes for helping Hercules, had sent the snake to punish him. His wound refused to heal, and the Greeks abandoned him, before going back to him for help later during the attack on Troy.^[31] Athenaeus quoted Nymphodorus's remarks on the beauty of the women of Tenedos.^[25]

Callimachus talked of a myth in which Ino's son Melikertes washed up dead in Tenedos after being thrown into the sea by his mother, who killed herself too; the residents, Lelegians, built an altar for Melikertes and started a ritual of a woman sacrificing her infant child when the town's need was dire. The woman would then be blinded.^[32] The myths also added that the custom was abolished when Orestes' descendants settled the place.^[33]

Neoptolemus stayed two days at Tenedos, following the advice of Thetis, before he go to the land of the Molossians together with Helenus.^[34]

Archaic period

It was at Tenedos, along with Lesbos, that the first coins with Greek writing on them were minted.^[35] Figures of bunches of grapes and wine vessels such as amphorae and kantharoi were stamped on coins.^[36] The very first coins had a twin head of a male and a female on the obverse side.^[37] The early coins were of silver and had a double-headed axe imprinted on them. Aristotle considered the axe as symbolizing the decapitation of those convicted of adultery, a Tenedian decree.^[38] The axe-head was either a religious symbol or the seal of a trade unit of currency.^[39] Apollo Smintheus, a god who both protected against and brought about plague, was worshipped in late Bronze Age Tenedos.^[40] Strabo's Geography writes that Tenedos "contains an Aeolian city and has two harbours, and a temple of Apollo Smintheus" (Strabo's Geography, Vol. 13). The relationship between Tenedos and Apollo is mentioned in Book I of the Iliad where a priest calls to Apollo with the name "O god of the silver bow, that protectest Chryse and holy Cilla and rulest Tenedos with thy might"(Iliad I).^[41]

During the later part of the Bronze Age and during the Iron Age, the place served as a major point between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Homer's Iliad mentions the Tenedos of this era. The culture and artisanship of the area, as represented by pottery and metal vessels recovered from graves, matched that of the northeastern Aegean. Archaeologists have found no evidence to substantiate Herodotus's assertion Aeolians had settled in Tenedos by the Bronze Age. Homer mentions Tenedos as a base for the Achaean fleet during the Trojan war.^[42]

The Iron Age settlement of the northeast Aegean was once attributed to Aeolians, descendants of Orestes and hence of the House of Atreus in Mycenae, from across the Aegean from Thessaly, Boiotia and Akhaia, all in mainland Greece. Pindar, in his 11th Nemean Ode, hints at a group of Peloponnesians, the children of the fighters at Troy, occupying Tenedos, with Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, landing straight on the island; specifically he refers to a Spartan Peisandros and his descendant Aristagoras, with Peisandaros having come over with Orestes. Strabo places the start of the migration sixty years after the Trojan war, initiated by Orestes's son, Penthilos, with the colonization continuing onto Penthilos's grandson.^[35]

The archaeological record provides no supporting evidence for the theory of Aiolian occupation. During the pre-archaic period, adults in Lesbos were buried by placing them in large jars, and later clay coverings were used, similar to Western Asia Minor. Still later, Tenedians began to both bury and cremate their adults in pits buttressed with stone along the walls. Children were still buried covered in jars. Some items buried with the person, such as pottery, gifts and safety-pin-like clasps, resemble what is found in Anatolia, in both style and drawings and pictures, more than they resemble burial items in mainland Greece.^[35]

While human, specifically infant, sacrifice has been mentioned in connection with Tenedos's ancient past, it is now considered mythical in nature. The hero Paleomon in Tenedos was worshipped by a cult in that island, and the sacrifices were attributed to the cult.^[43] At Tenedos, people did sacrifice a newborn calf dressed in buskins, after treating the cow like a pregnant women giving birth; the person who killed the calf was then stoned and driven out into a life on the sea.^[33] According to Harold Willoughby, a belief in the calf as a ritual incarnation of God drove this practice.^[44]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenedos#Antiquity}

 

05-08-2023-1053 - Iliupersis

The Iliupersis (Greek: Ἰλίου πέρσις, Iliou persis, "Sack of Ilium"), also known as The Sack of Troy, is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. It was one of the Epic Cycle, that is, the Trojan cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic verse. The story of the Iliou persis comes chronologically after that of the Little Iliad, and is followed by the Nostoi ("Returns"). The Iliou persis was sometimes attributed by ancient writers to Arctinus of Miletus (8th century BCE) (see Cyclic poets). The poem comprised two books of verse in dactylic hexameter. 

The Iliou persis was probably composed in the seventh century BCE, but there is much uncertainty. Ancient sources date Arctinus to the eighth century BCE, but evidence concerning another of his poems, the Aethiopis, suggests that he lived considerably later than that.  

Neoptolemus kills king Priam, even though he has taken refuge at the altar of Zeus; Menelaus kills Deiphobus and takes back his wife Helen; Ajax the Lesser wrests Cassandra from the altar of Athena, incurring physical damage to the idol. The Greeks determine that they should stone Ajax in retribution, but he in turn also takes refuge at the altar of Athena. Odysseus kills Hector's baby son Astyanax and Neoptolemus takes Hector's wife Andromache captive. The Greeks make a human sacrifice of Priam's daughter Polyxena at Achilles' tomb. Athena formulates a plan to inflict revenge upon the Greeks concurrent with their nautical return.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliupersis

 

05-08-2023-1050 - The Abduction of Helen (1530–39) by Francesco Primaticcio, with Aphrodite directing

The Abduction of Helen (1530–39) by Francesco Primaticcio, with Aphrodite directing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War#/media/File:Francesco_Primaticcio_003.jpg

05-08-2023-1045 - Polyxena Sarcophagus in Troy Museum ; Musician figures from clay in Troy Museum.

Polyxena Sarcophagus in Troy Museum


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War#/media/File:Polyxena_Sarcophagus_Now_in_Troy_Museum_7938.jpg

Musician figures from clay in Troy Museum.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War#/media/File:Musicians_Troy_Museum_9994.jpg

05-08-2023-1043 - The Burning of Troy (1759/62), oil painting by Johann Georg Trautmann

The Burning of Troy (1759/62), oil painting by Johann Georg Trautmann

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War#/media/File:J_G_Trautmann_Das_brennende_Troja.jpg

05-08-2023-1042 - The Trojan War

In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably Homer's Iliad. The core of the Iliad (Books II – XXIII) describes a period of four days and two nights in the tenth year of the decade-long siege of Troy; the Odyssey describes the journey home of Odysseus, one of the war's heroes. Other parts of the war are described in a cycle of epic poems, which have survived through fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets including Virgil and Ovid.

The ancient Greeks believed that Troy was located near the Dardanelles and that the Trojan War was a historical event of the 13th or 12th century BC, but by the mid-19th century AD, both the war and the city were widely seen as non-historical. In 1868, however, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann met Frank Calvert, who convinced Schliemann that Troy was at what is now Hisarlik in Turkey.^[1] On the basis of excavations conducted by Schliemann and others, this claim is now accepted by most scholars.^[2][3]

Whether there is any historical reality behind the Trojan War remains an open question. Many scholars believe that there is a historical core to the tale, though this may simply mean that the Homeric stories are a fusion of various tales of sieges and expeditions by Mycenaean Greeks during the Bronze Age. Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War are derived from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th century BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly correspond to archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VII,^[4] and the Late Bronze Age collapse. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War

05-08-2023-1040 - The Love Potion (Painting) (1903)

Artist Evelyn De Morgan
Year 1903
Medium Oil on canvas
Dimensions 104.1 cm × 52.1 cm (41.0 in × 20.5 in)
Location De Morgan Centre, London 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Love_Potion

05-08-2023-1039 - Helen of Troy

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_of_Troy_%28painting%29

https://www.historytoday.com/miscellanies/helen-whore-and-curse-beauty

05-08-2023-1035 - Care of Stick Insects (Museum)

'Stick insects or phasmids eat leaves and resemble leaves or sticks.'

https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/care-of-stick-insects/