https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9886/#A1517
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26892/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/exocytosis
'The secreted product can be either a small molecule (such as histamine) or a protein (such as a hormone or digestive enzyme).'
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26892/#A2415
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/adenosine-triphosphate
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/glutamic-acid
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/insulin
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/secretagogue
'An example of this is eosinophil granule release following intimate attachment to appropriately opsonized larvae of the parasitic helminth Schistosoma mansoni (Fig. 7.6.2A).12,19,20'
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/exocytosis
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/diacylglycerol
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/blood-brain-barrier
'Compound exocytosis from eosinophils has also been characterized in vitro by patch-clamp analysis using whole-cell configuration, showing homotypic granule fusion preceding the release of granule contents through individual fusion pores.7 Fusion pores associated with granules undergoing compound exocytosis have been visualized in tannic acid-arrested degranulating eosinophils.21'
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/exocytosis
'Case Report
Invasive Haemophilus influenzae Disease: an Uncommon Consequence of Soft Tissue Infection in an Immunocompetent Adult—Case Report and Literature Review
Author links open overlay panelYuanliLeiM.D.AshleyDrewsM.D.'
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196439918301235
Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, and Lysosomes
' The endomembrane system was first discovered in the late 1800s when scientist Camillo Golgi noticed that a certain stain selectively marked only some internal cellular membranes.'
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/endoplasmic-reticulum-golgi-apparatus-and-lysosomes-14053361/
Rickettsioses in the United States
'Rickettsiae are obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacilli with global distribution. In the United States, nine Rickettsia species have been reported to cause disease in humans and are collectively responsible for the thousands of rickettsioses reported each year. Rickettsial infections are transmitted to humans via a variety of arthropod vectors, including ticks, lice, fleas, and mites. The severity of human infection ranges from subclinical and mild to severe and life threatening, dependent upon the infecting Rickettsia species, host factors, and time to appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Clinical presentation is often non-specific, making early recognition a challenge for health care professional. Awareness and appreciation of rickettsial pathogens is key to early diagnosis and prompt treatment.'
Author links open overlay panelKyle G.RodinoPh.D.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196439919300601
Role of lipid mediators in diabetic wound healing
Dayanjan S. Wijesinghe, in Wound Healing, Tissue Repair, and Regeneration in Diabetes, 2020
3 Glycerolipids
Diacylglycerol (DAG) is a glycerolipid with two fatty acyl chains attached to the central glycerol back bone [45].
Diacylglycerol Kinases and Phosphatidic Acid Phosphatases
M.K. Topham, in Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry (Second Edition), 2013
Abstract
Diacylglycerol (DAG) is an important lipid that both is an intermediate in lipid biosynthetic pathways and can act as a signaling lipid.
Dysregulation of DAG mediated PKC signaling is now considered a major driver of impaired diabetic wound healing [47]. Synthesis of DAG analogs for exogenous application and activation of PKC signaling is an active area of research in diabetic wound healing [47].
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/diacylglycerol
Muscle Lipid Metabolism
Adrian Chabowski, Jan Górski, in Muscle and Exercise Physiology, 2019
12.4.2 Diacylglycerols
Diacylglycerols are second messengers and intermediates in TAG metabolism. The results obtained from the incubated soleus indicate that an increase in diacylglycerol level in the muscle activates protein kinase C θ(theta) and leads to the inhibition of the insulin receptor substrate 1. Up to now, however, the relationship between diacylglycerol content in the muscle and sensitivity to insulin has not been univocally determined in vivo. According to some reports, the level of diacylglycerol is elevated in the muscle of obese subjects and in patients with diabetes type 2, indicating its involvement in the development of insulin resistance. However, other reports have not confirmed such a relationship. It is suggested that the involvement of diacylglycerol in the development of insulin resistance might depend both on the degree of saturation of fatty acid residues in diacylglycerol moieties and on the location of the compounds in myocytes (Coen and Goodpaster, 2012).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/diacylglycerol
Synaptic Plasticity: Diacylglycerol Signalling role
W.S. Sossin, C.A. Farah, in Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 2009
Morphological Plasticity
DAG signaling is important for various types of morphological plasticity, and this is mediated by a number of DAG targets that regulate the cytoskeleton. For example, stimulation of PLCβ-coupled cell surface receptors recruits β1-chimaerin to the plasma membrane resulting in the pruning of dendritic spines and branches. This pruning activity required both the DAG-binding and Rac GAP activity of β1-chimaerin. PKC phosphorylates many cytoskeletal regulators such as growth-associated protein-43 (GAP43), MARCKS, and adducin. Neurite outgrowth is also regulated through other C1 domain proteins including MRCK and RasGRPs, suggesting many overlapping pathways between DAG and the cytoskeleton in order to orchestrate complex morphological changes during neuronal development and perhaps during learning and memory as well.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/diacylglycerol
Activation of the Immune System
Darienne R. Myers, Jeroen P. Roose, in Encyclopedia of Immunobiology, 2016
DAG and C1 Domains
DAG is a glycerol molecule joined to two long chain fatty acids through ester linkages; it is a hydrophobic molecule and thus embeds in cellular membranes such as the PM (Carrasco and Merida, 2007; Krishna and Zhong, 2013).
DAG is an important lipid for lymphocytes and other cell types both because it can be metabolized and used as a source of fatty acids, which are important for growth and development (Carrasco and Merida, 2007), and because it can act as a second messenger for activation of signaling pathways such as NFκB and AP-1 (Figure 2). How exactly does DAG generation downstream of the TCR trigger NFκB and AP-1 signaling pathways, ultimately leading to T cell activation? This is primarily achieved through the recruitment and allosteric activation of effector proteins that harbor a ‘typical C1 domain,’ which can bind to DAG. C1 domains have a conserved 50 amino acid sequence and a well-characterized structure; they contain a hydrophobic base and a groove that form a cuplike structure to bind DAG. Binding of the C1 structure to DAG achieves membrane recruitment of proteins with such a domain (Carrasco and Merida, 2004). Examples of signaling proteins with C1 domains include members of the PKC family, protein kinase D (PKD) (Spitaler et al., 2006), RasGRPs, chimaerin family proteins, and munc13 proteins (Krishna and Zhong, 2013); PKCs (particularly PKCθ) and RasGRP1 will be discussed in greater detail subsequently (Figure 2).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/diacylglycerol
Membranes and Intracellular Signal Transduction
John W. Pelley, in Elsevier's Integrated Review Biochemistry (Second Edition), 2012
Diacylglycerol
Diacylglycerol (DAG) increases the activity of protein kinase C by increasing its affinity for Ca++. Protein kinase C regulates target proteins by serine and threonine phosphorylation. Note that both IP3and DAG activate protein kinase C, but by different mechanisms.
The phosphoinositide-related hormones activate the Gq protein by allowing it to bind GTP. The active GTP-Gq complex then activates phospholipase C until its concentrations are reduced. Like the other G-proteins the Gq protein automatically inactivates itself by hydrolyzing its bound GTP. As hormone concentrations drop, so does the renewal of active Gq-GTP complex. Phosphatases degrade IP3 to inositol, and DAG is degraded to phosphatidic acid.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/diacylglycerol
Isotopes of Calcium
Calcium is an important messenger in a variety of cell signaling pathways and it functions in the regulation of diverse cellular processes.
From: Comprehensive Toxicology, 2010
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/isotopes-of-calcium
Parathyroid hormone: The four pea-sized parathyroid glands are located on the lateral sides of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) in very rapid response (within seconds) to decreased ionized calcium concentration in blood (mediated by the CaSR). PTH promotes calcium mobilization from bone, calcium reabsorption from kidney, synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D, and other activities that are not directly related to calcium disposition.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/isotopes-of-calcium
Calcium
David A. Greenberg, in Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences, 2003
Intracellular Calcium
Calcium enters nerve and muscle cells from the extracellular space, down an approximately 10,000-fold concentration gradient, through porous membrane proteins called ion channels. Once inside the cell, calcium triggers a host of biochemical events that culminate in critical physiological events such as neurotransmitter release and muscle contraction.
The best characterized calcium channels are those that open in response to membrane depolarization and are therefore termed voltage-gated calcium channels. These exist in a variety of forms, with different protein subunit composition, electrophysiological properties, and cellular localization. Voltage-gated calcium channels consist of membrane-spanning, pore-forming α1 subunits and a series of regulatory subunits with the designations α2δ, β, and γ.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/isotopes-of-calcium
Calcium
Rosa Luisi, Maurizio Taglialatela, in xPharm: The Comprehensive Pharmacology Reference, 2009
Basic Chemistry
Chemical Structure
Structure
Chemical Formula Ca++
Properties
Physical Properties It is an alkaline earth metal with the following salient physical properties: density – 1.55 g/cm3; melting point – 850°C; boiling point – 1440°C; heat of fusion – 8.54 kJ/mol.
Molecular Weight 40.078
Solubility Calcium salts differ widely in their water solubility, with calcium carbonate being much less water soluble than is calcium acetate, ascorbate, gluconate, lactate, or citrate. While the solubility of some calcium salts, primarily those with low calcium loads such as lactate, citrate, and gluconate, is relatively pH independent, this is not true for the most widely used calcium supplements, the carbonates and phosphates. The solubility of both these salts is depressed as pH increases Shangraw (1989).
Several mutations in calcium channel subunits have also been identified as the underlying defect in neurological disorders in humans. These channelopathies all show autosomal dominant inheritance.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/isotopes-of-calcium
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