With the advent of globalisation at the beginning of the 20th century, however, the arguments for such relative philosophical aspects in the methods of teaching started to diminish somewhat. It is therefore possible to categorise didactics and pedagogy as a general analytic theory on three levels:[1]
- a theoretical or research level (denoting a field of study)
- a practical level (summaries of curricular activities)
- a discursive level (implying a frame of reference for professional dialogs)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didactic_method
https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lingua#Latin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spurious_languages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unclassified_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_shift
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_linguistics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmatic_analysis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotic_literary_criticism
Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms, and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time.[1] Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning.
Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. Precise estimates depend on an arbitrary distinction (dichotomy) established between languages and dialects.[2] Natural languages are spoken, signed, or both; however, any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, writing, whistling, signing, or braille. In other words, human language is modality-independent, but written or signed language is the way to inscribe or encode the natural human speech or gestures.
Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, "language" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.
The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between language and thought, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greek civilization. Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) have argued that languages originated from rational and logical thought. Twentieth century philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself. Major figures in contemporary linguistics of these times include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky.
Language is thought to have gradually diverged from earlier primate communication systems when early hominins acquired the ability to form a theory of mind and shared intentionality.[3][4] This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca's and Wernicke's areas. Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently by approximately three years old. Language and culture are codependent. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language has social uses such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as use for social grooming and entertainment.
Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur. A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family; in contrast, a language that has been demonstrated to not have any living or non-living relationship with another language is called a language isolate. There are also many unclassified languages whose relationships have not been established, and spurious languages may have not existed at all. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100.[5][6][7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language
Intentionality is the power of minds to be about something: to represent or to stand for things, properties and states of affairs.[1] Intentionality is primarily ascribed to mental states, like perceptions, beliefs or desires, which is why it has been regarded as the characteristic mark of the mental by many philosophers. A central issue for theories of intentionality has been the problem of intentional inexistence: to determine the ontological status of the entities which are the objects of intentional states.
An early theory of intentionality is associated with Anselm of Canterbury's ontological argument for the existence of God, and with his tenets distinguishing between objects that exist in the understanding and objects that exist in reality.[2] The idea fell out of discussion with the end of the medieval scholastic period, but in recent times was resurrected by empirical psychologist Franz Brentano and later adopted by contemporary phenomenological philosopher Edmund Husserl. Today, intentionality is a live concern among philosophers of mind and language.[3] A common dispute is between naturalism about intentionality, the view that intentional properties are reducible to natural properties as studied by the natural sciences, and the phenomenal intentionality theory, the view that intentionality is grounded in consciousness.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy-trace_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_perception
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_(music)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(music)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_symmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_invariance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Symbolism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Magical_thinking
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_of_speech
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_category
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_category
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutination
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolating_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation#Source_and_target_languages
Conjugation is the alteration of the form of a verb to encode information about some or all of grammatical mood, voice, tense, aspect, person, grammatical gender, and number. In a fusional language, two or more of these pieces of information may be conveyed in a single morpheme, typically a suffix.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language
Role of morphology
Another mechanism involves generative devices that combine morphemes according to a language's rules. For example, the suffix "-able" is usually only added to transitive verbs, as in "readable" but not "cryable".
Compounding
A compound word is a lexeme composed of several established lexemes, whose semantics is not the sum of that of their constituents. They can be interpreted through analogy, common sense and, most commonly, context.[3] Compound words can have simple or complex morphological structures. Usually, only the head requires inflection for agreement. Compounding may result in lexemes of unwieldy proportion. This is compensated by mechanisms that reduce the length of words. A similar phenomenon has been recently shown to feature in social media also where hashtags compound to form longer-sized hashtags that are at times more popular than the individual constituent hashtags forming the compound.[10] Compounding is the most common of word formation strategies cross-linguistically.
Diachronic mechanisms
Comparative historical linguistics studies the evolution of languages and takes a diachronic view of the lexicon. The evolution of lexicons in different languages occurs through a parallel mechanism. Over time historical forces work to shape the lexicon,[11] making it simpler to acquire and often creating an illusion of great regularity in language.
- Phonological assimilation, the modification of loanwords to fit a new language's sound structure more effectively. If, however, a loanword sounds too "foreign", inflection or derivation rules may not be able to transform it.
- Analogy, where new words undergo inflection and derivation analogous to that of words with a similar sound structure.
- Emphasis, the modification of words' stress or accent.
- Metaphor, a form of semantic extension.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_Markup_Framework
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine-readable_dictionary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_semantics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_semantics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_grammar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossematics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-knowledge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_linguistics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_(language_use)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_spectrum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)#Prosodic_stress
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenology
Egalitarian dialogue
Egalitarian dialogue is a concept in dialogic learning. It may be defined as a dialogue in which contributions are considered according to the validity of their reasoning, instead of according to the status or position of power of those who make them.[30]
Structured dialogue
Structured dialogue represents a class of dialogue practices developed as a means of orienting the dialogic discourse toward problem understanding and consensual action. Whereas most traditional dialogue practices are unstructured or semi-structured, such conversational modes have been observed as insufficient for the coordination of multiple perspectives in a problem area. A disciplined form of dialogue, where participants agree to follow a dialogue framework or a facilitator, enables groups to address complex shared problems.[31]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_miser#Low-information_rationality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_statistics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_axioms
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequentist_probability
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_rationality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraging
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRAFFICKING
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tolerance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety-critical_system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_throughput
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_corrosion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_metal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_time_between_failures
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language-for-specific-purposes_dictionary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography
Lexicography is the study of lexicons, and is divided into two separate academic disciplines. It is the art of compiling dictionaries.[1]
- Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.
- Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly study of semantic, orthographic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic features of lexemes of the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language, developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situations, and how users may best access the data incorporated in printed and electronic dictionaries. This is sometimes referred to as 'metalexicography'.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography
03-27-2023-0231 - THEORETICAL/RESEARCH(STUDY FIELD ; STRUCTURED HYPOTHETICALS ; DEFINITION DISCIPLINE); PRACTICUM/CURRICULAR (ACTIVAL) ; DISCURSE/DISCOURSE/DIALOGUE/THESIS/ETC. (PROFESSIONAL;FRAME/[TEXTUAL,DIALOGUAL]/PERSPECTIVE;REFERENCE) ; ETC. [LOGIC, LINGUISTICS, LANGUAGE, LOGOS, ANALOGS, ANTIDOTES, ERASE, PHONEME, LOGOGRAM, PHONOGRAM, GRAM, WEIGHT, MEASURE, CALIBRATION, ETC.]
DIALOGUAL
Logos (UK: /ˈloʊɡɒs, ˈlɒɡɒs/, US: /ˈloʊɡoʊs/; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos, lit. 'word, discourse, or reason') is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.
The word has also been used in different senses along with rhema. Both Plato and Aristotle used the term logos along with rhema to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos
Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American English[1]) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. As a philosophical or didactic device, it is chiefly associated in the West with the Socratic dialogue as developed by Plato, but antecedents are also found in other traditions including Indian literature.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexeme
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntagma_(linguistics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism_(disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_in_India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic_status
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility
Achieved status is a concept developed by the anthropologist Ralph Linton for a social position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit and is earned or chosen. It is the opposite of ascribed status and reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Examples of achieved status are being an Olympic athlete, a criminal, or a college professor.
Status is important sociologically because it comes with a set of rights, obligations, behaviors, and duties that people occupying a certain position are expected or encouraged to perform. Those expectations are referred to as roles. For instance, the role of a professor includes teaching students, answering their questions, and being impartial and appropriate.[clarification needed]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achieved_status
A band society, sometimes called a camp, or in older usage, a horde, is the simplest form of human society. A band generally consists of a small kin group, no larger than an extended family or clan.
The general consensus of modern anthropology sees the average number of
members of a social band at the simplest level of foraging societies
with generally a maximum size of 30 to 50 people.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_society
In cultural anthropology, a leveling mechanism is a practice that acts to ensure social equality, usually by shaming or humbling members of a group that attempt to put themselves above other members.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveling_mechanism
In political anthropology, a theatre state is a political state directed towards the performance of drama and ritual rather than more conventional ends such as warfare and welfare. Power in a theatre state is exercised through spectacle. The term was coined by Clifford Geertz in 1980 in reference to political practice in the nineteenth-century Balinese Negara,[1] but its usage has since expanded. Hunik Kwon and Byung-Ho Chung, for example, argue that contemporary North Korea is a theatre state.[2] In Geertz's original usage, the concept of the theatre state contests the notion that precolonial society can be analysed in the conventional discourse of Oriental despotism.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_state
Ascribed status is a term used in sociology that refers to the social status of a person that is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. The status is a position that is neither earned by the person nor chosen for them. Rather, the ascribed status is assigned based on social and cultural expectations, norms, and standards. These positions are occupied regardless of efforts or desire.[1]: 115 [2] These rigid social designators remain fixed throughout an individual's life and are inseparable from the positive or negative stereotypes that are linked with one's ascribed statuses.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascribed_status
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petty_kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Political_Systems
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdication
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUICIDE
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