09-16-2021-2357 - Standard Model of particle physics theory

 The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, while omitting gravity) in the universe, as well as classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists around the world,^[1] with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, confirmation of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy. 

Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent^[2] and has demonstrated huge successes in providing experimental predictions, it leaves some phenomena unexplained and falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions. It does not fully explain baryon asymmetry, incorporate the full theory of gravitation^[3] as described by general relativity, or account for the accelerating expansion of the Universe as possibly described by dark energy. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-zero masses.

The development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and experimentalparticle physicists alike. For theorists, the Standard Model is a paradigm of a quantum field theory, which exhibits a wide range of phenomena including spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies and non-perturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building more exotic models that incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such as supersymmetry) in an attempt to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model

This article describes the mathematics of the Standard Model of particle physics, a gaugequantum field theory containing the internal symmetries of the unitary product groupSU(3) × SU(2) × U(1). The theory is commonly viewed as containing the fundamental set of particles – the leptons, quarks, gauge bosons and the Higgs boson.

The Standard Model is renormalizable and mathematically self-consistent,^[1] however despite having huge and continued successes in providing experimental predictions it does leave some unexplained phenomena. In particular, although the physics of special relativity is incorporated, general relativity is not, and the Standard Model will fail at energies or distances where the graviton is expected to emerge. Therefore, in a modern field theory context, it is seen as an effective field theory.

This article requires some background both in physics and in mathematics, but is designed as both an introduction and a reference.

Standard Model of Particle Physics. The diagram shows the elementary particles of the Standard Model (the Higgs boson, the three generations of quarks and leptons, and the gauge bosons), including their names, masses, spins, charges, chiralities, and interactions with the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces. It also depicts the crucial role of the Higgs boson in electroweak symmetry breaking, and shows how the properties of the various particles differ in the (high-energy) symmetric phase (top) and the (low-energy) broken-symmetry phase (bottom).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model

Quantum field theory

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History

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Strong force

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09-16-2021-2356 - Particle physics (also known as high energy physics)

 Particle physics (also known as high energy physics) is a branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. Although the word particle can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, or even household dust), particle physics usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the fundamental interactions necessary to explain their behaviour. 

In current understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest "known" particle, the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force field, gravity.^[1][2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics

09-16-2021-2354 - fermion

 In particle physics, a fermion is a particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics and generally has half odd integer spin: spin 1/2, spin 3/2, etc. These particles obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as all composite particles made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei. Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose–Einstein statistics.

Some fermions are elementary particles, such as the electrons, and some are composite particles, such as the protons. According to the spin-statistics theorem in relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons, while particles with half-integer spin are fermions.

In addition to the spin characteristic, fermions have another specific property: they possess conserved baryon or lepton quantum numbers. Therefore, what is usually referred to as the spin statistics relation is in fact a spin statistics-quantum number relation.^[1]

As a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle, only one fermion can occupy a particular quantum state at a given time. If multiple fermions have the same spatial probability distribution, then at least one property of each fermion, such as its spin, must be different. Fermions are usually associated with matter, whereas bosons are generally force carrier particles, although in the current state of particle physics the distinction between the two concepts is unclear.  Weakly interacting fermions can also display bosonic behavior under extreme conditions. At low temperature fermions show superfluidity for uncharged particles and superconductivity for charged particles.

Composite fermions, such as protons and neutrons, are the key building blocks of everyday matter.

The name fermion was coined by English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac from the surname of Italian physicist Enrico Fermi.^[2]

Antisymmetric wavefunction for a (fermionic) 2-particle state in an infinite square well potential.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion

09-16-2021-2354 - strange quark or s quark

The strange quark or s quark (from its symbol, s) is the third lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle. Strange quarks are found in subatomic particles called hadrons. Examples of hadrons containing strange quarks include kaons (
K
), strange D mesons (
D
s), Sigma baryons (
Σ
), and other strange particles.

According to the IUPAP the symbol s is the official name, while "strange" is to be considered only as a mnemonic.^[2] The name sideways has also been used because the s quark has an I₃ value of 0 while the u ("up") and d ("down") quarks have values of +1/2 and −1/2 respectively.^[3]

Along with the charm quark, it is part of the second generation of matter. It has an electric charge of −1/3 e and a bare mass of 95+9
−3 MeV/c².^[1] Like all quarks, the strange quark is an elementary fermion with spin 1/2, and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the strange quark is the strange antiquark(sometimes called antistrange quark or simply antistrange), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.

The first strange particle (a particle containing a strange quark) was discovered in 1947 (kaons), but the existence of the strange quark itself (and that of the up and down quarks) was only postulated in 1964 by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig to explain the eightfold way classification scheme of hadrons. The first evidence for the existence of quarks came in 1968, in deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. These experiments confirmed the existence of up and down quarks, and by extension, strange quarks, as they were required to explain the eightfold way.

Strange quark

Composition	Elementary particle
Statistics	Fermionic
Family	Quark
Generation	Second
Interactions	strong, weak, electromagnetic force, gravity
Symbol	s
Antiparticle	Strange antiquark ( s )
Theorized	Murray Gell-Mann (1964) George Zweig (1964)
Discovered	1968, SLAC
Mass	95+9 −3 MeV/c2[1]
Decays into	Up quark
Electric charge	−1/3 e
Color charge	Yes
Spin	1/2
Weak isospin	LH: −1/2, RH: 0
Weak hypercharge	LH: 1/3, RH: −2/3

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_quark 

09-16-2021-2353 - hyperon

 In particle physics, a hyperon is any baryon containing one or more strange quarks, but no charm, bottom, or top quark.^[1] This form of matter may exist in a stable form within the core of some neutron stars.^[2]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperon

09-16-2021-2353 - hypertriton

 A hypertriton is a type of hypernucleus, formed of a proton, a neutron and any hyperon. The name comes from hyperon, which refers to baryons containing strange quarks, and triton, which refers to the nucleus of tritium. Because low-mass hyperons are longer-lived and easier to create than high-mass hyperons, the most common hypertritons are those containing Lambda baryons.

Its antiparticle, the antihypertriton, is formed of an antiproton, an antineutron and any antihyperon. The first one was discovered in March 2010 by the STAR detector of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertriton

09-16-2021-2352 - hypernucleus

A hypernucleus is a nucleus which contains at least one hyperon (a baryon carrying the strangeness quantum number) in addition to the normal protons and neutrons. The first was discovered by Marian Danysz and Jerzy Pniewski in 1952 using the nuclear emulsion technique, based on their energetic but delayed decay. They have also been studied by measuring the momenta of the K and pi mesons in the direct strangeness exchange reactions.

The strangeness quantum number is conserved by the strong and electromagnetic interactions, a variety of reactions give access to depositing one or more units of strangeness in a nucleus. Hypernuclei containing the lightest hyperon, the Lambda, live long enough to have sharp nuclear energy levels. Therefore, they offer opportunities for nuclear spectroscopy, as well as reaction mechanism study and other types of nuclear physics (hypernuclear physics).

Hypernuclear physics differs from that of normal nuclei because a hyperon, having a non-zero strangeness quantum number, can share space and momentum coordinates with the usual four nucleon states that can differ from each other in spin and isospin. That is, they are not restricted by the Pauli exclusion principle from any single-particle state in the nucleus. The ground state of helium-5-Lambda, for example, must resemble helium-4 more than it does helium-5 or lithium-5 and must be stable, apart from the eventual weak decay of the lambda with a mean lifetime of 278±11 ps.^[1] Sigma hypernuclei have been sought,^[2] as have doubly-strange nuclei containing Cascade baryons.

Hypernuclei can be made by a nucleus capturing a Lambda or a K meson and boiling off neutrons in a compound nuclear reaction, or, perhaps most easily, by the direct strangeness exchange reaction.

K
 + nucleus → 
π
 + hypernucleus

A generalized mass formula developed for both the non-strange normal nuclei and strange hypernuclei can estimate masses of hypernuclei containing Lambda, Lambda-Lambda, Sigma, Cascade and Theta+ hyperon(s).^[3][4] The neutron and proton driplines for hypernuclei are predicted and existence of some exotic hypernuclei beyond the normal neutron and proton driplines are suggested.^[5] This generalized mass formula was named as "Samanta Formula" by Botvina and Pochodzalla and used to predict relative yields of hypernuclei in multifragmentation of nuclear spectator matter.^[6]

The Hall C^[7] and Hall A^[8] of the US Jefferson National Laboratory (JLab), in Newport News, Virginia, is currently involved among other international laboratories in research on the hypernuclei.^[9]

See also[edit]

• Hypertriton 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernucleus

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