Thermal shock is a type of rapidly transient mechanical load. By definition, it is a mechanical load caused by a rapid change of temperature of a certain point. It can be also extended to the case of a thermal gradient, which makes different parts of an object expand by different amounts. This differential expansion can be more directly understood in terms of strain, than in terms of stress, as it is shown in the following. At some point, this stress can exceed the tensile strength of the material, causing a crack to form. If nothing stops this crack from propagating through the material, it will cause the object's structure to fail.

Failure due to thermal shock can be prevented by:^[1]

Reducing the thermal gradient seen by the object, by changing its temperature more slowly or increasing the material's thermal conductivity
Reducing the material's coefficient of thermal expansion
Increasing its strength
Introducing built-in compressive stress, as for example in tempered glass
Decreasing its Young's modulus
Increasing its toughness, by crack tip blunting (i.e., plasticity or phase transformation) or crack deflection

Effect on materials[edit]

Borosilicate glass is made to withstand thermal shock better than most other glass through a combination of reduced expansion coefficient and greater strength, though fused quartz outperforms it in both these respects. Some glass-ceramic materials (mostly in the lithium aluminosilicate (LAS) system^[2]) include a controlled proportion of material with a negative expansion coefficient, so that the overall coefficient can be reduced to almost exactly zero over a reasonably wide range of temperatures.

Among the best thermomechanical materials, there are alumina, zirconia, tungsten alloys, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, boron carbide, and some stainless steels.

Reinforced carbon-carbon is extremely resistant to thermal shock, due to graphite's extremely high thermal conductivity and low expansion coefficient, the high strength of carbon fiber, and a reasonable ability to deflect cracks within the structure.

To measure thermal shock, the impulse excitation technique proved to be a useful tool. It can be used to measure Young's modulus, Shear modulus, Poisson's ratio and damping coefficient in a non destructive way. The same test-piece can be measured after different thermal shock cycles and this way the deterioration in physical properties can be mapped out.

Thermal shock resistance[edit]

Thermal shock resistance measures can be used for material selection in applications subject to rapid temperature changes. A common measure of thermal shock resistance is the maximum temperature differential, $\Delta T$ , which can be sustained by the material for a given thickness.^[3]

Strength-controlled thermal shock resistance[edit]

Thermal shock resistance measures can be used for material selection in applications subject to rapid temperature changes. The maximum temperature jump, $\Delta T$ , sustainable by a material can be defined for strength-controlled models by:^[4]^[3]

B\Delta T={\frac {\sigma _{f}}{\alpha E}}

where

\sigma _{f}

is the failure stress (which can be yield or fracture stress),

\alpha

is the coefficient of thermal expansion,

E

is the Young's modulus, and

B

is a constant depending upon the part constraint, material properties, and thickness.

B={\frac {C}{A}}

where

C

is a system constrain constant dependent upon the Poisson's ratio,

\nu

, and

A

is a non-dimensional parameter dependent upon the Biot number,

\mathrm {Bi}

.

C={\begin{cases}1&{\text{axial stress}}\\(1-\nu )&{\text{biaxial constraint}}\\(1-2\nu )&{\text{triaxial constraint}}\end{cases}}

$A$ may be approximated by:

A={\frac {Hh/k}{1+Hh/k}}={\frac {\mathrm {Bi} }{1+\mathrm {Bi} }}

where

H

is the thickness,

h

is the heat transfer coefficient, and

k

is the thermal conductivity.

Perfect heat transfer[edit]

If perfect heat transfer ( $\mathrm {Bi} =\infty$ ) is assumed, the maximum heat transfer supported by the material is:^[4]^[5]

\Delta T=A_{1}{\frac {\sigma _{f}}{E\alpha }}

$A_{1}\approx 1$ for cold shock in plates
$A_{1}\approx 3.2$ for hot shock in plates

A material index for material selection according to thermal shock resistance in the fracture stress derived perfect heat transfer case is therefore:

{\frac {\sigma _{f}}{E\alpha }}

Poor heat transfer[edit]

For cases with poor heat transfer ( $\mathrm {Bi} <1$ ), the maximum heat differential supported by the material is:^[4]^[5]

\Delta T=A_{2}{\frac {\sigma _{f}}{E\alpha }}{\frac {1}{\mathrm {Bi} }}=A_{2}{\frac {\sigma _{f}}{E\alpha }}{\frac {k}{hH}}

$A_{2}\approx 3.2$ for cold shock
$A_{2}\approx 6.5$ for hot shock

In the poor heat transfer case, a higher heat transfer coefficient is beneficial for thermal shock resistance. The material index for the poor heat transfer case is often taken as:

{\frac {k\sigma _{f}}{E\alpha }}

According to both the perfect and poor heat transfer models, larger temperature differentials can be tolerated for hot shock than for cold shock.

Fracture toughness controlled thermal shock resistance[edit]

In addition to thermal shock resistance defined by material fracture strength, models have also been defined within the fracture mechanics framework. Lu and Fleck produced criteria for thermal shock cracking based on fracture toughness controlled cracking. The models were based on thermal shock in ceramics (generally brittle materials). Assuming an infinite plate and mode I cracking, the crack was predicted to start from the edge for cold shock, but the center of the plate for hot shock.^[4] Cases were divided into perfect and poor heat transfer to further simplify the models.

Perfect heat transfer[edit]

The sustainable temperature jump decreases, with increasing convective heat transfer (and therefore larger Biot number). This is represented in the model shown below for perfect heat transfer ( $\mathrm {Bi} =\infty$ ).^[4]^[5]

\Delta T=A_{3}{\frac {K_{Ic}}{E\alpha {\sqrt {\pi H}}}}

where

K_{Ic}

is the mode I fracture toughness,

E

is the Young's modulus,

\alpha

is the thermal expansion coefficient, and

H

is half the thickness of the plate.

$A_{3}\approx 4.5$ for cold shock
$A_{4}\approx 5.6$ for hot shock

A material index for material selection in the fracture mechanics derived perfect heat transfer case is therefore:

{\frac {K_{Ic}}{E\alpha }}

Poor heat transfer[edit]

For cases with poor heat transfer, the Biot number is an important factor in the sustainable temperature jump.^[4]^[5]

\Delta T=A_{4}{\frac {K_{Ic}}{E\alpha {\sqrt {\pi H}}}}{\frac {k}{hH}}

Critically, for poor heat transfer cases, materials with higher thermal conductivity, $k$ , have higher thermal shock resistance. As a result a commonly chosen material index for thermal shock resistance in the poor heat transfer case is:

{\frac {kK_{Ic}}{E\alpha }}

Kingery thermal shock methods[edit]

The temperature difference to initiate fracture has been described by William David Kingery to be:^[6]^[7]

\Delta T_{c}=S{\frac {k\sigma ^{*}(1-\nu )}{E\alpha }}{\frac {1}{h}}={\frac {S}{hR^{'}}}

where

S

is a shape factor,

\sigma ^{*}

is the fracture stress,

k

is the thermal conductivity,

E

is the Young's modulus,

\alpha

is the coefficient of thermal expansion,

h

is the heat transfer coefficient, and

R'

is a fracture resistance parameter. The fracture resistance parameter is a common metric used to define the thermal shock tolerance of materials.^[1]

R'={\frac {k\sigma ^{*}(1-v)}{E\alpha }}

The formulas were derived for ceramic materials, and make the assumptions of a homogeneous body with material properties independent of temperature, but can be well applied to other brittle materials.^[7]

Testing[edit]

Thermal shock testing exposes products to alternating low and high temperatures to accelerate failures caused by temperature cycles or thermal shocks during normal use. The transition between temperature extremes occurs very rapidly, greater than 15 °C per minute.

Equipment with single or multiple chambers is typically used to perform thermal shock testing. When using single chamber thermal shock equipment, the products remain in one chamber and the chamber air temperature is rapidly cooled and heated. Some equipment uses separate hot and cold chambers with an elevator mechanism that transports the products between two or more chambers.

Glass containers can be sensitive to sudden changes in temperature. One method of testing involves rapid movement from cold to hot water baths, and back.^[8]

Examples of thermal shock failure[edit]

Hard rocks containing ore veins such as quartzite were formerly broken down using fire-setting, which involved heating the rock face with a wood fire, then quenching with water to induce crack growth. It is described by Diodorus Siculus in Egyptian gold mines, Pliny the Elder, and Georg Agricola.^{[citation needed]}
Ice cubes placed in a glass of warm water crack by thermal shock as the exterior surface increases in temperature much faster than the interior. The outer layer expands as it warms, while the interior remains largely unchanged. This rapid change in volume between different layers creates stresses in the ice that build until the force exceeds the strength of the ice, and a crack forms, sometimes with enough force to shoot ice shards out of the container.
Incandescent bulbs that have been running for a while have a very hot surface. Splashing cold water on them can cause the glass to shatter due to thermal shock, and the bulb to implode.
An antique cast iron cookstove is a simple iron box on legs, with a cast iron top. A wood or coal fire is built inside the box and food is cooked on the top outer surface of the box, like a griddle. If a fire is built too hot, and then the stove is cooled by pouring water on the top surface, it will crack due to thermal shock.
It is widely hypothesized ^{[by whom?]} that following the casting of the Liberty Bell, it was allowed to cool too quickly which weakened the integrity of the bell and resulted in a large crack along the side of it the first time it was rung. Similarly, the strong gradient of temperature (due to the dousing of a fire with water) is believed to cause the breakage of the third Tsar Bell.
Thermal shock is a primary contributor to head gasket failure in internal combustion engines.

References[edit]

^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Askeland, Donald R. (January 2015). "22-4 Thermal Shock". The science and engineering of materials. Wright, Wendelin J. (Seventh ed.). Boston, MA. pp. 792–793. ISBN 978-1-305-07676-1. OCLC 903959750.
^ US Patent 6066585, "Ceramics having negative coefficient of thermal expansion, method of making such ceramics, and parts made from such ceramics", issued 2000-05-23, assigned to Emerson Electric Co.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Ashby, M. F. (1999). Materials selection in mechanical design (2nd ed.). Oxford, OX: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-4357-9. OCLC 49708474.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Soboyejo, Wole O. (2003). "12.10.2 Materials Selection for Thermal Shock Resistance". Mechanical properties of engineered materials. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8900-8. OCLC 300921090.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d T. J. Lu; N. A. Fleck (1998). "The Thermal Shock Resistance of Solids" (PDF). Acta Materialia. 46 (13): 4755–4768. doi:10.1016/S1359-6454(98)00127-X.
^ KINGERY, W. D. (Jan 1955). "Factors Affecting Thermal Stress Resistance of Ceramic Materials". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 38 (1): 3–15. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1955.tb14545.x. ISSN 0002-7820.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Soboyejo, Wole O. (2003). "12.10 Thermal Shock Response". Mechanical properties of engineered materials. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8900-8. OCLC 300921090.
^ ASTM C149 — Standard Test Method for Thermal Shock Resistance of Glass Containers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_shock

Wind shear (or windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear. Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with a change in altitude. Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with a change in lateral position for a given altitude.^[1]

Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscaleor synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downburstscaused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher low-level winds referred to as low-level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and sailboats. Wind shear has significant effects on the control of an aircraft, and it has been the sole or a contributing cause of many aircraft accidents.

Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower.

Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa. Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life cycles which can then produce severe weather. The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences and explains the existence of the jet stream.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_shear

October 13, 1960	Barents Sea, Arctic Ocean	Release of nuclear materials	A leak developed in the steam generators and in a pipe leading to the compensator reception on the ill-fated K-8 while the Soviet Northern Fleet November-class submarine was on exercise. While the crew rigged an improvised cooling system, radioactive gases leaked into the vessel and three of the crew suffered visible radiation injuries according to radiological experts in Moscow. Some crew members had been exposed to doses of up to 1.8–2 Sv (180–200 rem).^[45]

January 3, 1961	National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho, US	Accidental criticality, steam explosion, 3 fatalities, release of fission products	SL-1 reactor being removed from the National Reactor Testing Station. During a maintenance shutdown, the SL-1 experimental nuclear reactor underwent a prompt critical reaction causing core materials to explosively vaporize. Water hammer estimated at 10,000 pounds per square inch (69,000 kPa) struck the top of the reactor vessel propelling the entire reactor vessel upwards over 9 feet (2.7 m) in the air. One operator who had been standing on top of the vessel was killed when a shield plug impaled him and lodged in the ceiling. Two other military personnel were also killed from the trauma of the explosion, one of which had removed the central control rod too far. The plant had to be dismantled and the contamination was buried permanently nearby. Most of the release of radioactive materials was concentrated within the reactor building. See SL-1

January 24, 1961		Physical destruction of a nuclear bomb, loss of nuclear materials	See Goldsboro B-52 crash. A USAF B-52 bomber caught fire and exploded in midair due to a major leak in a wing fuel cell 12 miles (19 km) north of Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina. Five crewmen parachuted to safety, but three others died—two in the aircraft and one on landing. The incident released the bomber's two Mark 39 hydrogen bombs. Three of the four arming devices on one of the bombs activated, causing it to carry out many of the steps needed to arm itself, such as the charging of the firing capacitors and, critically, the deployment of a 100-foot (30 m) diameter retardation parachute. The parachute allowed the bomb to hit the ground with little damage. The fourth arming device—the pilot's safe/arm switch—was not activated, preventing detonation. The second bomb plunged into a muddy field at around 700 mph (300 m/s) and disintegrated. Its tail was discovered about 20 feet (6 m) down and much of the bomb recovered, including the tritium bottle and the plutonium. However, excavation was abandoned due to uncontrollable ground water flooding. Most of the thermonuclear stage, containing uranium, was left on site. It is estimated to lie around 55 feet (17 m) below ground. The Air Force purchased the land and fenced it off to prevent its disturbance, and it is tested regularly for contamination, although none has so far been found.^[46]

April 10, 1963		Loss of nuclear reactor	Submarine USS Thresher sinks about 190 nmi (220 mi; 350 km) east of Cape Cod, Massachusetts due to improper welds allowing in seawater which forced a shutdown of the reactor. Poor design of its emergency blow system prevented the ship from surfacing and the disabled ship ultimately descended to crush depth and imploded, killing all 129 on board.
January 13, 1964	Salisbury, Pennsylvaniaand Frostburg, Maryland, US	Accidental loss and recovery of thermonuclear bombs	See 1964 Savage Mountain B-52 crash. USAF B-52 on airborne alert duty encountered a severe winter storm and extreme turbulence, ultimately disintegrating in midair over South Central Pennsylvania.^[48] Only the two pilots survived. One crew member failed to bail out and the rest succumbed to injuries or exposure to the harsh winter weather. A search for the missing weapons was initiated, and recovery was effected from portions of the wreckage at a farm northwest of Frostburg, MD.

August 27, 1968	Severodvinsk, Russia (then USSR)	Reactor power excursion, contamination	While in the naval yards at Severodvinsk for repairs, the Soviet Yankee-class nuclear submarine K-140 suffered an uncontrolled increase of the reactor's power output. One of the reactors activated automatically when workers raised control rods to a higher position and power increased to 18 times normal, while pressure and temperature levels in the reactor increased to four times normal. The accident also increased radiation levels aboard the vessel. The problem was traced to the incorrect installation of control rod electrical cables.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents

Deep-sea photography, recovered artifacts, and an evaluation of Thresher's design and operational history permitted a court of inquiry to conclude that the submarine had probably suffered the failure of a salt-water piping system joint that relied heavily on silver brazing instead of welding. Earlier tests using ultrasound equipment found potential problems with about 14% of the tested brazed joints,^[23]^[24] most of which were determined not to pose a risk significant enough to require repair. But on 30 November 1960, nearly three years prior to the accident, the Barbel suffered such a silver-braze joint failure near test depth while on an exercise, flooding the engine room with an estimated 18 tons of water in the 3 minutes it took to surface under power and with blown tanks.^[25] This incident was followed months later by more silver-braze failures in the Abraham Lincoln during trials.^[25] High-pressure water spraying from a broken pipe joint may have shorted out one of the many electrical panels, causing a shutdown ("scram") of the reactor, which in turn caused loss of propulsion.

The inability to blow the ballast tanks was later attributed to excessive moisture in the submarine's high-pressure air flasks, moisture that froze and plugged the flasks' flowpaths while passing through the valves. This was later simulated in dockside tests on Thresher's sister sub, Tinosa. During a test to simulate blowing ballast at or near test depth, ice formed on strainers installed in valves; the flow of air lasted only a few seconds.^[26] Air dryers were later retrofitted to the high-pressure air compressors, beginning with Tinosa, to permit the emergency blow system to operate properly.^{[citation needed]} Submarines typically rely on speed and deck angle (angle of attack) rather than deballasting to surface; they are propelled at an angle toward the surface. Ballast tanks were almost never blown at depth, as doing so could cause the submarine to rocket to the surface out of control. Normal procedure was to drive the submarine to periscope depth, raise the periscope to verify that the area was clear, and then blow the tanks and surface the submarine.^[24]

Subsequent study of SOSUS (sound surveillance system) data from the time of the incident has given rise to doubts as to whether flooding preceded the reactor scram, as no impact sounds of the high pressure water in the compartments of the submarine could be detected on instrument recordings from SOSUS at the time. Such flooding would have caused a significant sonic event, and no evidence of such may be found in the recorded data.^[27]

Thresher is cruising at just a few knots (submarines normally move slowly and cautiously at great depths, lest a sudden jam of the diving planes send the ship below test depth in a matter of seconds). The boat is descending in slow circles, and announces to Skylark she is turning to "Corpen [course] 090." At this point, transmission quality from Thresher begins to noticeably degrade, possibly as a result of thermoclines.

The Navy's official investigation stated the likelihood of a brazed pipe-joint rupturing in the engine room at about this time. The crew would have attempted to stop the leak; at the same time, the engine room would be filling with a cloud of mist. Under the circumstances, Commander Harvey's likely decision would have been to order full speed, full rise on the fairwater planes, and blowing main ballast in order to surface. The pressurized air rapidly expanding in the pipes cools down, condensing moisture and depositing it on temporary strainers installed in the system to protect the moving parts of the valves during new construction (which should have been removed prior to sea trials);^[38] in only a few seconds, the moisture freezes, clogging the strainers and blocking the air flow, halting the effort to blow ballast. Water leaking from the broken pipe most likely causes short circuits, leading to an automatic shutdown of the ship's reactor and a loss of propulsion. The logical action at this point would have been for Harvey to order propulsion shifted to a battery-powered backup system. As soon as the flooding was contained, the engine room crew would have begun to restart the reactor, an operation that would be expected to take at least seven minutes.

09:16	Skylark picks up a garbled transmission from Thresher, transcribed in the ship's log as "900 N." The meaning of this message is unclear, and was not discussed at the inquiry; it may have indicated the submarine's depth and course, or it may have referred to a navy "event number" (1000 indicating loss of submarine), with the "N" signifying a negative response to the query from Skylark, "Are you in control?"
09:17	A second transmission is received, with the partially recognizable phrase "exceeding test depth ... " The (hypothetical) leak from the broken pipe grows with increased pressure.
09:18	Skylark detects a high-energy, low-frequency noise, characteristic of an implosion.
09:20	Skylark continues to page Thresher, repeatedly calling for a radio check, a smoke bomb, or some other indication of the boat's condition.

Rule concluded that the primary cause of the sinking was a failure of the electrical bus that powered the main coolant pumps. According to Rule, SOSUS data indicates that after two minutes of electrical instability, the bus failed at 09:11 a.m., causing the main coolant pumps to trip off. This caused an immediate reactor scram, resulting in a loss of propulsion. Thresher could not be deballasted because ice had formed in the high-pressure air pipes, and so she sank. Rule's analysis holds that flooding (whether from a silver brazed joint or anywhere else) played no role in the reactor scram or the sinking, and that Thresher was intact until she imploded. In addition to the SOSUS data that does not record any sound of flooding, the crew of Skylark did not report hearing any noise that sounded like flooding, and Skylark was able to communicate with Thresher, despite the fact that, at test depth, even a small leak would have produced a deafening roar. Additionally, the previous commander of Thresher testified that he would not have described flooding, even from a small-diameter pipe, as a "minor problem".^[40]

Rule interprets the communication "900" from Thresher at 09:17 a.m. as a reference to test depth, signifying that Thresher was 270 metres (900 ft) below her test depth of 400 metres (1,300 ft), or 670 metres (2,200 ft) below sea level. According to Rule the SOSUS data indicates an implosion of Thresher at 09:18:24, at a depth of 730 metres (2,400 ft), 120 metres (400 ft) below her predicted collapse depth. The implosion took 0.1 seconds, too fast for the human nervous system to perceive.^[40]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Thresher_(SSN-593)

USS Argonaut (V-4/SF-7/SM-1/A-1/APS-1/SS-166) was a submarine of the United States Navy, the first boat to carry the name. Argonaut was laid down as V-4 on 1 May 1925 at Portsmouth Navy Yard. She was launched on 10 November 1927, sponsored by Mrs. Philip Mason Sears, the daughter of Rear Admiral William D. MacDougall, and commissioned on 2 April 1928, Lieutenant Commander William M. Quigley in command. Although never officially designated as "SS-166", at some point she displayed this number on her conning tower.^[11]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Argonaut_(SM-1)

A depth charge is an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) weapon. It is intended to destroy a submarine by being dropped into the water nearby and detonating, subjecting the target to a powerful and destructive hydraulic shock. Most depth charges use high explosive charges and a fuze set to detonate the charge, typically at a specific depth. Depth charges can be dropped by ships, patrol aircraft, and helicopters.

Depth charges were developed during World War I, and were one of the first effective methods of attacking a submarine underwater. They were widely used in World War I and World War II. They remained part of the anti-submarine arsenals of many navies during the Cold War. Depth charges have now largely been replaced by anti-submarine homing torpedoes.

The Mk 101 Lulu was a US nuclear depth bomb operational from 1958-1972

A depth charge fitted with a nuclear warhead is also known as a "nuclear depth bomb". These were designed to be dropped from a patrol plane or deployed by an anti-submarine missile from a surface ship, or another submarine, located a safe distance away. By the late 1990s all nuclear anti-submarine weapons had been withdrawn from service by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia and China. They have been replaced by conventional weapons whose accuracy and range had improved greatly as ASW technology improved.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_charge

The Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, often called the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is a United States Navy shipyard located in Kittery on the southern boundary of Maine near the city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire. PNS is tasked with the overhaul, repair, and modernization of US Navy submarines.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth_Naval_Shipyard

Kittery is a town in York County, Maine, United States. Home to the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on Seavey's Island, Kittery includes Badger's Island, the seaside district of Kittery Point, and part of the Isles of Shoals. The town is a tourist destination known for its many outlet stores. It is the southernmost town in Maine.

Kittery is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford, Maine metropolitan statistical area. The town's population was 9,490 at the 2010 census. Kittery may be the namesake of William Billings' 1783 anthem "Kittery", which is printed in the Shenandoah Harmony and Missouri Harmony shape note tunebooks, but because the song was published after the incorporation of the town, this is debated.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kittery,_Maine

A proton magnetometer, also known as a proton precession magnetometer (PPM), uses the principle of Earth's field nuclear magnetic resonance (EFNMR) to measure very small variations in the Earth's magnetic field, allowing ferrous objects on land and at seato be detected.

It is used in land-based archaeology to map the positions of demolished walls and buildings, and at sea to locate wrecked ships, sometimes for recreational diving.

PPMs were once widely used in mineral exploration. They have largely been superseded by Overhauser effect magnetometers and alkali vapour (cesium, rubidium, and potassium) or helium magnetometers, which sample faster and are more sensitive.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_magnetometer

RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner operated by the White Star Line that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on 15 April 1912, after striking an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. Of the estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, more than 1,500 died, making the sinking at the time one of the deadliest of a single ship^[a]and the deadliest peacetime sinking of a superliner or cruise ship to date.^[4] With much public attention in the aftermath, the disaster has since been the material of many artistic works and a founding material of the disaster film genre.

RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time she entered service and was the second of three Olympic-class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. She was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, chief naval architect of the shipyard at the time, died in the disaster.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic

USS Scorpion (SSN-589) was a Skipjack-class nuclear-powered submarine that served in the United States Navy, and the sixth vessel, and second submarine, of the U.S. Navy to carry that name.

Scorpion was lost with all hands on 22 May 1968. She is one of two nuclear submarines the U.S. Navy has lost, the other being USS Thresher.^[3] It was one of the four mysterious submarine disappearances in 1968, the others being the Israeli submarine INS Dakar, the French submarine Minerve, and the Soviet submarine K-129.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Scorpion_(SSN-589)

A thermocline (also known as the thermal layer or the metalimnion in lakes) is a thin but distinct layer in a large body of fluid (e.g. water, as in an ocean or lake; or air, e.g. an atmosphere) in which temperature changes more drastically with depth than it does in the layers above or below. In the ocean, the thermocline divides the upper mixed layer from the calm deep water below.

Depending largely on season, latitude, and turbulent mixing by wind, thermoclines may be a semi-permanent feature of the body of water in which they occur, or they may form temporarily in response to phenomena such as the radiative heating/cooling of surface water during the day/night. Factors that affect the depth and thickness of a thermocline include seasonal weather variations, latitude, and local environmental conditions, such as tides and currents.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocline

SS Bear was a dual steam-powered and sailing ship built with six-inch (15.2 cm)-thick sides which had a long life in various cold-water and ice-filled environs. She was a forerunner of modern icebreakers and had a diverse service life. According to the United States Coast Guard official website, Bear is described as "probably the most famous ship in the history of the Coast Guard."^[3]

Built in Scotland in 1874 as a steamer for sealing, she was owned and operated out of Newfoundland for ten years. In the mid-1880s, she took part in the search for the Greely Expedition.^[4] Captained by Michael Healy of the United States Revenue Cutter Service (later part of the U.S. Coast Guard), she worked the 20,000-mile coastline of Alaska. She later assisted with relief efforts after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.

Her services also included the second expedition of Admiral Richard E. Byrd to Antarctica, and again to the southernmost continent in 1941 to evacuate Americans at the beginning of World War II. She later served in patrol duty off the coast of Greenland for the United States Navy. Between some of these missions, she was a museum ship in Oakland, Californiaand starred in the 1930 film version of Jack London's The Sea-Wolf.

After World War II, Bear was returned to use again as a sealing vessel. Finally, in 1963, 89 years after she had been built, while being towed to a stationary assignment as a floating restaurant in Philadelphia, Bear foundered and sank in the North Atlantic Ocean about 100 miles (160 km) east of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bear

USS Bray (DE-709) was a Rudderow-class destroyer escort in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was sunk as a target in 1963.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bray

Mparmpa Petros was a 7,067 GRT cargo ship that was built in 1943 as Empire Crown by John Readhead & Sons Ltd, Sunderland, County Durham. She spent much of the Second World War sailing in the Mediterranean. In 1945, she was transferred to the French Government and renamed Capitaine G Lacoley. She served until sold to Greece in 1961 and was renamed Mparmpa Petros. She was wrecked in 1963.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Mparmpa_Petros

ona (YT/YTB/YTM-220), a wooden tugboat originally classified YT-220, was launched by Greenport Basin and Construction Company, Greenport, New York, 26 August 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Martina E. Swanson; and placed in service 2 February 1945. She was the second United States Navy ship of that name.

The new tug was assigned harbor duty in the 14th Naval District based at Pearl Harbor, and she remained there until transferred to the Philippines in 1955. At Subic Bay Iona performed harbor duties necessary for the smooth functioning of a great naval base. She was reclassified a 'District Harbor Tug Medium', YTM-220, in February 1962. In June, 1963, following an accidental sinking in May, she was disposed of by burning.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Iona_(YTB-220)

USS Grouse (AMS-15/YMS-321) was a YMS-1-class minesweeper of the YMS-135 subclass built for the United States Navy during World War II.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Grouse_(AMS-15)

HMCS Drummondville was a Bangor-class minesweeper that served with the Royal Canadian Navy during the Second World War. She saw action primarily in the Battle of the Atlantic. Entering service in 1941, she was sold for mercantile service after the war. In 1963, as Fort Albany, the ship was involved in a collision near Sorel, Quebec and sank. The ship was later raised and broken up.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMCS_Drummondville

Dunay was a tall ship serving with the Soviet Navy, first launched as Cristoforo Colombo, laid at the Castellammare yards on 15 April 1926. It was destroyed in a fire in 1963.^[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_training_ship_Dunay

USAT Liberty was a United States Army cargo ship torpedoed by Japanese submarine I-166 in January 1942 and beached on the island of Bali, Indonesia. She had been built as a Design 1037 ship for the United States Shipping Board in World War I and had served in the United States Navy in that war as animal transport USS Liberty (ID-3461). She was also notable as the first ship constructed at Federal Shipbuilding, Kearny, New Jersey. In 1963 a volcanic eruption moved the ship off the beach, and Liberty's wreck is now a popular dive site.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAT_Liberty

The TS/S Stefan Batory was an ocean liner built in the Netherlands in 1952. It was operated by Holland America Lines and later Polish Ocean Lines. It remained in service until 1988 and was scrapped in 2000 in Turkey.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSS_Stefan_Batory

K-33 was a Soviet nuclear-powered Project 658-class submarine (NATO reporting name Hotel II). She belonged to the Soviet Northern Fleet and carried the identification number 921. In 1977, she was renamed K-54.

K-33 was built at Factory No. 902 in Severodvinsk, Soviet Union, as a Hotel I-class submarine, launched on 6 August 1960 and was commissioned on 5 July 1961. In 1964 K-33 was repaired and modernized into 658M-standard (Hotel II), by installing a new missile complex giving her capability to fire missiles while submerged. She was decommissioned in 1990.

K-33 was involved in two incidents.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-33

Operating depth[edit]

The maximum operating depth^[2] (or the never-exceed depth) is the maximum depth at which a submarine is allowed to operate under any (e.g. battle) conditions.

Crush depth[edit]

Crush depth, called the collapse depth in the United States,^[2]^{[citation needed]} is the submerged depth at which a submarine's hull are presumed to be crushed by water pressure. This is normally calculated. However, it is not always accurate. Some submarines in World War II survived being forced through crush depth, due to flooding or mechanical failure, only to have the water pumped out, or the failure repaired, and succeed in surfacing again. These reports are not necessarily verifiable, and popular misunderstanding of the difference between test depth and collapse depth can confuse the discussion. World War II German U-boats generally had collapse depths of 200 to 280 metres (660 to 920 feet).^{[citation needed]}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_depth_ratings#Crush_depth}

HY-80 is a high-tensile, high yield strength, low alloy steel. It was developed for use in naval applications, specifically the development of pressure hulls for the US nuclear submarine program and is still currently used in many naval applications. It is valued for its strength to weight ratio.^{[citation needed]}

The "HY" steels are designed to possess a high yield strength (strength in resisting permanent plastic deformation). HY-80 is accompanied by HY-100 and HY-130 with each of the 80, 100 and 130 referring to their yield strength in ksi (80,000 psi, 100,000 psi and 130,000 psi). HY-80 and HY-100 are both weldable grades; whereas, the HY-130 is generally considered unweldable. Modern steel manufacturing methods that can precisely control time/temperature during processing of HY steels has made the cost to manufacture more economical.^[1] HY-80 is considered to have good corrosion resistance and has good formability to supplement being weldable.^[1] Using HY-80 steel requires careful consideration of the welding processes, filler metal selection and joint design to account for microstructure changes, distortion and stress concentration.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HY-80

August 1976	Benton County, Washington, United States	Explosion, contamination of worker	An explosion at the Hanford site Plutonium Finishing Plant blew out a quarter-inch-thick lead glass window. Harold McCluskey, a worker, was showered with nitric acid and radioactive glass. He inhaled the largest dose of ²⁴¹Am ever recorded, about 500 times the U.S. government occupational standards. The worker was placed in isolation for five months and given an experimental drug to flush the isotope from his body. By 1977, his body's radiation count had fallen by about 80 percent. He died of natural causes in 1987 at age 75.^[67]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents

1977	Coast of Kamchatka	Loss and recovery of a nuclear warhead	The Soviet submarine K-171 accidentally released a nuclear warhead. The warhead was recovered after a search involving dozens of ships and aircraft.^[68]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents

Category:Laser science

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► Laser researchers‎ (67 P)

Pages in category "Laser science"

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[:0-1] Jump up to: ^a ^b Askeland, Donald R. (January 2015). "22-4 Thermal Shock". The science and engineering of materials. Wright, Wendelin J. (Seventh ed.). Boston, MA. pp. 792–793. ISBN 978-1-305-07676-1. OCLC 903959750.

[2] US Patent 6066585, "Ceramics having negative coefficient of thermal expansion, method of making such ceramics, and parts made from such ceramics", issued 2000-05-23, assigned to Emerson Electric Co.

[:2-3] Jump up to: ^a ^b Ashby, M. F. (1999). Materials selection in mechanical design (2nd ed.). Oxford, OX: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-4357-9. OCLC 49708474.

[:3-4] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Soboyejo, Wole O. (2003). "12.10.2 Materials Selection for Thermal Shock Resistance". Mechanical properties of engineered materials. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8900-8. OCLC 300921090.

[Fleck_96-5] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d T. J. Lu; N. A. Fleck (1998). "The Thermal Shock Resistance of Solids" (PDF). Acta Materialia. 46 (13): 4755–4768. doi:10.1016/S1359-6454(98)00127-X.

[6] KINGERY, W. D. (Jan 1955). "Factors Affecting Thermal Stress Resistance of Ceramic Materials". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 38 (1): 3–15. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1955.tb14545.x. ISSN 0002-7820.

[:1-7] Jump up to: ^a ^b Soboyejo, Wole O. (2003). "12.10 Thermal Shock Response". Mechanical properties of engineered materials. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8900-8. OCLC 300921090.

[8] ASTM C149 — Standard Test Method for Thermal Shock Resistance of Glass Containers

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Blog Archive

Tuesday, August 10, 2021

08-09-2021-2054 - Thermal Shock et Nuc (spont glass brk; fractionalization; glassification; glass trans state; sublim; spont comb; earth; etc.)

Thermal shock

Effect on materials[edit]

Thermal shock resistance[edit]

Strength-controlled thermal shock resistance[edit]

Perfect heat transfer[edit]

Poor heat transfer[edit]

Fracture toughness controlled thermal shock resistance[edit]

Perfect heat transfer[edit]

Poor heat transfer[edit]

Kingery thermal shock methods[edit]

Testing[edit]

Examples of thermal shock failure[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Operating depth[edit]

Crush depth[edit]

Category:Laser science

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