A gigatonne is a unit of mass often used by the coal mining industry to assess and define the extent of a coal reserve.
Use of mass as proxy for energy[edit]
Main article: TNT equivalent
The tonne of trinitrotoluene (TNT) is used as a proxy for energy, usually of explosions (TNT is a common high explosive). Prefixes are used: kiloton(ne), megaton(ne), gigaton(ne), especially for expressing nuclear weapon yield, based on a specific combustion energy of TNT of about 4.2 MJ/kg (or one thermochemical calorie per milligram). Hence, 1 t TNT = approx. 4.2 GJ, 1 kt TNT = approx. 4.2 TJ, 1 Mt TNT = approx. 4.2 PJ.
The SI unit of energy is the joule. Assuming that a TNT explosion releases 1,000 small (thermochemical) calories per gram (approx. 4.2 kJ/g), one tonne of TNT is approx. equivalent to 4.2 gigajoules.
In the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a unit of energy: the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approx, 42 GJ. There are several slightly different definitions. This is ten times as much as a tonne of TNT because atmospheric oxygen is used.
Unit of force[edit]
Like the gram and the kilogram, the tonne gave rise to a (now obsolete) force unit of the same name, the tonne-force, equivalent to about 9.8 kilonewtons: a unit also often called simply "tonne" or "metric ton" without identifying it as a unit of force. In contrast to the tonne as a mass unit, the tonne-force or metric ton-force is not acceptable for use with SI, partly because it is not an exact multiple of the SI unit of force, the newton.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne
http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/tlfiv4/showps.exe?p=combi.htm;java=no;
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-24634-3
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/woodrow-wilson
https://www.glo.texas.gov/history/archives/forms/files/history-of-texas-public-lands.pdf
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp92.pdf
https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/biopesticide-active-ingredients
https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/retinitis-pigmentosa/
http://www.fao.org/3/i3253e/i3253e.pdf
https://iucn-tftsg.org/wp-content/uploads/file/Articles/Fritz_and_Havas_2007.pdf
https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2021/3/pdf/sgar20-en.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discordian_calendar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali_Yuga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_calendar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Central_America
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagram
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Léon_Charles_Thévenin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857_in_the_United_States
July 18 – The Utah Expedition leaves Fort Leavenworth, effectively beginning the Utah War.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857_in_the_United_States
above. smith et germany et deger-america-stock et antabol et james pierces et underground amnesyic et brad bruen et etc.
October 13 – Panic of 1857: New York banks close and do not reopen until December 12.
March 21
Charles Ellis Johnson, photographer (died 1926)
chris walsh mot
June 20 – Mary Gage Day, physician (died 1935)
September 14 – Julia Platt, embryologist and politician (died 1935)
February 16 – Elisha Kane, Arctic explorer (born 1820)
Thomas Leiper (15 December 1745 – 6 July 1825) was a Scottish American merchant and local politician who served in the American Revolutionary War. He was the first American to construct a permanent working railway by creating a short span on his property in Nether Providence Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania.
In 1778, Leiper married Elizabeth Gray, whose father was politically active in Pennsylvania. Leiper was 32 and Elizabeth 16 when they married. They had 13 children; 10 lived to adulthood.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857_in_the_United_States
https://books.google.com/books?id=w-4pAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false
TIMELINE: 1800-1860
THE TRIUMPH of NATIONALISM ♦ THE NATION DIVIDING From Nationalism to Sectionalism in the United States, 1815-1850
National Humanities Center
SECOND CENSUS: U.S. population totals 5.3 million, including one million African Americans, of whom 1M are enslaved; w/ undg uncunt.
910
901
Three dig to Four dig reported units by usa (underreporting); eur max report four-six.
900000-1,200,000 (300000); (100000 sec)/200000 inc [usa reports half max of pop]
1804 Twelfth Amendment is ratified, providing for separate election of president and vice president.
Aaron Burr kills Alexander Hamilton in a pistol duel. (norway, germay entrance, german, germany, europe, mixed race, latin-as-aziv, layng-niger, freck and light eye gen mod, btr, amnestic drug, dcat, traff ring, white slav, BTR, cloning, cloak, incapacitation weapons KCl explosives incap wep radioactive potas fertilizers hydrogen trits) calendar types and switches old rec defunct/not readable/makes no sense/etc.
1810 THIRD CENSUS: U.S. population totals 7.2 million, including 1.4 million African Americans, of whom 1.2 million are enslaved. Population west of Appalachian Mountains is 1 million. 1810
900000@1M where 100000 add zero. max cap increment by resource/tech/etc.. 200000 sec ret. all points extra indicate 800000-1M. 11,000,000,000-11,000,000,000,000 1810 cons.
sneak ins conspiracy ret to 1900s; mass influx of people overwhelmed usa; may have been entrance west coast before usa interest in expansion. before mass influx records are sparse and few except for records retained by scouts/recon/etc. to survey area before mass invasion by germany of USA 1700-1800.
Canada high suspect for undg ops and entrance to und us. europe select grps know carry indoct conspiracy psychosis in their gang to current day 2000. germ heathen neander europe and cooperatives bet brown neander races/etc..
Germany-Norway-et-al. is cause of conspiracy, and trafficking ring Earth extterr undground; where counts are above psych prof of german is required. entrance by germ with infiltration-invasion unrecorded in mass millions numbers 1800s usa his.
Where record 1M usa likely CL1 at 7Million-nonillion; underground/territory/organ trans/gen mod/brain trans/extterr/hidden/cloaked/cloning/adv tech/adv rebuild/org grown lab/adv pharm/etc. is Centillions and above. early times not modern/current.
Estimate BTR FED PRE ETC. (assume permi w exec) 1800s german-norway-neander-heathen/etc. brain.
1802 Alien and Sedition Acts are allowed to expire by Congress.
Due trafficking underground (ref. marble mining bf <1000 GC; CCEN: 2000); ginormous population likely amnestic (rad potas diw hydrogen gassing/hydrogen neutralizing/disintegraiton of hydrogen/proton disintegration/proton strippin/proton rxns fusion fission fiss/maser/fusors/elect strippins/stripits/etc. oxygen-emit-trithyd-etc. ionizations etc. alkylation agent and germ-lat tobac etc.) Hydrogen and Protin/protons. Hydrogon or proton gassing/ejection/disintegration/deformation/fracture/fragmentation/fractionalization/neutralization/etc. by distance incap weap; alkalization outcome reduction of acid health. works for antihydrogen maybe ion electrolyte electron minor particles quantum field etc.; carbocation/carboanion-induction
Underground deeper than depth of water to separate continent at shallowest point of traversible/structurable under/or utilizable env/etc. 500-300+ yr
Latin america and germany (inc norway) have same origins and with middle east africa asia inbreeding (esp latin america proj 1000-1500); began as slave col abando or dis or deformed or was attacked or formed conspiracy and wait for german , etc.
Germany is gen-mod but does not recall/bel/etc. single common ancestor or stchdegen/infiltrant/etc.
Jews and browns are expelled from german school always. especially found in america.
1814 British burn Washington, DC, including the White House. U.S. wins Battle of Fort McHenry in Baltimore harbor (witness Francis Scott Key later writes “The Star-Spangled Banner”). WAR ENDS with signing of Treaty of Ghent.
American revolution 1814
FOURTH CENSUS: U.S. population totals 10 million, including 1.7 million African Ameri- cans, of whom 1.5 million are enslaved. Population west of Appalachian Mts. is 2.2 million.
Rabys web origins
1826 Indians alive. Jews arrive. Hezekiah Niles publishes. John Adams & Thomas Jefferson die on July 4, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.
1826 50 years post america
1833 brit recog clandest slavery by antag nation germany and close quarters wars by germany with inbreeding/disappearances of people/etc. where small decoys/deterrants prov by germ and no proof of gross actual op scale; germany operating with asia and releases pandemics on non-german nations of europe
1836 Gag rule is passed by Congress to prevent abolitionist petitions from being considered. german brown neander heathens with incapacitated white stolen child slaves destroyed entire stock by 1992 ; found one last import; Nikiya gag rules their suffered cries for future of universe.
1837 Anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic organization is formed (Native American Assn.).
1843 Massachusetts passes law forbidding state officials from catching fugitive slaves.
1844 Morse sends first telegraph message (from Baltimore to Washington, DC): “What hath God wrought!”
1845 Irish potato famine begins; 1.5 million Irish emigrate to U.S. in the next decade. McCle and McDon move to USA undco, anoname, brantrans, etc.. fac traff ring CL1
1848 German immigrants begin to emigrate to the U.S. after crop failures and failed revolutions (1700 or 1900). Including Chinese-Asians-etc. (gold rush CA) including LAt Mx etc. Poured trop parasites on crops; transplant brains and conditioning of hydrog trits potas diw amnestic drugs btrs, etc.. no one can tell. cloning already underway not inv by chin-et-me-as-eur-etc.
1850 Post germ immi 5 year earlier
SEVENTH CENSUS: U.S. population totals 23.2 million, including 3.5 million
African Americans, of whom 3 million are enslaved.
1840
SIXTH CENSUS: U.S. population totals 17 million, including
3 million African Americans, of whom 2.5 million are enslaved. Population west of the Appalachian Mountains is 5 million, more than one third of the U.S. population.
62M+
1854
Anti-immigrant Know-Nothing Party is founded. wade petersen j mcl germ-heath-nord-graydens etc.. with slave types: jew nigger azi v amcan (caucs) psych profiling
http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/triumphnationalism/timeline.pdf
The history of the camera begins even before the introduction of photography. Cameras evolved from the camera obscura through many generations of photographic technology – daguerreotypes, calotypes, dry plates, film – to the modern day with digital cameras and camera phones.
First published picture of a camera obscura in Gemma Frisius' 1545 book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_camera
It was made using an 8-hour exposure on pewter coated with bitumen.[10]:9 Niépce called his process "heliography".[9]:5 Niépce corresponded with the inventor Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, and the pair entered into a partnership to improve the heliographic process. Niépce had experimented further with other chemicals, to improve contrast in his heliographs. Daguerre contributed an improved camera obscura design, but the partnership ended when Niépce died in 1833.[10]:10Daguerre succeeded in developing a high-contrast and extremely sharp image by exposing on a plate coated with silver iodide, and exposing this plate again to mercury vapor.[9]:6 By 1837, he was able to fix the images with a common salt solution. He called this process Daguerreotype, and tried unsuccessfully for a couple of years to commercialize it. Eventually, with help of the scientist and politician François Arago, the French government acquired Daguerre's process for public release.
In the 1830s, the English scientist William Henry Fox Talbot independently invented a process to capture camera images using silver salts.[11]:15Although dismayed that Daguerre had beaten him to the announcement of photography, he submitted on January 31, 1839, a pamphlet to the Royal Institution entitled Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, which was the first published description of photography. Within two years, Talbot developed a two-step process for creating photographs on paper, which he called calotypes. The calotype process was the first to utilize negativeprinting, which reverses all values in the reproduction process – black shows up as white and vice versa.[9]:21 Negative printing allows, in principle, an unlimited number of positive prints to be made from the original negative.[11]:16 The Calotype process also introduced the ability for a printmaker to alter the resulting image through retouching of the negative.[11]:67Calotypes were never as popular or widespread as daguerreotypes,[9]:22 owing mainly to the fact that the latter produced sharper details.[12]:370 However, because daguerreotypes only produce a direct positive print, no duplicates can be made. It is the two-step negative/positive process that formed the basis for modern photography.[10]:15
Within a decade of being introduced in America, 3 general forms of camera were in popular use: the American- or chamfered-box camera, the Robert's-type camera or “Boston box”, and the Lewis-type camera.
Daguerreotype cameras formed images on silvered copper plates and images were only able to develop with mercury vapor.[16] The earliest daguerreotype cameras required several minutes to half an hour to expose images on the plates. By 1840, exposure times were reduced to just a few seconds owing to improvements in the chemical preparation and development processes, and to advances in lens design.[17]:38 American daguerreotypists introduced manufactured plates in mass production, and plate sizes became internationally standardized: whole plate (6.5 x 8.5 inches), three-quarter plate (5.5 x 7 1/8 inches), half plate (4.5 x 5.5 inches), quarter plate (3.25 x 4.25 inches), sixth plate (2.75 x 3.25 inches), and ninth plate (2 x 2.5 inches).[11]:33–34 Plates were often cut to fit cases and jewelry with circular and oval shapes. Larger plates were produced, with sizes such as 9 x 13 inches (“double-whole” plate), or 13.5 x 16.5 inches (Southworth & Hawes’ plate).[15]:25
The first partially successful photograph of a camera image was made in approximately 1816 by Nicéphore Niépce,[18][19] using a very small camera of his own making and a piece of paper coated with silver chloride, which darkened where it was exposed to light.
Daguerre treated a silver-plated sheet of copper with iodine vapor to give it a coating of light-sensitive silver iodide. After exposure in the camera, the image was developed by mercury vapor and fixed with a strong solution of ordinary salt (sodium chloride).
Collodion dry plates had been available since 1857, thanks to the work of Désiré van Monckhoven, but it was not until the invention of the gelatin dry plate in 1871 by Richard Leach Maddox that the wet plate process could be rivaled in quality and speed. The 1878 discovery that heat-ripening a gelatin emulsion greatly increased its sensitivity finally made so-called "instantaneous" snapshot exposures practical. For
The use of photographic film was pioneered by George Eastman, who started manufacturing paper film in 1885 before switching to celluloid in 1888–1889. His first camera, which he called the "Kodak", was first offered for sale in 1888.
In 1900, Eastman took mass-market photography one step further with the Brownie, a simple and very inexpensive box camera that introduced the concept of the snapshot. The Brownie was extremely popular and various models remained on sale until the 1960s.
To compete with rollfilm cameras, which offered a larger number of exposures per loading, many inexpensive plate cameras from this era were equipped with magazines to hold several plates at once. Special backs for plate cameras allowing them to use film packs or rollfilm were also available, as were backs that enabled rollfilm cameras to use plates.
Except for a few special types such as Schmidt cameras, most professional astrographs continued to use plates until the end of the 20th century when electronic photography replaced them.
A number of manufacturers started to use 35 mm film for still photography between 1905 and 1913. The first 35 mm cameras available to the public, and reaching significant numbers in sales were the Tourist Multiple, in 1913, and the Simplex, in 1914.[citation needed]
Oskar Barnack, who was in charge of research and development at Leitz, decided to investigate using 35 mm cine film for still cameras while attempting to build a compact camera capable of making high-quality enlargements. He built his prototype 35 mm camera (Ur-Leica) around 1913, though further development was delayed for several years by World War I. It wasn't until after World War I that Leica commercialized their first 35 mm cameras. Leitz test-marketed the design between 1923 and 1924, receiving enough positive feedback that the camera was put into production as the Leica I (for Leitz camera) in 1925. The Leica's immediate popularity spawned a number of competitors, most notably the Contax (introduced in 1932), and cemented the position of 35 mm as the format of choice for high-end compact cameras.
Kodak got into the market with the Retina I in 1934, which introduced the 135 cartridge used in all modern 35 mm cameras. Although the Retina was comparatively inexpensive, 35 mm cameras were still out of reach for most people and rollfilm remained the format of choice for mass-market cameras. This changed in 1936 with the introduction of the inexpensive Argus A and to an even greater extent in 1939 with the arrival of the immensely popular Argus C3. Although the cheapest cameras still used rollfilm, 35 mm film had come to dominate the market by the time the C3 was discontinued in 1966.
The fledgling Japanese camera industry began to take off in 1936 with the Canon 35 mm rangefinder, an improved version of the 1933 Kwanon prototype. Japanese cameras would begin to become popular in the West after Korean War veterans and soldiers stationed in Japan brought them back to the United States and elsewhere.
While conventional cameras were becoming more refined and sophisticated, an entirely new type of camera appeared on the market in 1948. This was the Polaroid Model 95, the world's first viable instant-picture camera. Known as a Land Camera after its inventor, Edwin Land, the Model 95 used a patented chemical process to produce finished positive prints from the exposed negatives in under a minute. The Land Camera caught on despite its relatively high price and the Polaroid lineup had expanded to dozens of models by the 1960s. The first Polaroid camera aimed at the popular market, the Model 20 Swinger of 1965, was a huge success and remains one of the top-selling cameras of all time.
The first camera to feature automatic exposure was the selenium light meter-equipped, fully automatic Super Kodak Six-20 pack of 1938, but its extremely high price (for the time) of $225 (equivalent to $4,137 in 2020)[23]kept it from achieving any degree of success. By the 1960s, however, low-cost electronic components were commonplace and cameras equipped with light meters and automatic exposure systems became increasingly widespread.
The next technological advance came in 1960, when the German Mec 16 SB subminiature became the first camera to place the light meter behind the lens for more accurate metering. However, through-the-lensmetering ultimately became a feature more commonly found on SLRs than other types of camera; the first SLR equipped with a TTL system was the Topcon RE Super of 1962.
The first semiconductor image sensor was the CCD, invented by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969.[26]
The NMOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was invented by Olympus in Japan during the mid-1980s.
Practical digital cameras were enabled by advances in data compression, due to the impractically high memory and bandwidth requirements of uncompressed images and video.[32] The most important compression algorithm is the discrete cosine transform (DCT),[32][33] a lossy compressiontechnique that was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed while he was working at the University of Texas in 1972.[34] Practical digital cameras were enabled by DCT-based compression standards, including the H.26x and MPEG video coding standards introduced from 1988 onwards,[33] and the JPEG image compression standard introduced in 1992.[35][36]
At Philips Labs in New York, Edward Stupp, Pieter Cath and Zsolt Szilagyi filed for a patent on "All Solid State Radiation Imagers" on 6 September 1968 and constructed a flat-screen target for receiving and storing an optical image on a matrix composed of an array of photodiodes connected to a capacitor to form an array of two terminal devices connected in rows and columns. Their US patent was granted on 10 November 1970.[38] Texas Instruments engineer Willis Adcock designed a filmless camera that was not digital and applied for a patent in 1972, but it is not known whether it was ever built.[39]
The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS-101 in 1987. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the Nikon QV-1000C, designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It recorded images in greyscale, and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital single-lens reflex camera. Images were stored on video floppy disks.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_camera
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