12-13-2022-1057 - Geologic principles and processes Magnetostratigraphy Filter Feeder Ammonoidea

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Geologic principles and processes
Stratigraphic principles	Principle of original horizontality Law of superposition Principle of lateral continuity Principle of cross-cutting relationships Principle of faunal succession Principle of inclusions and components Walther's law
Petrologic principles	Intrusive Extrusive Volcanic Exfoliation Weathering Soil formation Diagenesis Compaction Metamorphism
Geomorphologic processes	Plate tectonics Salt tectonics Tectonic uplift Subsidence Marine transgression Marine regression
Sediment transport	Fluvial processes Aeolian processes Glacial processes Mass wasting processes
Geology portal

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagenesis

 

 The law of superposition is an axiom that forms one of the bases of the sciences of geology, archaeology, and other fields pertaining to geological stratigraphy. In its plainest form, it states that in undeformed stratigraphic sequences, the oldest strata will lie at the bottom of the sequence, while newer material stacks upon the surface to form new deposits over time. This is paramount to stratigraphic dating, which requires a set of assumptions, including that the law of superposition holds true and that an object cannot be older than the materials of which it is composed. To illustrate the practical applications of superposition in scientific inquiry, sedimentary rock that has not been deformed by more than 90° will exhibit the oldest layers on the bottom, thus enabling paleontologists and paleobotanists to identify the relative ages of any fossils found within the strata, with the remains of the most archaic lifeforms confined to the lowest. These findings can inform the community on the fossil record covering the relevant strata, to determine which species coexisted temporally and which species existed successively in perhaps an evolutionarily or phylogenetically relevant way. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_superposition

 The law of included fragments is a method of relative dating in geology. Essentially, this law states that clasts in a rock are older than the rock itself.^[1] One example of this is a xenolith, which is a fragment of country rock that fell into passing magma as a result of stoping. Another example is a derived fossil, which is a fossil that has been eroded from an older bed and redeposited into a younger one.^[2]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_included_fragments}

Mass wasting, also known as mass movement,^[1] is a general term for the movement of rock or soil down slopes under the force of gravity. It differs from other processes of erosion in that the debris transported by mass wasting is not entrained in a moving medium, such as water, wind, or ice. Types of mass wasting include creep, solifluction, rockfalls, debris flows, and landslides, each with its own characteristic features, and taking place over timescales from seconds to hundreds of years. Mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth, Mars, Venus, Jupiter's moons Io, and on many other bodies in the Solar System. 

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_wasting}

In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glaciofluvial or fluvioglacial is used.^[1][2]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluvial_processes}

Salt tectonics, or halokinesis, or halotectonics, is concerned with the geometries and processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of evaporites containing rock salt within a stratigraphic sequence of rocks. This is due both to the low density of salt, which does not increase with burial, and its low strength.

Salt structures (excluding undeformed layers of salt) have been found in more than 120 sedimentary basins around the world.^[1]

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_tectonics}

  Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy), biostratigraphy (biologic stratigraphy), and chronostratigraphy (stratigraphy by age). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphy

 

Magnetostratigraphy

Main articles: Magnetostratigraphy and Paleomagnetism

Example of magnetostratigraphy. Magnetic stripes are the result of reversals of the Earth's magnetic poles and seafloor spreading. New oceanic crust is magnetized as it forms and then it moves away from the midocean ridge in both directions.

Magnetostratigraphy is a chronostratigraphic technique used to date sedimentary and volcanic sequences. The method works by collecting oriented samples at measured intervals throughout a section. The samples are analyzed to determine their detrital remanent magnetism (DRM), that is, the polarity of Earth's magnetic field at the time a stratum was deposited. For sedimentary rocks this is possible because, as they fall through the water column, very fine-grained magnetic minerals (< 17 μm) behave like tiny compasses, orienting themselves with Earth's magnetic field. Upon burial, that orientation is preserved. For volcanic rocks, magnetic minerals, which form in the melt, orient themselves with the ambient magnetic field, and are fixed in place upon crystallization of the lava.

Oriented paleomagnetic core samples are collected in the field; mudstones, siltstones, and very fine-grained sandstones are the preferred lithologies because the magnetic grains are finer and more likely to orient with the ambient field during deposition. If the ancient magnetic field were oriented similar to today's field (North Magnetic Pole near the North Rotational Pole), the strata would retain a normal polarity. If the data indicate that the North Magnetic Pole were near the South Rotational Pole, the strata would exhibit reversed polarity.

Results of the individual samples are analyzed by removing the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) to reveal the DRM. Following statistical analysis, the results are used to generate a local magnetostratigraphic column that can then be compared against the Global Magnetic Polarity Time Scale.

This technique is used to date sequences that generally lack fossils or interbedded igneous rocks. The continuous nature of the sampling means that it is also a powerful technique for the estimation of sediment-accumulation rates.

See also

• Assise
• Bed (geology)
• Conodont biostratigraphy
• Erygmascope (old instrument for studying strata)
• Harris matrix
• Important publications in stratigraphy
• International Commission on Stratigraphy
• Key bed
• Sedimentary basin analysis
• Sequence stratigraphy
• Sadler effect
• Tectonostratigraphy

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphy#Magnetostratigraphy

 

Lithostratigraphy

Main article: Lithostratigraphy

Chalk layers in Cyprus, showing sedimentary layering

Variation in rock units, most obviously displayed as visible layering, is due to physical contrasts in rock type (lithology). This variation can occur vertically as layering (bedding), or laterally, and reflects changes in environments of deposition (known as facies change). These variations provide a lithostratigraphy or lithologic stratigraphy of the rock unit. Key concepts in stratigraphy involve understanding how certain geometric relationships between rock layers arise and what these geometries imply about their original depositional environment. The basic concept in stratigraphy, called the law of superposition, states: in an undeformed stratigraphic sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.

Chemostratigraphy studies the changes in the relative proportions of trace elements and isotopes within and between lithologic units. Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios vary with time, and researchers can use those to map subtle changes that occurred in the paleoenvironment. This has led to the specialized field of isotopic stratigraphy.

Cyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions of minerals (particularly carbonates), grain size, thickness of sediment layers (varves) and fossil diversity with time, related to seasonal or longer term changes in palaeoclimates. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphy#Lithostratigraphy

 

Biostratigraphy

Main article: Biostratigraphy

Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the rock layers. Strata from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are said to be correlatable in time. Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal succession, which predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for, biological evolution. It provides strong evidence for the formation (speciation) and extinction of species. The geologic time scale was developed during the 19th century, based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the development of radiometric dating, which was based on an absolute time framework, leading to the development of chronostratigraphy.

One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global historical sea-level curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphic patterns. Stratigraphy is also commonly used to delineate the nature and extent of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rocks, seals, and traps of petroleum geology.

Chronostratigraphy

Main article: Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that places an absolute age, rather than a relative age on rock strata. The branch is concerned with deriving geochronological data for rock units, both directly and inferentially, so that a sequence of time-relative events that created the rocks formation can be derived. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to place dates on the sequence of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and then to every region, and by extension to provide an entire geologic record of the Earth.

A gap or missing strata in the geological record of an area is called a stratigraphic hiatus. This may be the result of a halt in the deposition of sediment. Alternatively, the gap may be due to removal by erosion, in which case it may be called a stratigraphic vacuity.^[2][3] It is called a hiatus because deposition was on hold for a period of time.^[4] A physical gap may represent both a period of non-deposition and a period of erosion.^[3] A geologic fault may cause the appearance of a hiatus.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphy

 

The geologic time scale, or geological time scale, (GTS) is a representation of time based on the rock record of Earth. It is a system of chronological dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the process of relating strata to time) and geochronology (scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks). It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardized international units of geologic time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective^[1] is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC)^[2] that are used to define divisions of geologic time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units.^[2]

While some regional terms are still in use,^[3] the table of geologic time presented in this article conforms to the nomenclature, ages, and color codes set forth by the ICS as this is the standard, reference global geologic time scale – the International Geological Time Scale.^[1][4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleomagnetism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetostratigraphy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siltstone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudstone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone

 In geology, an assise (from the French, derived from Latin assidere, "to sit beside") is two or more beds or strata of rock united by the occurrence of the same characteristic species or genera.^[1] In the hierarchy of stratigraphic units, an assise lies between a stage (or sub-stage) and a stratum.^[2]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assise}

 

Contents

• 1 Paleozoic conodonts
  • 1.1 Cambrian conodonts
  • 1.2 Ordovician conodonts
    • 1.2.1 Early Ordovician
    • 1.2.2 Middle Ordovician
    • 1.2.3 Late Ordovician
  • 1.3 Silurian conodonts
    • 1.3.1 Llandovery
    • 1.3.2 Wenlock
    • 1.3.3 Ludlow
    • 1.3.4 Přídolí
  • 1.4 Devonian conodonts
    • 1.4.1 Early Devonian
    • 1.4.2 Middle Devonian
    • 1.4.3 Late Devonian
  • 1.5 Carboniferous conodonts
    • 1.5.1 Mississippian (also known as Lower Carboniferous)
    • 1.5.2 Pennsylvanian (also known as Upper Carboniferous)
  • 1.6 Permian conodonts
    • 1.6.1 Cisuralian
    • 1.6.2 Guadalupian
    • 1.6.3 Lopingian
• 2 Mesozoic conodonts
  • 2.1 Early Triassic
  • 2.2 Middle Triassic
  • 2.3 Upper Triassic
• 3 References
• 4 External links

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conodont_biostratigraphy

 

Ammonoids are a group of extinct marine mollusc animals in the subclass Ammonoidea of the class Cephalopoda. These molluscs, commonly referred to as ammonites, are more closely related to living coleoids (i.e., octopuses, squid and cuttlefish) than they are to shelled nautiloids such as the living Nautilus species.^[1] The earliest ammonites appeared during the Devonian, with the last species vanishing during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Ammonites are excellent index fossils, and linking the rock layer in which a particular species or genus is found to specific geologic time periods is often possible. Their fossil shells usually take the form of planispirals, although some helically spiraled and nonspiraled forms (known as heteromorphs) have been found.

The name "ammonite", from which the scientific term is derived, was inspired by the spiral shape of their fossilized shells, which somewhat resemble tightly coiled rams' horns. Pliny the Elder (d. 79 AD near Pompeii) called fossils of these animals ammonis cornua ("horns of Ammon") because the Egyptian god Ammon (Amun) was typically depicted wearing rams' horns.^[2] Often, the name of an ammonite genus ends in -ceras, which is from κέρας (kéras) meaning "horn". 

Ammonoids Temporal range: 409–66 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Devonian-Late Cretaceous
Specimen of Pleuroceras solare, from the Lower Jurassic of Bavaria, Germany
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Mollusca
Class:	Cephalopoda
Subclass:	†Ammonoidea Zittel, 1884
Orders
†Agoniatitida †Ammonitida †Ceratitida †Clymeniida †Goniatitida †Prolecanitida

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonoidea

 Filter feeders are a sub-group of suspension feeding animals that feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water, typically by passing the water over a specialized filtering structure. Some animals that use this method of feeding are clams, krill, sponges, baleen whales, and many fish (including some sharks). Some birds, such as flamingos and certain species of duck, are also filter feeders. Filter feeders can play an important role in clarifying water, and are therefore considered ecosystem engineers. They are also important in bioaccumulation and, as a result, as indicator organisms. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_feeder

Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism.^[1] Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance, the greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of the toxin are not very high.^[2] Bioaccumulation, for example in fish, can be predicted by models.^[3][4] Hypothesis for molecular size cutoff criteria for use as bioaccumulation potential indicators are not supported by data.^[5] Biotransformation can strongly modify bioaccumulation of chemicals in an organism.^[6]

Toxicity induced by metals is associated with bioaccumulation and biomagnification.^[7] Storage or uptake of metals faster than the rate at which an organism metabolizes and excretes lead to the accumulation of that metal.^[8] The presence of various chemicals and harmful substances in the environment can be analyzed and assessed with a proper knowledge on bioaccumulation helping with chemical control and usage.^[9]

Uptake of chemicals by an organism can take place by breathing, absorbing through skin or swallowing.^[7] When the concentration of a chemical is higher within the organism compared to its surroundings (air or water), it is referred to as bioconcentration.^[1] Biomagnification is another process related to bioaccumulation as the concentration of the chemical or metal increases as it moves up from one trophic level to another.^[1] Naturally, the process of bioaccumulation is necessary for an organism to grow and develop; however, accumulation of harmful substances can also occur.^[7] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulation

 

Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is any concentration of a toxin, such as pesticides, in the tissues of tolerant organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain.^[1] This increase can occur as a result of:

• Persistence – where the substance cannot be broken down by environmental processes
• Food chain energetics – where the substance's concentration increases progressively as it moves up a food chain
• Low or non-existent rate of internal degradation or excretion of the substance – mainly due to water-insolubility

Biomagnification is the build up of toxins in a food chain. The DDT concentration is in parts per million. As the trophic level increases in a food chain, the amount of toxic build up increases. The x's represent the amount of toxic build up accumulating as the trophic level increases. Toxins build up in organism's fat and tissue. Predators accumulate higher toxins than prey.

Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy metals work their way into lakes, rivers and the ocean, and then move up the food chain in progressively greater concentrations as they are incorporated into the diet of aquatic organisms such as zooplankton, which in turn are eaten perhaps by fish, which then may be eaten by bigger fish, large birds, animals, or humans. The substances become increasingly concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain. Bioaccumulants are substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated air, water, or food because the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification

 

Toxaphene was an insecticide used primarily for cotton in the southern United States during the late 1960s and the 1970s.^[3][4] Toxaphene is a mixture of over 670 different chemicals and is produced by reacting chlorine gas with camphene.^[3][5] It can be most commonly found as a yellow to amber waxy solid.^[3]

Toxaphene was banned in the United States in 1990 and was banned globally by the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.^[3][6] It is a very persistent chemical that can remain in the environment for 1–14 years without degrading, particularly in the soil.^[7]

Testing performed on animals, mostly rats and mice, has demonstrated that toxaphene is harmful to animals. Exposure to toxaphene has proven to stimulate the central nervous system, as well as induce morphological changes in the thyroid, liver, and kidneys.^[8]

Toxaphene has been shown to cause adverse health effects in humans. The main sources of exposure are through food, drinking water, breathing contaminated air, and direct contact with contaminated soil. Exposure to high levels of toxaphene can cause damage to the lungs, nervous system, liver, kidneys, and in extreme cases, may even cause death. It is thought to be a potential carcinogen in humans, though this has not yet been proven.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxaphene

 

Contents

• 1 Discovery
• 2 Effects
• 3 Types
  • 3.1 Physical mutagens
  • 3.2 DNA reactive chemicals
  • 3.3 Base analogs
  • 3.4 Intercalating agents
  • 3.5 Metals
  • 3.6 Biological agents
• 4 Protection
• 5 Test systems
  • 5.1 Bacterial
  • 5.2 Yeast
  • 5.3 Drosophila
  • 5.4 Plant assays
  • 5.5 Cell culture assay
  • 5.6 Chromosome check systems
  • 5.7 Animal test systems
• 6 In anti-cancer therapy
• 7 In fiction
• 8 See also
• 9 References

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagen}

 Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP or B[a]P) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and the result of incomplete combustion of organic matter at temperatures between 300 °C (572 °F) and 600 °C (1,112 °F). The ubiquitous compound can be found in coal tar, tobacco smoke and many foods, especially grilled meats. The substance with the formula C₂₀H₁₂ is one of the benzopyrenes, formed by a benzene ring fused to pyrene. Its diol epoxide metabolites (more commonly known as BPDE) react with and bind to DNA, resulting in mutations and eventually cancer. It is listed as a Group 1 carcinogen by the IARC. In the 18th century a scrotal cancer of chimney sweepers, the chimney sweeps' carcinoma, was already known to be connected to soot. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene

Immune system

BaP has an effect on the number of white blood cells, inhibiting some of them from differentiating into macrophages, the body's first line of defense to fight infections. In 2016, the molecular mechanism was uncovered as damage to the macrophage membrane's lipid raft integrity by decreasing membrane cholesterol at 25%. This means less immunoreceptors CD32 (a member of the Fc family of immunoreceptors) could bind to IgG and turn the white blood cell into a macrophage. Therefore, macrophage membranes become susceptible to bacterial infections.^[14] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene

 A concretion is a hard, compact mass of matter formed by the precipitation of mineral cement within the spaces between particles, and is found in sedimentary rock or soil.^[1] Concretions are often ovoid or spherical in shape, although irregular shapes also occur. The word 'concretion' is derived from the Latin concretio "(act of) compacting, condensing, congealing, uniting", itself from con meaning 'together' and crescere meaning "to grow".^[2] Concretions form within layers of sedimentary strata that have already been deposited. They usually form early in the burial history of the sediment, before the rest of the sediment is hardened into rock. This concretionary cement often makes the concretion harder and more resistant to weathering than the host stratum. 

There is an important distinction to draw between concretions and nodules. Concretions are formed from mineral precipitation around some kind of nucleus while a nodule is a replacement body.

Descriptions dating from the 18th century attest to the fact that concretions have long been regarded as geological curiosities. Because of the variety of unusual shapes, sizes and compositions, concretions have been interpreted to be dinosaur eggs, animal and plant fossils (called pseudofossils), extraterrestrial debris or human artifacts.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretion

Siderite is a mineral composed of iron(II) carbonate (FeCO₃). It takes its name from the Greek word σίδηρος sideros, "iron". It is a valuable iron mineral, since it is 48% iron and contains no sulfur or phosphorus. Zinc, magnesium and manganese commonly substitute for the iron resulting in the siderite-smithsonite, siderite-magnesite and siderite-rhodochrosite solid solution series.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderite

 

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Iron, native iron or telluric iron
Sawed slab of basalt with bright, metallic native iron inclusions from Uivfaq, Disko Island (size: 7.8 x 3.5 x 0.6 cm)
General
Category	Native element mineral
Formula (repeating unit)	Fe
Strunz classification	1.AE.05
Dana classification	1.1.17.1
Crystal system	Cubic
Crystal class	Hexoctahedral (m3m) H-M symbol: (4/m 3 2/m)
Space group	Im3m
Unit cell	a = 2.8664 Å; Z = 2
Identification
Color	Steel-gray to iron-black, white in polished section
Crystal habit	Massive, as interstitial blebs, rare as crystals
Twinning	On {111} and on {112}
Cleavage	{001}; with parting on {112}
Fracture	Hackly
Tenacity	Malleable
Mohs scale hardness	4
Luster	Metallic
Diaphaneity	Opaque
Specific gravity	7.3–7.87
References	[1][2][3]

Telluric iron, also called native iron, is iron that originated on Earth, and is found in a metallic form rather than as an ore. Telluric iron is extremely rare, with only one known major deposit in the world, located in Greenland. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telluric_iron

 Native element minerals are those elements that occur in nature in uncombined form with a distinct mineral structure. The elemental class includes metals, intermetallic compounds, alloys, metalloids, and nonmetals. The Nickel–Strunz classification system also includes the naturally occurring phosphides, silicides, nitrides, carbides, and arsenides. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_element_mineral

 

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In chemistry, a free element is a chemical element that is not combined with or chemically bonded to other elements. Examples of elements which can occur as free elements include the oxygen molecule (O₂) and carbon.^[1] All atoms of free elements have an oxidation number of 0. They hardly ever bond with other atoms. Other examples of free elements include the noble metals gold and platinum.^[2]

See also

• Native metal
• Noble metal
• Native element mineral
• Gangue
• Native state

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_element

 

Acid mine drainage, acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD) is the outflow of acidic water from metal mines or coal mines.

Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of the rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals. Areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites, subdivisions, and transportation corridors) may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid rock drainage. This liquid often contains highly toxic metals, such as copper or iron. These, combined with reduced pH, have a detrimental impact on the streams aquatic environments. 

Rio Tinto in Spain presents an acid drainage of both natural and artificial origin (mining)

Nomenclature

Historically, the acidic discharges from active or abandoned mines were called acid mine drainage, or AMD. The term acid rock drainage, or ARD, was introduced in the 1980s and 1990s to indicate that acidic drainage can originate from sources other than mines.^[1] For example, a paper presented in 1991 at a major international conference on this subject was titled: "The Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage – Lessons from the Database".^[2] Both AMD and ARD refer to low pH or acidic waters caused by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, though ARD is the more generic name.

In cases where drainage from a mine is not acidic and has dissolved metals or metalloids, or was originally acidic, but has been neutralized along its flow path, then it is described as "neutral mine drainage",^[3] "mining-influenced water"^[4] or otherwise. None of these other names have gained general acceptance.

Occurrence

In this case, the pyrite has dissolved away yielding a cube shape and residual gold. This break down is the main driver of acid mine drainage.

Sub-surface mining often progresses below the water table, so water must be constantly pumped out of the mine in order to prevent flooding. When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases, and water floods the mine. This introduction of water is the initial step in most acid rock drainage situations. Tailings piles or ponds, mine waste rock dumps,^[3] and coal spoils are also an important source of acid mine drainage.

After being exposed to air and water, oxidation of metal sulfides (often pyrite, which is iron-sulfide) within the surrounding rock and overburden generates acidity. Colonies of bacteria and archaea greatly accelerate the decomposition of metal ions, although the reactions also occur in an abiotic environment. These microbes, called extremophiles for their ability to survive in harsh conditions, occur naturally in the rock, but limited water and oxygen supplies usually keep their numbers low. Extremophiles known as acidophiles especially favor the low pH levels of abandoned mines. In particular, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a key contributor to pyrite oxidation.^[5]

Metal mines may generate highly acidic discharges where the ore is a sulfide mineral or is associated with pyrite. In these cases the predominant metal ion may not be iron but rather zinc, copper, or nickel. The most commonly mined ore of copper, chalcopyrite, is itself a copper-iron-sulfide and occurs with a range of other sulfides. Thus, copper mines are often major culprits of acid mine drainage.

At some mines, acidic drainage is detected within 2–5 years after mining begins, whereas at other mines, it is not detected for several decades.^{[citation needed]} In addition, acidic drainage may be generated for decades or centuries after it is first detected. For this reason, acid mine drainage is considered a serious long-term environmental problem associated with mining.^{[citation needed]}

Chemistry

Further information: Acidophiles in acid mine drainage

The chemistry of oxidation of pyrites, the production of ferrous ions and subsequently ferric ions, is very complex, and this complexity has considerably inhibited the design of effective treatment options.^[6]

Although a host of chemical processes contribute to acid mine drainage, pyrite oxidation is by far the greatest contributor. A general equation for this process is:

${\displaystyle 2{\text{FeS}}_2^{}(\text{s})+7{\text{O}}_2^{}(\text{g})+2{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}(\text{l})⟶2{\text{Fe}}^{2+}(\text{aq})+4{\text{SO}}_4^{2-}(\text{aq})+4{\text{H}}^{+}(\text{aq})}$.^[7]

The oxidation of the sulfide to sulfate solubilizes the ferrous iron (iron(II)), which is subsequently oxidized to ferric iron (iron(III)):

${\displaystyle 4{\text{Fe}}^{2+}(\text{aq})+{\text{O}}_2^{}(\text{g})+4{\text{H}}^{+}(\text{aq})⟶4{\text{Fe}}^{3+}(\text{aq})+2{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}(\text{l})}$.

Either of these reactions can occur spontaneously or can be catalyzed by microorganisms that derive energy from the oxidation reaction. The ferric cations produced can also oxidize additional pyrite and reduce into ferrous ions:

${\displaystyle {\text{FeS}}_2^{}(\text{s})+14{\text{Fe}}^{3+}(\text{aq})+8{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}(\text{l})⟶15{\text{Fe}}^{2+}(\text{aq})+2{\text{SO}}_4^{2-}(\text{aq})+16{\text{H}}^{+}(\text{aq})}$.

The net effect of these reactions is to release H⁺, which lowers the pH and maintains the solubility of the ferric ion.

Effects

Effects on pH

Yellow boy in a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining

Water temperatures as high as 47 °C (117 °F)^[8] have been measured underground at the Iron Mountain Mine, and the pH can be as low as −3.6.^[9]

Organisms which cause acid mine drainage can thrive in waters with pH very close to zero. Negative pH^[10] occurs when water evaporates from already acidic pools thereby increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions.

About half of the coal mine discharges in Pennsylvania have pH under 5.^[11] However, a portion of mine drainage in both the bituminous and anthracite regions of Pennsylvania is alkaline, because limestone in the overburden neutralizes acid before the drainage emanates.^{[citation needed]}

Acid rock drainage was a hindrance to the completion of the construction of Interstate 99 near State College, Pennsylvania. However, this acid rock drainage didn't come from a mine; rather, it was produced by oxidation of pyrite-rich rock which was unearthed during a road cut and then used as filler material in the I-99 construction.^{[citation needed]} Similar issues with pyritic slate occurred at the Halifax Stanfield International Airport in Canada.^[12] When the phenomena is the result of earth-moving operations other than mining it is sometimes called "acid rock drainage".^{[citation needed]}

Yellow boy

When the pH of acid mine drainage is raised past 3, either through contact with fresh water or neutralizing minerals, previously soluble iron(III) ions precipitate as iron(III) hydroxide, a yellow-orange solid colloquially known as yellow boy.^[13] Other types of iron precipitates are possible, including iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, and sulfates such as jarosite. All these precipitates can discolor water and smother plant and animal life on the streambed, disrupting stream ecosystems (a specific offense under the Fisheries Act in Canada). The process also produces additional hydrogen ions, which can further decrease pH. In some cases, the concentrations of iron hydroxides in yellow boy are so high, the precipitate can be recovered for commercial use in pigments.^[14]

Trace metal and semi-metal contamination

Many acid rock discharges also contain elevated levels of potentially toxic metals, especially nickel and copper with lower levels of a range of trace and semi-metal ions such as lead, arsenic, aluminium, and manganese. The elevated levels of heavy metals can only be dissolved in waters that have a low pH, as is found in the acidic waters produced by pyrite oxidation. In the coal belt around the south Wales valleys in the UK highly acidic nickel-rich discharges from coal stocking sites have proved to be particularly troublesome.^{[citation needed]}

Effects on aquatic wildlife

Acid mine drainage also affects the wildlife living within the affected body of water. Aquatic macroinvertebrates living in streams or parts of streams affected by acid mine drainage show fewer individuals, less diversity, and lower biomass. Many species of fish also cannot tolerate the pollution.^[15] Among the macroinvertebrates, certain species can be found at only certain levels of pollution, while other species can be found over a wide range.^[16]

Identification and prediction

In a mining setting it is leading practice to carry out a geochemical assessment of mine materials during the early stages of a project to determine the potential for AMD. The geochemical assessment aims to map the distribution and variability of key geochemical parameters, acid generating and element leaching characteristics.^[17]

The assessment may include:^[17]

1. Sampling;
2. Static geochemical testwork (e.g. acid-base accounting, sulfur speciation);
3. Kinetic geochemical testwork - Conducting oxygen consumption tests, such as the OxCon, to quantify acidity generation rates^[18]
4. Modelling of oxidation, pollutant generation and release; and
5. Modelling of material composition.

Treatment

Oversight

In the United Kingdom, many discharges from abandoned mines are exempt from regulatory control. In such cases the Environment Agency working with partners such as the Coal Authority have provided some innovative solutions, including constructed wetland solutions such as on the River Pelenna in the valley of the River Afan near Port Talbot and the constructed wetland next to the River Neath at Ynysarwed.

Although abandoned underground mines produce most of the acid mine drainage, some recently mined and reclaimed surface mines have produced ARD and have degraded local ground-water and surface-water resources. Acidic water produced at active mines must be neutralized to achieve pH 6–9 before discharge from a mine site to a stream is permitted.

In Canada, work to reduce the effects of acid mine drainage is concentrated under the Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND) program. Total liability from acid rock drainage is estimated to be between $2 billion and C$5 billion.^[19] Over a period of eight years, MEND claims to have reduced ARD liability by up to C$400 million, from an investment of C$17.5 million.^[20]

Methods

Lime neutralization

By far, the most commonly used commercial process for treating acid mine drainage is lime (CaO) precipitation in a high-density sludge (HDS) process. In this application, a slurry of lime is dispersed into a tank containing acid mine drainage and recycled sludge to increase water pH to about 9. At this pH, most toxic metals become insoluble and precipitate, aided by the presence of recycled sludge. Optionally, air may be introduced in this tank to oxidize iron and manganese and assist in their precipitation. The resulting slurry is directed to a sludge-settling vessel, such as a clarifier. In that vessel, clean water will overflow for release, whereas settled metal precipitates (sludge) will be recycled to the acid mine drainage treatment tank, with a sludge-wasting side stream. A number of variations of this process exist, as dictated by the chemistry of ARD, its volume, and other factors.^[21] Generally, the products of the HDS process also contain gypsum (CaSO₄) and unreacted lime, which enhance both its settleability and resistance to re-acidification and metal mobilization. A general equation for this process is:

H₂SO₄ + CaO → CaSO₄ + H₂O

or more precisely in aqueous solution:

SO²⁻
₄ + 2 H⁺ + Ca²⁺O²⁻(aq) → Ca²⁺ + SO²⁻
₄(aq) + 2 H⁺ + O²⁻(aq)

Less complex variants of this process, such as simple lime neutralization, may involve no more than a lime silo, mixing tank and settling pond. These systems are far less costly to build, but are also less efficient (longer reaction times are required, and they produce a discharge with higher trace metal concentrations, if present). They would be suitable for relatively small flows or less complex acid mine drainage.^[22]

Calcium silicate neutralization

A calcium silicate feedstock, made from processed steel slag, can also be used to neutralize active acidity in AMD systems by removing free hydrogen ions from the bulk solution, thereby increasing pH. As the silicate anion captures H⁺ ions (raising the pH), it forms monosilicic acid (H₄SiO₄), a neutral solute. Monosilicic acid remains in the bulk solution to play many roles in correcting the adverse effects of acidic conditions. In the bulk solution, the silicate anion is very active in neutralizing H⁺ cations in the soil solution.^[23] While its mode-of-action is quite different from limestone, the ability of calcium silicate to neutralize acid solutions is equivalent to limestone as evidenced by its CCE value of 90–100% and its relative neutralizing value of 98%.^[24]

In the presence of heavy metals, calcium silicate reacts in a different manner than limestone. As limestone raises the pH of the bulk solution, and if heavy metals are present, precipitation of the metal hydroxides (with extremely low solubilities) is normally accelerated and the potential of armoring of limestone particles increases significantly.^[25] In the calcium silicate aggregate, as silicic acid species are absorbed onto the metal surface, the development of silica layers (mono- and bi-layers) lead to the formation of colloidal complexes with neutral or negative surface charges. These negatively charged colloids create an electrostatic repulsion with each other (as well as with the negatively charged calcium silicate granules) and the sequestered metal colloids are stabilized and remain in a dispersed state – effectively interrupting metal precipitation and reducing vulnerability of the material to armoring.^[23]

Carbonate neutralization

Generally, limestone or other calcareous strata that could neutralize acid are lacking or deficient at sites that produce acidic rock drainage. Limestone chips may be introduced into sites to create a neutralizing effect. Where limestone has been used, such as at Cwm Rheidol in mid Wales, the positive impact has been much less than anticipated because of the creation of an insoluble calcium sulfate layer on the limestone chips, binding the material and preventing further neutralization.

Ion exchange

Cation exchange processes have previously been investigated as a potential treatment for acid mine drainage. The principle is that an ion exchange resin can remove potentially toxic metals (cationic resins), or chlorides, sulfates and uranyl sulfate complexes (anionic resins) from mine water.^[26] Once the contaminants are adsorbed, the exchange sites on resins must be regenerated, which typically requires acidic and basic reagents and generates a brine that contains the pollutants in a concentrated form. A South African company that won the 2013 IChemE (ww.icheme.org) award for water management and supply (treating AMD) have developed a patented ion-exchange process that treats mine effluents (and AMD) economically.

Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands systems have been proposed during the 1980s to treat acid mine drainage generated by the abandoned coal mines in Eastern Appalachia.^[27] Generally, the wetlands receive near-neutral water, after it has been neutralized by (typically) a limestone-based treatment process.^[28] Metal precipitation occurs from their oxidation at near-neutral pH, complexation with organic matter, precipitation as carbonates or sulfides. The latter results from sediment-borne anaerobic bacteria capable of reverting sulfate ions into sulfide ions. These sulfide ions can then bind with heavy metal ions, precipitating heavy metals out of solution and effectively reversing the entire process.^{[citation needed]}

The attractiveness of a constructed wetlands solution lies in its relative low cost. They are limited by the metal loads they can deal with (either from high flows or metal concentrations), though current practitioners have succeeded in developing constructed wetlands that treat high volumes (see description of Campbell Mine constructed wetland) and/or highly acidic water (with adequate pre-treatment). Typically, the effluent from constructed wetland receiving near-neutral water will be well-buffered at 6.5–7.0 and can readily be discharged. Some of metal precipitates retained in sediments are unstable when exposed to oxygen (e.g., copper sulfide or elemental selenium), and it is very important that the wetland sediments remain largely or permanently submerged.

An example of an effective constructed wetland is on the Afon Pelena in the River Afan valley above Port Talbot where highly ferruginous discharges from the Whitworth mine have been successfully treated.

Precipitation of metal sulfides

Most base metals in acidic solution precipitate in contact with free sulfide, e.g. from H₂S or NaHS. Solid-liquid separation after reaction would produce a base metal-free effluent that can be discharged or further treated to reduce sulfate, and a metal sulfide concentrate with possible economic value.

As an alternative, several researchers have investigated the precipitation of metals using biogenic sulfide. In this process, Sulfate-reducing bacteria oxidize organic matter using sulfate, instead of oxygen. Their metabolic products include bicarbonate, which can neutralize water acidity, and hydrogen sulfide, which forms highly insoluble precipitates with many toxic metals. Although promising, this process has been slow in being adopted for a variety of technical reasons.^[29]

Technologies

Many technologies exist for the treatment of AMD from traditional high cost water treatment plants to simple in situ water treatment reagent dosing methods.

Metagenomic study

With the advance of large-scale sequencing strategies, genomes of microorganisms in the acid mine drainage community are directly sequenced from the environment. The nearly full genomic constructs allows new understanding of the community and able to reconstruct their metabolic pathways.^[30] Our knowledge of acidophiles in acid mine drainage remains rudimentary: we know of many more species associated with ARD than we can establish roles and functions.^[31]

Microbes and drug discovery

Scientists have recently begun to explore acid mine drainage and mine reclamation sites for unique soil bacteria capable of producing new pharmaceutical leads. Soil microbes have long been a source for effective drugs^[32] and new research, such as that conducted at the Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, suggests these extreme environments to be an untapped source for new discovery.^[33][34]

List of selected acid mine drainage sites worldwide

This list includes both mines producing acid mine drainage and river systems significantly affected by such drainage. It is by no means complete, as worldwide, several thousands of such sites exist.

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainage

 

Uranium acid mine drainage refers to acidic water released from a uranium mining site using processes like underground mining and in-situ leaching.^[1] Underground, the ores are not as reactive due to isolation from atmospheric oxygen and water. When uranium ores are mined, the ores are crushed into a powdery substance, thus increasing surface area to easily extract uranium. The ores, along with nearby rocks, may also contain sulfides. Once exposed to the atmosphere, the powdered tailings react with atmospheric oxygen and water. After uranium extraction, sulfide minerals in uranium tailings facilitates the release of uranium radionuclides into the environment, which can undergo further radioactive decay while lowering the pH of a solution.^[2] 

Uranium-238 Decay Chain

 

Uranium chemistry

Uranium may exist naturally as U⁺⁶ in ores but also forms the water-soluble uranyl ion UO₂⁺² when uranium tailings are oxidized by atmospheric oxygen in the following reaction.^[2]

U⁺⁶ + O₂ → UO₂⁺²

The solubility of uranium increases under similar oxidizing conditions when it forms uranyl carbonate complexes in the following reaction.^[2]

U⁺⁶ + O₂ + 2CO₃²⁻→ [UO₂(CO₃)₂]²⁺

Extraction of uranium from the ore may occur under acid or alkaline leaching processes using sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate respectively. If leached with sulfuric acid, uranyl forms a soluble uranyl sulfate complex in the following reaction.^[2] Hydrogen ions in solution react with water to produce hydronium ions which lowers a solution's pH making it more acidic.

UO₂ + 3H₂SO₄ + 1/2 O₂ → [UO₂(SO₄)₃]⁴⁻ + H₂O + 4H⁺

H⁺_(aq) + H₂O_(l) → H₃O⁺_(aq)

During in-situ leaching uranyl reacts with iron, a common natural oxidant, to produce uranyl trioxide which is further oxidized then leached using alkaline sodium carbonate in the following reactions.^[2]

UO₂ + 2Fe³⁺ → UO₂⁺² + 2Fe²⁺

UO₂ + 1/2 O₂ → UO₃

UO₃ + 3Na₂CO₃ + H₂O → [UO₂(CO₃)₃]⁴⁺ + 4Na⁺ + 2NaOH

When considering the formation secondary uranium minerals, as discussed in the case study section below, the pH of the solution that contains uranophane is one of determining factors of how much of the uranophane is in mineral form or in the form of its ions. Shown in figure 2, from a study performed by Tatiana Shvareva et al. in 2011, is the dissolution of uranophane in pH of 3 (Figure 3b) and pH of 4 (Figure 3a). The graphs demonstrate that in a more acidic environment, the concentrations of Ca, U, and Si are more likely to be more abundant in more basic environments where it is more likely that they will form minerals.^[3] This is more likely to happen when the acidic mine drainage is released into rivers or large water deposits and they become diluted to a pH closer to that of water.^[4]

The enthalpies of formation (from elements and from oxide species) and Gibbs free energies of formation (from elements) of the uranium minerals boltwoodite, Na-boltwoodite, and uranophane are shown in Table 1. Solubility constants (dissociation of minerals to ions) of the same minerals, determined using a bomb calorimeter in a study by Shvareva, Tatiana et al. in 2011, are shown in Table 2. The Gibbs free energies of formation show that the process, when the reactions from the individual elements to the oxides are taken into account, is spontaneous. The enthalpies of formation, when only considering the reaction from the oxides to the mineral, suggest a relatively high probability for their Gibbs free energy of formation values to also be spontaneous.^[3]

	ΔHf, ox (kJ/mol)	ΔHf, el (kJ/mol)	ΔGf, el (kJ/mol)
Boltwoodite: K(UO2)(HSiO4):HO	-251.2 ± 5.9	-2766.8 ± 6.5	-2758.6 ± 3.5
Na-boltwoodite: Na(UO2)(HSiO4):H2O	-215.8 ± 6.0	-2948.8 ± 6.6	-2725.2 ± 2.6
Uranophane: ½[Ca(UO2)2(HSiO4):5H2O]	-161.1 ± 5.4	-3399.5 ± 5.8	-3099.3 ± 5.6

Table 1. The enthalpy of formation (from oxide to mineral), enthalpy of formation (from individual elements to mineral), and Gibbs free energy (from individual elements to mineral) of boltwoodite, Na-boltwoodite, and uranophane.^[3]

	log Ksp ± 2σ	Mass action equations
Boltwoodite: K(UO2)(HSiO4):H2O	4.12 (-0.48/+0.30)	Ksp = ${\displaystyle \frac{[{\alpha }_{K^{+}}][{\alpha }_{{U{O}_2}^{2+}}][{\alpha }_{H_{2}S{O}_4}]}{[{\alpha }_{H^{+}}]}}$
Na-boltwoodite: Na(UO2)(HSiO4):H2O	6.07 (-0.16/+0.26)	Ksp = ${\displaystyle \frac{[{\alpha }_{N{a}^{+}}][{\alpha }_{{U{O}_2}^{2+}}][{\alpha }_{H_{2}S{0}_4}]}{[{\alpha }_{H^{+}}]}}$
Uranophane: ½[Ca(UO2)2(HSiO4):5H2O]	10.82 (-0.62/+0.29)	Ksp = ${\displaystyle \frac{[{\alpha }_{C{a}^{2+}}][{\alpha }_{{U{O}_2}^{2+}}][{\alpha }_{H_{2}S{O}_4}]}{[{\alpha }_{H^{+}}]}}$

Table 2. Solubility constants and mass action equations for boltwoodite, Na-boltwoodite, and uranophane.^[3]

Uranium acid mine drainage case study

Two uranium mines in northern Portugal, Quinta do Bispo and Cunha Baixa, have been inactive since 1991. Acidic water is pumped out of the mines for neutralization and precipitation of radionuclides using calcium hydroxide.^[5] Studies in 2002 found that there were high concentrations of soluble and suspended uranium radionuclides in river water samples near the mines.^[5] Castelo river reached suspended uranium isotope concentrations of -72 kBq/kg which is roughly 170x higher than normal concentrations in the Mondego River but returned to normal after 7 km.^[5] The mine waters of Quinta do Bispo and Cunha Baixa had low pH values at 2.67 and 3.48 with U-238 concentrations of 92,000 mBq/L and 2,200 mBq/L, respectively.^[5]

Results from studies done in 2002 showed a significant negative correlation between both dissolved uranium radionuclides and hydrogen ions with pH in mine waters.^[5] Sorption of dissolved uranium radionuclides in rivers combine with nearby rock sediments can form minerals like uranophane.^[5] The chemistry and findings in this case is essentially representative of other uranium mines in the world.

Uranium radionuclides in the environment

An uranium radionuclide is a radioactive isotope. Radioactivity is natural in the environment, however uranium radionuclides can lead to radioactive decay. In the case of uranium mines, these radionuclides can leach into the water and cause the radioactivity to be carried elsewhere, as well as form precipitates that can be harmful to the environment. The uranium radionuclides can eventually be carried to fruits and vegetables via contaminated waters. Sulfuric acid, oxidation, and alkaline leaching are processes of how radionuclides make their way into the environment. When uranium decays it also produces the isotopes ²²⁶Ra and ²²²Rn, which may be environmentally harmful due to the fact that radon is present as an inert gas and therefore, might enter into the soil or atmosphere. Radon then can emit alpha particles and gamma radiation.^[6] The three different radioactive isotopes of uranium are uranium-238, uranium-235, and uranium-234. Each has a different half-life which determines the isotope's decay rate.^[7] When uranium-235 combines with other molecules it creates a chemical reaction that can cause detrimental effects to water. Even though isotope formation occurs naturally, when combined with other elements it can cause the pH of water to become more acidic as discussed previously.^[8]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_acid_mine_drainage

 

Kvanefjeld (or Kuannersuit), in Greenland, is the site of a mineral deposit, which is claimed to be the world's second-largest deposit of rare-earth oxides, and the sixth-largest deposit of uranium.^[1][2] There are also substantial sodium fluoride deposits, and Kvanefjeld is thought to be one of the largest multi-element deposits of its kind in the world.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvanefjeld

 Nepheline syenite is a holocrystalline plutonic rock that consists largely of nepheline and alkali feldspar.^[1] The rocks are mostly pale colored, grey or pink, and in general appearance they are not unlike granites, but dark green varieties are also known. Phonolite is the fine-grained extrusive equivalent. 

Nepheline syenite

Igneous rock
Hand samples of nepheline syenite of the Ordovician Beemerville Complex, northern New Jersey
Composition
Primary	alkali feldspar, nepheline, clinopyroxene, amphibole, biotite
Secondary	magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, titanite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepheline_syenite

 

Aenigmatite, also known as Cossyrite after Cossyra, the ancient name of Pantelleria, is a sodium, iron, titanium inosilicate mineral. The chemical formula is Na₂Fe²⁺₅TiSi₆O₂₀ and its structure consists of single tetrahedral chains with a repeat unit of four and complex side branches. It forms brown to black triclinic lamellar crystals. It has Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6 and specific gravity of 3.74 to 3.85. Aenigmatite forms a solid-solution series with wilkinsonite, Na₂Fe²⁺₄Fe³⁺₂Si₆O₂₀.

Aenigmatite is primarily found in peralkaline volcanic rocks, pegmatites, and granites as well as silica-poor intrusive rocks. It was first described by August Breithaupt in 1865 for an occurrence in the Ilimaussaq intrusive complex of southwest Greenland. Its name comes from αίνιγμα, the Greek word for "riddle". 

Aenigmatite
Aenigmatite from Kangerdluarsuk, Greenland
General
Category	Inosilicates
Formula (repeating unit)	Na2Fe2+5TiSi6O20
IMA symbol	Aen[1]
Strunz classification	9.DH.40
Crystal system	Triclinic
Crystal class	Pinacoidal (1) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P1
Unit cell	a = 10.415(1), b = 10.840(1) c = 8.931(1) [Å]; Z = 2 α = 105.107(4)° β = 96.610(5)° γ = 125.398(4)°
Identification
Color	Velvet-black
Crystal habit	Poorly developed prismatic crystals, occurring as irregular clusters; pseudomonoclinic
Twinning	Complex by rotation perpendicular to (011) or about [010] of the pseudomonoclinic cell; polysynthetic
Cleavage	Good on {010} and {100}
Fracture	Uneven
Tenacity	Brittle
Mohs scale hardness	5.5
Luster	Vitreous to greasy
Streak	Reddish brown
Diaphaneity	Translucent to opaque
Specific gravity	3.81
Optical properties	Biaxial (+)
Refractive index	nα = 1.780 - 1.800 nβ = 1.800 - 1.820 nγ = 1.870 - 1.900
Birefringence	δ = 0.090 - 0.100
Pleochroism	X = yellow brown; Y = red-brown; Z = dark brown to black
2V angle	Measured: 27° to 55°
Dispersion	r < v; very strong
References	[2][3][4]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aenigmatite

Pages in category "Minerals in space group 2"

The following 112 pages are in this category, out of 112 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.

A

• Abelsonite
• Abramovite
• Adamsite-(Y)
• Aenigmatite
• Agrellite
• Ajoite
• Akatoreite
• Albite
• Albrechtschraufite
• Althupite
• Alunogen
• Amarantite
• Amblygonite
• Andesine
• Anorthite
• Anorthoclase
• Artroeite
• Astrophyllite
• Aubertite
• Axinite

B

• Babingtonite
• Belakovskiite
• Bultfonteinite
• Bustamite
• Bytownite

C

• Cattiite
• Chalcanthite
• Chloritoid
• Collinsite
• Copiapite
• Cornubite
• Cuprosklodowskite

D

• Demesmaekerite

E

• Earlandite
• Emmonsite

F

• Faizievite
• Faustite
• Fingerite
• Fluckite
• Franckeite

G

• Gabrielite
• Geigerite
• Gyrolite

H

• Hemihedrite
• Hotsonite
• Hubeite
• Huemulite

I

• Inesite

J

• Jennite
• Joanneumite
• Johannite

K

• Kermesite
• Kochite
• Kuratite
• Kurnakovite
• Kyanite

L

• Labradorite
• Lahnsteinite
• Lópezite
• Lulzacite

M

• Meisserite
• Meridianiite
• Messelite
• Meyerhofferite
• Microcline
• Minnesotaite

N

• Nambulite

O

• Okenite
• Oppenheimerite

P

• Parsonsite
• Pectolite
• Picropharmacolite
• Plagioclase
• Polyhalite
• Pyrophyllite
• Pyroxferroite
• Pyroxmangite

Q

• Quenstedtite

R

• Rheniite
• Rhodonite
• Rodalquilarite
• Roymillerite
• Rubicline

S

• Saneroite
• Sapphirine
• Sassolite
• Scandiobabingtonite
• Schröckingerite
• Serandite
• Serendibite
• Siderotil
• Sinkankasite
• Steinmetzite
• Stercorite
• Stilpnomelane
• Strunzite

T

• Talc
• Talmessite
• Tarbuttite
• Tinaksite
• Turquoise

U

• Ulexite
• Uranopilite
• Ussingite

V

• Vauxite

W

• Warikahnite
• Weilite
• Wollastonite

X

• Xanthoxenite

Y

• Yangite

Z

• Zigrasite
• Zircophyllite

Categories:

• Triclinic minerals

Hidden categories:

• Commons category link from Wikidata
• Wikipedia non-diffusing subcategories

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Minerals_in_space_group_2

 Vauxite is a phosphate mineral with the chemical formula Fe²⁺Al₂(PO₄)₂(OH)₂·6(H₂O). It belongs to the laueite – paravauxite group, paravauxite subgroup,^[3][6] although Mindat puts it as a member of the vantasselite Al₄(PO₄)₃(OH)₃·9H₂O group.^[4] There is no similarity in structure between vauxite and paravauxite Fe²⁺Al₂(PO₄)₂(OH)₂·8H₂O or metavauxite Fe³⁺Al₂(PO₄)₂(OH)₂·8H₂O, even though they are closely similar chemically, and all minerals occur together as secondary minerals.^[6] Vauxite was named in 1922 for George Vaux Junior (1863–1927), an American attorney and mineral collector.

 

Vauxite
Vauxite from the Siglio XX Mine, Llallagua, Bolivia. Specimen size 2 cm
General
Category	Phosphate minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	Fe2+Al2(PO4)2(OH)2.6H2O
IMA symbol	Vx[1]
Strunz classification	8.DC.35
Dana classification	42.11.14.1
Crystal system	Triclinic
Crystal class	Pinacoidal (1) (same H-M symbol)
Space group	P1
Identification
Formula mass	441.86 g/mol
Color	Blue, becoming greenish on exposure
Crystal habit	Minute tabular crystals, radial aggregates and nodules
Twinning	On {010}, twin and composition plane.[2]
Cleavage	Fractured
Mohs scale hardness	3.5
Luster	Vitreous
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity	2.39 to 2.40
Optical properties	Biaxial (+)
Refractive index	Nx=1.551, Ny=1.555, Nz=1.562
Birefringence	r>v
Pleochroism	(strong): X, Z colorless, Y blue
Other characteristics	Fluorescent. Not radioactive
References	[2][3][4][5]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxite

Phosphate minerals

Phosphate minerals contain the phosphate, PO₄³⁻, anion.

In standard mineral classification systems (in both the Dana[1] and Strunz[2] systems) the phosphate class includes the arsenates, vanadates and the polyvanadates. Strunz includes the vanadates(V, VI) in the oxides class. 

Subcategories

This category has the following 3 subcategories, out of 3 total.

A

• 
  

• Antimonate minerals‎ (2 P)

F

• 
  

• Phosphorite formations‎ (18 P)

Σ

• 
  

• Phosphate mineral stubs‎ (82 P)

Pages in category "Phosphate minerals"

The following 180 pages are in this category, out of 180 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.

*

• Phosphate mineral

#

• Belovite group
• Xenotime group

A

• Abenakiite-(Ce)
• Abuite
• Afmite
• Aheylite
• Aldermanite
• Alforsite
• Allanpringite
• Alluaudite
• Althausite
• Althupite
• Amblygonite
• Anapaite
• Apatite
• Archerite
• Arctite
• Arthurite
• Atencioite
• Augelite
• Autunite

B

• Babefphite
• Belovite-(Ce)
• Belovite-(La)
• Beraunite
• Bergenite
• Berlinite
• Beryllonite
• Bisbee Blue
• Bobfergusonite
• Brazilianite
• Brianite
• Brockite
• Brushite

C

• Cacoxenite
• Cattiite
• Changesite–(Y)
• Cheralite
• Childrenite
• Coconinoite
• Collinsite
• Corkite
• Cornetite
• Crandallite
• Cyrilovite

D

• Delvauxite
• Diadochite
• Dyrnaesite-(La)

E

• Eosphorite

F

• Falsterite
• Faustite
• Ferraioloite
• Florencite-(Sm)
• Fluellite
• Fluorapatite
• Fluorcaphite
• Fluorcarmoite-(BaNa)
• Fluorwavellite
• Francolite

G

• Gatehouseite
• Gormanite
• Graftonite
• Grayite
• Greifensteinite

H

• Hagendorfite
• Hazenite
• Herderite
• Hopeite
• Hotsonite
• Hureaulite
• Hydroxyapatite

K

• Kidwellite
• Kolbeckite
• Kosnarite
• Kovdorskite

L

• Lazulite
• Leucophosphite
• Libethenite
• Lipscombite
• Lithiophilite
• Lithiophosphate
• Lomonosovite
• Ludlamite
• Lulzacite

M

• Malhmoodite
• Maneckiite
• Merrillite
• Messelite
• Metatorbernite
• Metavivianite
• Minyulite
• Monazite
• Monazite-(Ce)
• Monazite-(La)
• Monazite-(Nd)
• Monazite-(Sm)
• Montgomeryite
• Mundite

N

• Natrophilite
• Nevadaite
• Nissonite

O

• Odontolite
• Olgite

P

• Panethite
• Parsonsite
• Penikisite
• Perhamite
• Phosphophyllite
• Phosphorite
• Phosphuranylite
• Plumbogummite
• Pseudomalachite
• Purpurite
• Pyromorphite

R

• Rashleighite
• Robertsite
• Rockbridgeite

S

• Saleeite
• Sampleite
• Samuelsonite
• Santabarbaraite
• Satterlyite
• Scorzalite
• Seamanite
• Segelerite
• Senegalite
• Sengierite
• Serrabrancaite
• Sincosite
• Sinkankasite
• Skorpionite
• Maricite
• Spheniscidite
• Steinmetzite
• Stercorite
• Stracherite
• Strengite
• Strunzite
• Struvite
• Svanbergite
• Switzerite

T

• Taranakite
• Tarbuttite
• Torbernite
• Triphylite
• Triplite
• Triploidite
• Tsumebite
• Turquoise

U

• Ulrichite
• Upalite
• Uranocircite

V

• Vantasselite
• Variscite
• Vauquelinite
• Vauxite
• Väyrynenite
• Vivianite
• Volborthite

W

• Wagnerite
• Wardite
• Waterhouseite
• Wavellite
• Whiteite
• Whitlockite
• Wilancookite
• Woodhouseite

X

• Xanthoxenite
• Xenophyllite
• Xenotime
• Xiangjiangite
• Ximengite

Y

• Yingjiangite

Z

• Zadovite
• Zaïrite
• Zanazziite
• Zigrasite
• Zinclipscombite
• Zincoberaunite

Categories:

• Classification of minerals
• Phosphates

Hidden categories:

• Commons category link is on Wikidata

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Phosphate_minerals

 The Holocene ( /ˈhɒl.əˌsiːn, ˈhɒl.oʊ-, ˈhoʊ.lə-, ˈhoʊ.loʊ-/ )^[2][3] is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years before present (c. 9700 BCE), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat.^[4] The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene^[5] together form the Quaternary period. The Holocene has been identified with the current warm period, known as MIS 1. It is considered by some to be an interglacial period within the Pleistocene Epoch, called the Flandrian interglacial.^[6]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene}

Units in geochronology and stratigraphy^[3]

Segments of rock (strata) in chronostratigraphy	Time spans in geochronology	Notes to geochronological units
Eonothem	Eon	4 total, half a billion years or more
Erathem	Era	10 defined, several hundred million years
System	Period	22 defined, tens to ~one hundred million years
Series	Epoch	34 defined, tens of millions of years
Stage	Age	99 defined, millions of years
Chronozone	Chron	subdivision of an age, not used by the ICS timescale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem

Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion (also antiproton-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion) is a variation of nuclear pulse propulsion based upon the injection of antimatter into a mass of nuclear fuel to initiate a nuclear chain reaction for propulsion when the fuel does not normally have a critical mass.

Technically, the process is not a '"catalyzed'" reaction because anti-protons (antimatter) used to start the reaction are consumed; if they were present as a catalyst the particles would be unchanged by the process and used to initiate further reactions. Although antimatter particles may be produced by the reaction itself, they are not used to initiate or sustain chain reactions.^[1][2] 

Description

Typical nuclear pulse propulsion has the downside that the minimal size of the engine is defined by the minimal size of the nuclear bombs used to create thrust, which is a function of the amount of critical mass required to initiate the reaction. A conventional thermonuclear bomb design consists of two parts: the primary, which is almost always based on plutonium, and a secondary using fusion fuel, which is normally deuterium in the form of lithium deuteride, and tritium (which is created during the reaction as lithium is transmuted to tritium). There is a minimal size for the primary (about 10 kilograms for plutonium-239) to achieve critical mass. More powerful devices scale up in size primarily through the addition of fusion fuel for the secondary. Of the two, the fusion fuel is much less expensive and gives off far fewer radioactive products, so from a cost and efficiency standpoint, larger bombs are much more efficient. However, using such large bombs for spacecraft propulsion demands much larger structures able to handle the stress. There is a tradeoff between the two demands.

By injecting a small amount of antimatter into a subcritical mass of fuel (typically plutonium or uranium) fission of the fuel can be forced. An anti-proton has a negative electric charge, just like an electron, and can be captured in a similar way by a positively charged atomic nucleus. The initial configuration, however, is not stable and radiates energy as gamma rays. As a consequence, the anti-proton moves closer and closer to the nucleus until their quarks can interact, at which point the anti-proton and a proton are both annihilated. This reaction releases a tremendous amount of energy, of which some is released as gamma rays and some is transferred as kinetic energy to the nucleus, causing it to split (the fission reaction). The resulting shower of neutrons can cause the surrounding fuel to undergo rapid fission or even nuclear fusion.

The lower limit of the device size is determined by anti-proton handling issues and fission reaction requirements, such as the structure used to contain and direct the blast. As such, unlike either the Project Orion-type propulsion system, which requires large numbers of nuclear explosive charges, or the various anti-matter drives, which require impossibly expensive amounts of antimatter, antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion has intrinsic advantages.^[3]

A conceptual design of an antimatter-catalyzed thermonuclear explosive physics package is one in which the primary mass of plutonium usually necessary for the ignition in a conventional Teller–Ulam thermonuclear explosion, is replaced by one microgram of antihydrogen. In this theoretical design, the antimatter is helium-cooled and magnetically levitated in the center of the device, in the form of a pellet a tenth of a millimeter in diameter, a position analogous to the primary fission core in the layer cake/Sloika design.^[4][5] As the antimatter must remain away from ordinary matter until the desired moment of the explosion, the central pellet must be isolated from the surrounding hollow sphere of 100 grams of thermonuclear fuel. During and after the implosive compression by the high-explosive lenses, the fusion fuel comes into contact with the antihydrogen. Annihilation reactions, which would start soon after the Penning trap is destroyed, is to provide the energy to begin the nuclear fusion in the thermonuclear fuel. If the chosen degree of compression is high, a device with increased explosive/propulsive effects is obtained, and if it is low, that is, the fuel is not at high density, a considerable number of neutrons will escape the device, and a neutron bomb forms. In both cases the electromagnetic pulse effect and the radioactive fallout are substantially lower than that of a conventional fission or Teller–Ulam device of the same yield, approximately 1 kt.^[6]

Amount needed for thermonuclear device

The number of antiprotons required for triggering one thermonuclear explosion were calculated in 2005 to be 10¹⁸, which means microgram amounts of antihydrogen.^[7]

Tuning of the performance of a space vehicle is also possible. Rocket efficiency is strongly related to the mass of the working mass used, which in this case is the nuclear fuel. The energy released by a given mass of fusion fuel is several times larger than that released by the same mass of a fission fuel. For missions requiring short periods of high thrust, such as crewed interplanetary missions, pure microfission might be preferred because it reduces the number of fuel elements needed. For missions with longer periods of higher efficiency but with lower thrust, such as outer-planet probes, a combination of microfission and fusion might be preferred because it would reduce the total fuel mass.

Research

The concept was invented at Pennsylvania State University before 1992. Since then, several groups have studied antimatter-catalyzed micro fission/fusion engines in the lab.^[8] Work has been performed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory on antiproton-initiated fusion as early as 2004.^[9] In contrast to the large mass, complexity and recirculating power of conventional drivers for inertial confinement fusion (ICF), antiproton annihilation offers a specific energy of 90 MJ/µg and thus a unique form of energy packaging and delivery. In principle, antiproton drivers could provide a profound reduction in system mass for advanced space propulsion by ICF.

Antiproton-driven ICF is a speculative concept, and the handling of antiprotons and their required injection precision—temporally and spatially—will present significant technical challenges. The storage and manipulation of low-energy antiprotons, particularly in the form of antihydrogen, is a science in its infancy, and a large scale-up of antiproton production over present supply methods would be required to embark on a serious R&D programme for such applications.

A record for antimatter storage of just over 1000 seconds, performed in the CERN facility, during 2011, was at the time a monumental leap from the millisecond timescales that previously were achievable.^[10]

Total world-wide production of anti-protons in a period of a year is in the range of nanograms. The anti-matter trap (Mark 1 version) at Penn State University has the capacity for the storage of 10 billion for a period of approximately 168 hours. Project Icarus has given the estimated potential cost of production of 1 milligram of anti-proton as $100 billion.^[11]

See also

• AIMStar
• Antimatter rocket
• Antimatter weapon
• ICAN-II
• Nuclear pulse propulsion

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatter-catalyzed_nuclear_pulse_propulsion

 An antimatter weapon is a theoretically possible device using antimatter as a power source, a propellant, or an explosive for a weapon. Antimatter weapons are currently too costly and unreliable to be viable in warfare, as producing antimatter is enormously expensive (estimated at $6 billion for every 100 nanograms), the quantities of antimatter generated are very small, and current technology has great difficulty containing antimatter, which annihilates upon touching ordinary matter.^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatter_weapon}

 

Categories:

• Antimatter
• Proposed weapons
• Fictional energy weapons

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatter_weapon

"Sixth Extinction" redirects here. For other uses, see Sixth Extinction (disambiguation).

The dodo became extinct during the mid-to-late 17th century due to habitat destruction, overhunting, and predation by introduced mammals.^[1] It is an often-cited example of a modern extinction.^[2]

The Holocene extinction or Anthropocene extinction,^[3][4] is the ongoing extinction event during the Holocene epoch. The extinctions span numerous families of bacteria, fungi, plants,^[5][6][7] and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and affecting not just terrestrial species but also large sectors of marine life.^[8] With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, which goes unrecorded. The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates^{[9][10][11][12]} and increasing.^[13]

During the past 100–200 years, biodiversity loss and species extinction have accelerated^[10] to the point that most conservation biologists now believe that humankind has either entered a period of mass extinction,^[14][15] or is on the cusp of doing so.^[16][17] As such, the event has also been referred to as the sixth mass extinction or sixth extinction.^[18]

The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna, starting at the end of the last glacial period. Megafauna outside of the African mainland, which did not evolve alongside humans, proved highly sensitive to the introduction of human predation, and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth.^[19][20] Many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene, along with species in North America, South America, and Australia, but – with some exceptions – the megafauna of the Eurasian mainland was largely unaffected until a few hundred years ago.^[21] These extinctions, occurring near the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event.

The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions as the Holocene extinction coincides with human colonization of many new areas around the world. Although there is debate regarding how much human predation and habitat loss affected their decline, certain population declines have been directly correlated with the onset of human activity, such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii. Aside from humans, climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions, especially at the end of the Pleistocene.

In the twentieth century, human numbers quadrupled, and the size of the global economy increased twenty-five-fold.^[22][23] This Great Acceleration or Anthropocene Epoch has also accelerated species extinction.^[24][25] Ecologically, humanity is now an unprecedented "global superpredator"^[26] that consistently preys on the adults of other apex predators, takes over other species' essential habitats and displaces them,^[27] and has worldwide effects on food webs.^[28] There have been extinctions of species on every land mass and in every ocean: there are many famous examples within Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, North and South America, and on smaller islands.

Overall, the Holocene extinction can be linked to the human impact on the environment. The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century, with human population growth, increasing per capita consumption^{[10][29][30][31]} and meat production^{[32][33][34][35][36][37]} being the primary drivers of mass extinction. Deforestation,^[32] overfishing, ocean acidification, the destruction of wetlands,^[38] and the decline in amphibian populations^[39] are a few broader examples of global biodiversity loss. 

Contents

• 1 Background
• 2 Overview
  • 2.1 Extinction rate
  • 2.2 Attribution
  • 2.3 Scientific debate
  • 2.4 Anthropocene
  • 2.5 Human ecology
• 3 Historic extinction
  • 3.1 Human activity
    • 3.1.1 Activities contributing to extinctions
    • 3.1.2 Agriculture and climate change
  • 3.2 Climate change
    • 3.2.1 Megafaunal extinction
  • 3.3 Disease
• 4 Contemporary extinction
  • 4.1 History
  • 4.2 Recent extinction
  • 4.3 Habitat destruction
  • 4.4 Climate change
  • 4.5 Overexploitation
  • 4.6 Disease
• 5 By region
  • 5.1 Afroeurasia
  • 5.2 Americas
  • 5.3 Australia
  • 5.4 Caribbean
  • 5.5 Macaronesia
  • 5.6 Pacific
  • 5.7 Madagascar
  • 5.8 New Zealand
• 6 Mitigation
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes
• 9 References
• 10 Further reading
• 11 External links

Background

Marine extinction intensity during the Phanerozoic

%

Millions of years ago

(H)

K–Pg

Tr–J

P–Tr

Cap

Late D

O–S

The percentage of marine animal extinction at the genus level through the five mass extinctions

Mass extinctions are characterized by the loss of at least 75% of species within a geologically short^[quantify] period of time.^[17][40] The Holocene extinction is also known as the "sixth extinction", as it is possibly the sixth mass extinction event, after the Ordovician–Silurian extinction events, the Late Devonian extinction, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.^{[32][41][13][29][42][43]}

The Holocene is the current geological epoch.

Overview

There is no general agreement on where the Holocene, or anthropogenic, extinction begins, and the Quaternary extinction event, which includes climate change resulting in the end of the last ice age, ends, or if they should be considered separate events at all.^[44][45] The Holocene extinction is mainly caused by human activities.^{[41][10][43][46]} Some have suggested that anthropogenic extinctions may have begun as early as when the first modern humans spread out of Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago; this is supported by rapid megafaunal extinction following recent human colonisation in Australia, New Zealand and Madagascar.^[42] In many cases, it is suggested that even minimal hunting pressure was enough to wipe out large fauna, particularly on geographically isolated islands.^[47][48] Only during the most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses.^{[49][better source needed]}

Extinction rate

The contemporary rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than the background extinction rate, the historically typical rate of extinction (in terms of the natural evolution of the planet);^[11][12][50] also, the current rate of extinction is 10 to 100 times higher than in any of the previous mass extinctions in the history of Earth. One scientist estimates the current extinction rate may be 10,000 times the background extinction rate, although most scientists predict a much lower extinction rate than this outlying estimate.^[51] Theoretical ecologist Stuart Pimm stated that the extinction rate for plants is 100 times higher than normal.^[52]

Some contend that contemporary extinction has yet to reach the level of the previous five mass extinctions,^[53] and that this comparison downplays how severe the first five mass extinctions were.^[54] John Briggs argues that there is inadequate data to determine the real rate of extinctions, and shows that estimates of current species extinctions varies enormously, ranging from 1.5 species to 40,000 species going extinct due to human activities each year.^[55] Both papers from Barnosky et al. (2011) and Hull et al. (2015) point out that the real rate of extinction during previous mass extinctions is unknown, both as only some organisms leave fossil remains, and as the temporal resolution of the fossil layer is larger than the time frame of the extinction events.^[17][56] However, all these authors agree that there is a modern biodiversity crisis with population declines affecting numerous species, and that a future anthropogenic mass extinction event is a big risk. The 2011 study by Barnosky et al. confirms that "current extinction rates are higher than would be expected from the fossil record" and adds that anthropogenic ecological stressors, including climate change, habitat fragmentation, pollution, overfishing, overhunting, invasive species and expanding human biomass will intensify and accelerate extinction rates in the future without significant mitigation efforts.^[17]

In The Future of Life (2002), Edward Osborne Wilson of Harvard calculated that, if the current rate of human disruption of the biosphere continues, one-half of Earth's higher lifeforms will be extinct by 2100. A 1998 poll conducted by the American Museum of Natural History found that 70% of biologists acknowledge an ongoing anthropogenic extinction event.^[57]

In a pair of studies published in 2015, extrapolation from observed extinction of Hawaiian snails led to the conclusion that 7% of all species on Earth may have been lost already.^[58][59] A 2021 study published in the journal Frontiers in Forests and Global Change found that only around 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and faunally intact, meaning areas with healthy populations of native animal species and little to no human footprint.^[60][61]

The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, published by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), posits that roughly one million species of plants and animals face extinction within decades as the result of human actions.^{[31][62][63][64]} Organized human existence is jeopardized by increasingly rapid destruction of the systems that support life on Earth, according to the report, the result of one of the most comprehensive studies of the health of the planet ever conducted.^[65] Moreover, the 2021 Economics of Biodiversity review, published by the UK government, asserts that "biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history."^[66][67] According to a 2022 study published in Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, a survey of more than 3,000 experts says that the extent of the mass extinction might be greater than previously thought, and estimates that roughly 30% of species "have been globally threatened or driven extinct since the year 1500."^[68][69] In a 2022 report, IPBES listed unsustainable fishing, hunting and logging as being some of the primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.^[70]

Attribution

We are currently, in a systematic manner, exterminating all non-human living beings.

—Anne Larigauderie, IPBES executive secretary^[71]

There is widespread consensus among scientists that human activity is accelerating the extinction of many animal species through the destruction of habitats, the consumption of animals as resources, and the elimination of species that humans view as threats or competitors.^[46] That humans have become the primary driver of modern extinctions is undeniable, rising extinction trends impacting numerous animal groups including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians have prompted scientists to declare a biodiversity crisis.^[72]

Scientific debate

Characterisation of recent extinction as a mass extinction has been debated among scientists. Stuart Pimm, for example, asserts that the sixth mass extinction "is something that hasn't happened yet – we are on the edge of it."^[73] Several studies posit that the earth has entered a sixth mass extinction event,^{[41][39][29][74]} including a 2015 paper by Barnosky et al.^[13] and a November 2017 statement titled "World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice", led by eight authors and signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries which asserted that, among other things, "we have unleashed a mass extinction event, the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be extirpated or at least committed to extinction by the end of this century."^[32] The World Wide Fund for Nature's 2020 Living Planet Report says that wildlife populations have declined by 68% since 1970 as a result of overconsumption, population growth and intensive farming, which is further evidence that humans have unleashed a sixth mass extinction event; however, this finding has been disputed by one 2020 study, which posits that this major decline was primarily driven by a few extreme outlier populations, and that when these outliers are removed, the trend shifts to that of a decline between the 1980s and 2000s, but a roughly positive trend after 2000.^{[75][76][77][78]} A 2021 report in Frontiers in Conservation Science which cites both of the aforementioned studies, says "population sizes of vertebrate species that have been monitored across years have declined by an average of 68% over the last five decades, with certain population clusters in extreme decline, thus presaging the imminent extinction of their species," and asserts "that we are already on the path of a sixth major extinction is now scientifically undeniable."^[79] A 2022 study published in Biological Reviews builds upon previous studies documenting biodiversity decline to assert that a sixth mass extinction event caused by anthropogenic activity is currently underway.^[80][81]

According to the UNDP's 2020 Human Development Report, The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene:

The planet's biodiversity is plunging, with a quarter of species facing extinction, many within decades. Numerous experts believe we are living through, or on the cusp of, a mass species extinction event, the sixth in the history of the planet and the first to be caused by a single organism—us.^[82]

The 2022 Living Planet Report found that vertebrate wildlife populations have plummeted by an average of almost 70% since 1970, with agriculture and fishing being the primary drivers of this decline.^[83][84]

Some scientists, including Rodolfo Dirzo and Paul R. Ehrlich, contend that the sixth mass extinction is largely unknown to most people globally, and is also misunderstood by many in the scientific community. They say it is not the disappearance of species, which gets the most attention, that is at the heart of the crisis, but "the existential threat of myriad population extinctions."^[85]

Anthropocene

Main article: Anthropocene

A diagram showing the ecological processes of coral reefs before and during the Anthropocene

The abundance of species extinctions considered anthropogenic, or due to human activity, has sometimes (especially when referring to hypothesized future events) been collectively called the "Anthropocene extinction".^[46][86][87] Anthropocene is a term introduced in 2000.^[88][89] Some now postulate that a new geological epoch has begun, with the most abrupt and widespread extinction of species since the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago.^[42]

The term "anthropocene" is being used more frequently by scientists, and some commentators may refer to the current and projected future extinctions as part of a longer Holocene extinction.^[90][91] The Holocene–Anthropocene boundary is contested, with some commentators asserting significant human influence on climate for much of what is normally regarded as the Holocene Epoch.^[92] Other commentators place the Holocene–Anthropocene boundary at the industrial revolution and also say that "[f]ormal adoption of this term in the near future will largely depend on its utility, particularly to earth scientists working on late Holocene successions."

It has been suggested that human activity has made the period starting from the mid-20th century different enough from the rest of the Holocene to consider it a new geological epoch, known as the Anthropocene,^[93][94] a term which was considered for inclusion in the timeline of Earth's history by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in 2016.^[95][96] In order to constitute the Holocene as an extinction event, scientists must determine exactly when anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions began to measurably alter natural atmospheric levels on a global scale, and when these alterations caused changes to global climate. Using chemical proxies from Antarctic ice cores, researchers have estimated the fluctuations of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) gases in the Earth's atmosphere during the late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs.^[92] Estimates of the fluctuations of these two gases in the atmosphere, using chemical proxies from Antarctic ice cores, generally indicate that the peak of the Anthropocene occurred within the previous two centuries: typically beginning with the Industrial Revolution, when the highest greenhouse gas levels were recorded.^[97][98]

Human ecology

Further information: Human ecology

A 2015 article in Science suggested that humans are unique in ecology as an unprecedented "global superpredator", regularly preying on large numbers of fully grown terrestrial and marine apex predators, and with a great deal of influence over food webs and climatic systems worldwide.^[26] Although significant debate exists as to how much human predation and indirect effects contributed to prehistoric extinctions, certain population crashes have been directly correlated with human arrival.^{[20][42][45][46]} Human activity has been the main cause of mammalian extinctions since the Late Pleistocene.^[72] A 2018 study published in PNAS found that since the dawn of human civilization, the biomass of wild mammals has decreased by 83%. The biomass decrease is 80% for marine mammals, 50% for plants and 15% for fish. Currently, livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%). As for birds, 70% are domesticated, such as poultry, whereas only 30% are wild.^[99][100]

Historic extinction

See also: Megafaunal mass extinctions and Quaternary extinction

Human activity

Activities contributing to extinctions

The percentage of megafauna on different land masses over time, with the arrival of humans indicated.

Extinction of animals, plants, and other organisms caused by human actions may go as far back as the late Pleistocene, over 12,000 years ago.^[46] There is a correlation between megafaunal extinction and the arrival of humans.^{[101][102][103]} Over the past 125,000 years, the average body size of wildlife has fallen by 14% as human actions eradicated megafauna on all continents with the exception of Africa.^[104]

Human civilization was founded on and grew from agriculture.^[105] The more land used for farming, the greater the population a civilization could sustain,^[92][105] and subsequent popularization of farming led to habitat conversion.^[10]

Habitat destruction by humans, thus replacing the original local ecosystems, is a major driver of extinction.^[106] The sustained conversion of biodiversity rich forests and wetlands into poorer fields and pastures (of lesser carrying capacity for wild species), over the last 10,000 years, has considerably reduced the Earth's carrying capacity for wild birds, among other organisms, in both population size and species count.^{[107][108][109]}

Other, related human causes of the extinction event include deforestation, hunting, pollution,^[110] the introduction in various regions of non-native species, and the widespread transmission of infectious diseases spread through livestock and crops.^[50]

Agriculture and climate change

Recent investigations into the practice of landscape burning during the Neolithic Revolution has a major implication for the current debate about the timing of the Anthropocene and the role that humans may have played in the production of greenhouse gases prior to the Industrial Revolution.^[105] Studies of early hunter-gatherers raise questions about the current use of population size or density as a proxy for the amount of land clearance and anthropogenic burning that took place in pre-industrial times.^[111][112] Scientists have questioned the correlation between population size and early territorial alterations.^[112] Ruddiman and Ellis' research paper in 2009 makes the case that early farmers involved in systems of agriculture used more land per capita than growers later in the Holocene, who intensified their labor to produce more food per unit of area (thus, per laborer); arguing that agricultural involvement in rice production implemented thousands of years ago by relatively small populations have created significant environmental impacts through large-scale means of deforestation.^[105]

While a number of human-derived factors are recognized as contributing to rising atmospheric concentrations of CH₄ (methane) and CO₂ (carbon dioxide), deforestation and territorial clearance practices associated with agricultural development may be contributing most to these concentrations globally.^{[97][105][113]} Scientists that are employing a variance of archaeological and paleoecological data argue that the processes contributing to substantial human modification of the environment spanned many thousands of years on a global scale and thus, not originating as late as the Industrial Revolution. Gaining popularity on his uncommon hypothesis, palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman in 2003, has argued that in the early Holocene 11,000 years ago, atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane levels fluctuated in a pattern which was different from the Pleistocene epoch before it.^{[92][111][113]} He argued that the patterns of the significant decline of CO₂ levels during the last ice age of the Pleistocene inversely correlates to the Holocene where there have been dramatic increases of CO₂ around 8000 years ago and CH₄ levels 3000 years after that.^[113] The correlation between the decrease of CO₂ in the Pleistocene and the increase of it during the Holocene implies that the causation of this spark of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere was the growth of human agriculture during the Holocene such as the anthropogenic expansion of (human) land use and irrigation.^[92][113]

Climate change

Top: Arid ice age climate

Middle: Atlantic Period, warm and wet

Bottom: Potential vegetation in climate now if not for human effects like agriculture.^[114]

One of the main theories for the extinction's cause is historic climate change. The climate change theory has suggested that a change in climate near the end of the late Pleistocene stressed the megafauna to the point of extinction.^[90][115] Some scientists favor abrupt climate change as the catalyst for the extinction of the mega-fauna at the end of the Pleistocene, but there are many who believe increased hunting from early modern humans also played a part, with others even suggesting that the two interacted.^{[42][116][117]} However, the annual mean temperature of the current interglacial period for the last 10,000 years is no higher than that of previous interglacial periods, yet some of the same megafauna survived similar temperature increases.^{[118][119][120][121][122][123][excessive citations]} In the Americas, a controversial explanation for the shift in climate is presented under the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis, which states that the impact of comets cooled global temperatures.^[124][125]

A 2020 study published in Science Advances found that human population size and/or specific human activities, not climate change, caused rapidly rising global mammal extinction rates during the past 126,000 years. Around 96% of all mammalian extinctions over this time period are attributable to human impacts. According to Tobias Andermann, lead author of the study, "these extinctions did not happen continuously and at constant pace. Instead, bursts of extinctions are detected across different continents at times when humans first reached them. More recently, the magnitude of human driven extinctions has picked up the pace again, this time on a global scale."^[126][72]

Megafaunal extinction

Megafauna play a significant role in the lateral transport of mineral nutrients in an ecosystem, tending to translocate them from areas of high to those of lower abundance. They do so by their movement between the time they consume the nutrient and the time they release it through elimination (or, to a much lesser extent, through decomposition after death).^[127] In South America's Amazon Basin, it is estimated that such lateral diffusion was reduced over 98% following the megafaunal extinctions that occurred roughly 12,500 years ago.^[128][129] Given that phosphorus availability is thought to limit productivity in much of the region, the decrease in its transport from the western part of the basin and from floodplains (both of which derive their supply from the uplift of the Andes) to other areas is thought to have significantly impacted the region's ecology, and the effects may not yet have reached their limits.^[129] The extinction of the mammoths allowed grasslands they had maintained through grazing habits to become birch forests.^[44] The new forest and the resulting forest fires may have induced climate change.^[44] Such disappearances might be the result of the proliferation of modern humans; some recent studies favor this theory.^[46][130]

Large populations of megaherbivores have the potential to contribute greatly to the atmospheric concentration of methane, which is an important greenhouse gas. Modern ruminant herbivores produce methane as a byproduct of foregut fermentation in digestion, and release it through belching or flatulence. Today, around 20% of annual methane emissions come from livestock methane release. In the Mesozoic, it has been estimated that sauropods could have emitted 520 million tons of methane to the atmosphere annually,^[131] contributing to the warmer climate of the time (up to 10 °C warmer than at present).^[131][132] This large emission follows from the enormous estimated biomass of sauropods, and because methane production of individual herbivores is believed to be almost proportional to their mass.^[131]

Recent studies have indicated that the extinction of megafaunal herbivores may have caused a reduction in atmospheric methane. This hypothesis is relatively new.^[133] One study examined the methane emissions from the bison that occupied the Great Plains of North America before contact with European settlers. The study estimated that the removal of the bison caused a decrease of as much as 2.2 million tons per year.^[134] Another study examined the change in the methane concentration in the atmosphere at the end of the Pleistocene epoch after the extinction of megafauna in the Americas. After early humans migrated to the Americas about 13,000 BP, their hunting and other associated ecological impacts led to the extinction of many megafaunal species there. Calculations suggest that this extinction decreased methane production by about 9.6 million tons per year. This suggests that the absence of megafaunal methane emissions may have contributed to the abrupt climatic cooling at the onset of the Younger Dryas.^[133] The decrease in atmospheric methane that occurred at that time, as recorded in ice cores, was 2–4 times more rapid than any other decrease in the last half million years, suggesting that an unusual mechanism was at work.^[133]

Disease

The hyperdisease hypothesis, proposed by Ross MacPhee in 1997, states that the megafaunal die-off was due to an indirect transmission of diseases by newly arriving humans.^[135][136] According to MacPhee, aboriginals or animals travelling with them, such as domestic dogs or livestock, introduced one or more highly virulent diseases into new environments whose native population had no immunity to them, eventually leading to their extinction. K-selection animals, such as the now-extinct megafauna, are especially vulnerable to diseases, as opposed to r-selection animals who have a shorter gestation period and a higher population size. Humans are thought to be the sole cause as other earlier migrations of animals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.^[135]

There are many problems with this theory, as this disease would have to meet several criteria: it has to be able to sustain itself in an environment with no hosts; it has to have a high infection rate; and be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of 50–75%. Disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a species, and even such a virulent disease as West Nile fever is unlikely to have caused extinction.^[137]

However, diseases have been the cause for some extinctions. The introduction of avian malaria and avipoxvirus, for example, have had a negative impact on the endemic birds of Hawaii.^[138]

Contemporary extinction

Further information: Biodiversity loss and Human impact on the environment

History

There are roughly 880 mountain gorillas remaining. 60% of primate species face an anthropogenically driven extinction crisis and 75% have declining populations.^[139]

Contemporary human population size^[27][140] and growth, along with per-capita consumption growth, prominently in the past two centuries, are regarded as the underlying causes of extinction.^{[10][13][29][31][79]}

The loss of animal species from ecological communities, defaunation, is primarily driven by human activity.^[41] This has resulted in empty forests, ecological communities depleted of large vertebrates.^[46][141] This is not to be confused with extinction, as it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance.^[142] Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas, Brazil in 1988 in the context of Neotropical forests.^[143] Since then, the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon.^[41][143]

Some scholars assert that the emergence of capitalism as the dominant economic system has accelerated ecological exploitation and destruction,^[144][145] and has also exacerbated mass species extinction.^[146] CUNY professor David Harvey, for example, posits that the neoliberal era "happens to be the era of the fastest mass extinction of species in the Earth's recent history".^[147] Major lobbying organizations representing corporations in the agriculture, fisheries, forestry and paper, mining, and oil and gas industries, including the United States Chamber of Commerce, have been pushing back against legislation that could address the extinction crisis. A 2022 report by the climate think tank InfluenceMap stated that "although industry associations, especially in the US, appear reluctant to discuss the biodiversity crisis, they are clearly engaged on a wide range of policies with significant impacts on biodiversity loss."^[148]

Big cat populations have severely declined over the last half-century and could face extinction in the following decades. According to 2011 IUCN estimates: lions are down to 25,000, from 450,000; leopards are down to 50,000, from 750,000; cheetahs are down to 12,000, from 45,000; tigers are down to 3,000 in the wild, from 50,000.^[149] A December 2016 study by the Zoological Society of London, Panthera Corporation and Wildlife Conservation Society showed that cheetahs are far closer to extinction than previously thought, with only 7,100 remaining in the wild, existing within only 9% of their historic range.^[150] Human pressures are to blame for the cheetah population crash, including prey loss due to overhunting by people, retaliatory killing from farmers, habitat loss and the illegal wildlife trade.^[151]

We are seeing the effects of 7 billion people on the planet. At present rates, we will lose the big cats in 10 to 15 years.

— Naturalist Dereck Joubert, co-founder of the National Geographic Big Cats Initiative^[149]

The term pollinator decline refers to the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide beginning at the end of the twentieth century, and continuing into the present day.^[152] Pollinators, which are necessary for 75% of food crops, are declining globally in both abundance and diversity.^[153] A 2017 study led by Radboud University's Hans de Kroon indicated that the biomass of insect life in Germany had declined by three-quarters in the previous 25 years. Participating researcher Dave Goulson of Sussex University stated that their study suggested that humans are making large parts of the planet uninhabitable for wildlife. Goulson characterized the situation as an approaching "ecological Armageddon", adding that "if we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse."^[154] A 2019 study found that over 40% of insect species are threatened with extinction.^[155] The most significant drivers in the decline of insect populations are associated with intensive farming practices, along with pesticide use and climate change.^[156] The world's insect population decreases by around 1 to 2 per cent per year.^[157]

We have driven the rate of biological extinction, the permanent loss of species, up several hundred times beyond its historical levels, and are threatened with the loss of a majority of all species by the end of the 21st century.

— Peter Raven, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), in the foreword to their publication AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment^[158]

Angalifu, a male northern white rhinoceros at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park (died December 2014).^[159] Sudan, the last male of the subspecies died on March 19, 2018.^[160]

Various species are predicted to become extinct in the near future,^[161] among them the rhinoceros,^[162][163] nonhuman primates,^[139] pangolins,^[164] and giraffes.^[165][166] Hunting alone threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world.^{[167][168][169]} The direct killing of megafauna for meat and body parts is the primary driver of their destruction, with 70% of the 362 megafauna species in decline as of 2019.^[170][171] Mammals in particular have suffered such severe losses as the result of human activity that it could take several million years for them to recover.^[172][173] Contemporary assessments have discovered that roughly 41% of amphibians, 25% of mammals, 21% of reptiles and 14% of birds are threatened with extinction, which could disrupt ecosystems on a global scale and eliminate billions of years of phylogenetic diversity.^[174][175] 189 countries, which are signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio Accord),^[176] have committed to preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan, a first step at identifying specific endangered species and habitats, country by country^{[needs update]}.^[177]

For the first time since the demise of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, we face a global mass extinction of wildlife. We ignore the decline of other species at our peril – for they are the barometer that reveals our impact on the world that sustains us.

— Mike Barrett, director of science and policy at WWF's UK branch^[178]

Recent extinction

See also: IUCN Red List extinct in the wild species, List of endangered species, and List of critically endangered species

Share of species threatened with extinction as of 2019.

Recent extinctions are more directly attributable to human influences, whereas prehistoric extinctions can be attributed to other factors, such as global climate change.^[41][13] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) characterises 'recent' extinction as those that have occurred past the cut-off point of 1500,^[179] and at least 875 plant and animal species have gone extinct since that time and 2009.^[180] Some species, such as the Père David's deer^[181] and the Hawaiian crow,^[182] are extinct in the wild, and survive solely in captive populations. Other populations are only locally extinct (extirpated), still existent elsewhere, but reduced in distribution,^{[183]: 75–77} as with the extinction of gray whales in the Atlantic,^[184] and of the leatherback sea turtle in Malaysia.^[185]

Humans are rapidly driving the largest vertebrate animals towards extinction, and in the process interrupting a 66-million-year-old feature of ecosystems, the relationship between diet and body mass, which researchers suggest could have unpredictable consequences.^[186][187] A 2019 study published in Nature Communications found that rapid biodiversity loss is impacting larger mammals and birds to a much greater extent than smaller ones, with the body mass of such animals expected to shrink by 25% over the next century. Another 2019 study published in Biology Letters found that extinction rates are perhaps much higher than previously estimated, in particular for bird species.^[188]

The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services lists the primary causes of contemporary extinctions in descending order: (1) changes in land and sea use (primarily agriculture and overfishing respectively); (2) direct exploitation of organisms such as hunting; (3) anthropogenic climate change; (4) pollution and (5) invasive alien species spread by human trade.^[31] This report, along with the 2020 Living Planet Report by the WWF, both project that climate change will be the leading cause in the next several decades.^[31][77]

A June 2020 study published in PNAS posits that the contemporary extinction crisis "may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it is irreversible" and that its acceleration "is certain because of the still fast growth in human numbers and consumption rates." The study found that more than 500 vertebrate species are poised to be lost in the next two decades.^[74]

Habitat destruction

See also: Habitat destruction, Deforestation, and Environmental impact of agriculture

Biomass of mammals on Earth as of 2018^[99][100]

  Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs (60%)

  Humans (36%)

  Wild mammals (4%)

Humans both create and destroy crop cultivar and domesticated animal varieties. Advances in transportation and industrial farming has led to monoculture and the extinction of many cultivars. The use of certain plants and animals for food has also resulted in their extinction, including silphium and the passenger pigeon.^[189] It was estimated in 2012 that 13 percent of Earth's ice-free land surface is used as row-crop agricultural sites, 26 percent used as pastures, and 4 percent urban-industrial areas.^[190]

In March 2019, Nature Climate Change published a study by ecologists from Yale University, who found that over the next half century, human land use will reduce the habitats of 1,700 species by up to 50%, pushing them closer to extinction.^[191][192] That same month PLOS Biology published a similar study drawing on work at the University of Queensland, which found that "more than 1,200 species globally face threats to their survival in more than 90% of their habitat and will almost certainly face extinction without conservation intervention".^[193][194]

Since 1970, the populations of migratory freshwater fish have declined by 76%, according to research published by the Zoological Society of London in July 2020. Overall, around one in three freshwater fish species are threatened with extinction due to human-driven habitat degradation and overfishing.^[195]

Satellite image of rainforest converted to oil palm plantations.^[196]

Some scientists and academics assert that industrial agriculture and the growing demand for meat is contributing to significant global biodiversity loss as this is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as the Amazon region and Indonesia^[197][198] being converted to agriculture.^{[43][199][35][200][201]} A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) found that 60% of biodiversity loss can be attributed to the vast scale of feed crop cultivation required to rear tens of billions of farm animals.^[36] Moreover, a 2006 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Livestock's Long Shadow, also found that the livestock sector is a "leading player" in biodiversity loss.^[202] More recently, in 2019, the IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services attributed much of this ecological destruction to agriculture and fishing, with the meat and dairy industries having a very significant impact.^[33] Since the 1970s food production has soared in order to feed a growing human population and bolster economic growth, but at a huge price to the environment and other species. The report says some 25% of the earth's ice-free land is used for cattle grazing.^[65] A 2020 study published in Nature Communications warned that human impacts from housing, industrial agriculture and in particular meat consumption are wiping out a combined 50 billion years of earth's evolutionary history (defined as phylogenetic diversity^[a]) and driving to extinction some of the "most unique animals on the planet," among them the Aye-aye lemur, the Chinese crocodile lizard and the pangolin.^[203][204] Said lead author Rikki Gumbs:

We know from all the data we have for threatened species, that the biggest threats are agriculture expansion and the global demand for meat. Pasture land, and the clearing of rainforests for production of soy, for me, are the largest drivers – and the direct consumption of animals.^[203]

Climate change

Main articles: Extinction risk from climate change and Ocean acidification

Bramble Cay melomys were declared extinct in June 2016. This is the first recorded mammalian extinction due to anthropogenic climate change.^[205]

Climate change is expected to be a major driver of extinctions from the 21st century.^[31] Rising levels of carbon dioxide are resulting in influx of this gas into the ocean, increasing its acidity. Marine organisms which possess calcium carbonate shells or exoskeletons experience physiological pressure as the carbonate reacts with acid. For example, this is already resulting in coral bleaching on various coral reefs worldwide, which provide valuable habitat and maintain a high biodiversity. Marine gastropods, bivalves and other invertebrates are also affected, as are the organisms that feed on them.^{[206][better source needed]} Some studies have suggested that it is not climate change that is driving the current extinction crisis, but the demands of contemporary human civilization on nature.^[207][208]

Overexploitation

See also: Species affected by poaching and Overfishing

The vaquita, the world's most endangered marine mammal, was reduced to 30 individuals as of February 2017. They are often killed by commercial fishing nets.^[209] As of March 2019, only 10 remain, according to The International Committee for the Recovery of the Vaquita.^[210]

The collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery as a result of overfishing, and subsequent recovery.

Overhunting can reduce the local population of game animals by more than half, as well as reducing population density, and may lead to extinction for some species.^[211] Populations located nearer to villages are significantly more at risk of depletion.^[212][213] Several conservationist organizations, among them IFAW and HSUS, assert that trophy hunters, particularly from the United States, are playing a significant role in the decline of giraffes, which they refer to as a "silent extinction".^[214]

The surge in the mass killings by poachers involved in the illegal ivory trade along with habitat loss is threatening African elephant populations.^[215][216] In 1979, their populations stood at 1.7 million; at present there are fewer than 400,000 remaining.^[217] Prior to European colonization, scientists believe Africa was home to roughly 20 million elephants.^[218] According to the Great Elephant Census, 30% of African elephants (or 144,000 individuals) disappeared over a seven-year period, 2007 to 2014.^[216][219] African elephants could become extinct by 2035 if poaching rates continue.^[166]

Fishing has had a devastating effect on marine organism populations for several centuries even before the explosion of destructive and highly effective fishing practices like trawling.^[220] Humans are unique among predators in that they regularly prey on other adult apex predators, particularly in marine environments;^[26] bluefin tuna, blue whales, North Atlantic right whales^[221] and over fifty species of sharks and rays are vulnerable to predation pressure from human fishing, in particular commercial fishing.^[222] A 2016 study published in Science concludes that humans tend to hunt larger species, and this could disrupt ocean ecosystems for millions of years.^[223] A 2020 study published in Science Advances found that around 18% of marine megafauna, including iconic species such as the Great white shark, are at risk of extinction from human pressures over the next century. In a worst-case scenario, 40% could go extinct over the same time period.^[224] According to a 2021 study published in Nature, 71% of oceanic shark and ray populations have been destroyed by overfishing (the primary driver of ocean defaunation) from 1970 to 2018, and are nearing the "point of no return" as 24 of the 31 species are now threatened with extinction, with several being classified as critically endangered.^{[225][226][227]}

If this pattern goes unchecked, the future oceans would lack many of the largest species in today’s oceans. Many large species play critical roles in ecosystems and so their extinctions could lead to ecological cascades that would influence the structure and function of future ecosystems beyond the simple fact of losing those species.

— Jonathan Payne, associate professor and chair of geological sciences at Stanford University^[228]

Disease

See also: Decline in amphibian populations, White nose syndrome, Colony collapse disorder, and Pesticide toxicity to bees

The golden toad of Costa Rica, extinct since around 1989. Its disappearance has been attributed to a confluence of several factors, including El Niño warming, fungus, habitat loss and the introduction of invasive species.^[229]

Toughie, the last Rabbs' fringe-limbed treefrog, died in September 2016.^[230] The species was killed off by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis^[231]

The decline of amphibian populations has also been identified as an indicator of environmental degradation. As well as habitat loss, introduced predators and pollution, Chytridiomycosis, a fungal infection accidentally spread by human travel,^[42] globalization and the wildlife trade, has caused severe population drops of over 500 amphibian species, and perhaps 90 extinctions,^[232] including (among many others) the extinction of the golden toad in Costa Rica, the Gastric-brooding frog in Australia, the Rabb's fringe-limbed treefrog and the extinction of the Panamanian golden frog in the wild. Chytrid fungus has spread across Australia, New Zealand, Central America and Africa, including countries with high amphibian diversity such as cloud forests in Honduras and Madagascar. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is a similar infection currently threatening salamanders. Amphibians are now the most endangered vertebrate group, having existed for more than 300 million years through three other mass extinctions.^[42]: 17

Millions of bats in the US have been dying off since 2012 due to a fungal infection known as white-nose syndrome that spread from European bats, who appear to be immune. Population drops have been as great as 90% within five years, and extinction of at least one bat species is predicted. There is currently no form of treatment, and such declines have been described as "unprecedented" in bat evolutionary history by Alan Hicks of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.^[233]

Between 2007 and 2013, over ten million beehives were abandoned due to colony collapse disorder, which causes worker bees to abandon the queen.^[234] Though no single cause has gained widespread acceptance by the scientific community, proposals include infections with Varroa and Acarapis mites; malnutrition; various pathogens; genetic factors; immunodeficiencies; loss of habitat; changing beekeeping practices; or a combination of factors.^[235][236]

By region

Megafauna were once found on every continent of the world, but are now almost exclusively found on the continent of Africa. In some regions, megafauna experienced population crashes and trophic cascades shortly after the earliest human settlers.^[47][48] Worldwide, 178 species of the world's largest mammals died out between 52,000 and 9,000 BC; it has been suggested that a higher proportion of African megafauna survived because they evolved alongside humans.^[237][42] The timing of South American megafaunal extinction appears to precede human arrival, although the possibility that human activity at the time impacted the global climate enough to cause such an extinction has been suggested.^[42]

Afroeurasia

See also: List of African animals extinct in the Holocene, List of Asian animals extinct in the Holocene, and List of extinct animals of Europe

Africa experienced the smallest decline in megafauna compared to the other continents. This is presumably due to the idea that Afroeurasian megafauna evolved alongside humans, and thus developed a healthy fear of them, unlike the comparatively tame animals of other continents.^[237][238] Unlike other continents, the megafauna of Eurasia went extinct over a relatively long period of time, possibly due to climate fluctuations fragmenting and decreasing populations, leaving them vulnerable to over-exploitation, as with the steppe bison (Bison priscus).^[239] The warming of the arctic region caused the rapid decline of grasslands, which had a negative effect on the grazing megafauna of Eurasia. Most of what once was mammoth steppe was converted to mire, rendering the environment incapable of supporting them, notably the woolly mammoth.^[240]

Americas

Main articles: List of North American animals extinct in the Holocene and List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene

Reconstructed woolly mammoth bone hut, based on finds in Mezhyrich.

The passenger pigeon was a species of pigeon endemic to North America. It experienced a rapid decline in the late 1800s due to habitat destruction and intense hunting after the arrival of Europeans. The last wild bird is thought to have been shot in 1901.

There has been a debate as to the extent to which the disappearance of megafauna at the end of the last glacial period can be attributed to human activities by hunting, or even by slaughter^[b] of prey populations. Discoveries at Monte Verde in South America and at Meadowcroft Rock Shelter in Pennsylvania have caused a controversy^[241] regarding the Clovis culture. There likely would have been human settlements prior to the Clovis culture, and the history of humans in the Americas may extend back many thousands of years before the Clovis culture.^[241] The amount of correlation between human arrival and megafauna extinction is still being debated: for example, in Wrangel Island in Siberia the extinction of dwarf woolly mammoths (approximately 2000 BCE)^[242] did not coincide with the arrival of humans, nor did megafaunal mass extinction on the South American continent, although it has been suggested climate changes induced by anthropogenic effects elsewhere in the world may have contributed.^[42]

Comparisons are sometimes made between recent extinctions (approximately since the industrial revolution) and the Pleistocene extinction near the end of the last glacial period. The latter is exemplified by the extinction of large herbivores such as the woolly mammoth and the carnivores that preyed on them. Humans of this era actively hunted the mammoth and the mastodon,^[243] but it is not known if this hunting was the cause of the subsequent massive ecological changes, widespread extinctions and climate changes.^[44][45]

The ecosystems encountered by the first Americans had not been exposed to human interaction, and may have been far less resilient to human made changes than the ecosystems encountered by industrial era humans. Therefore, the actions of the Clovis people, despite seeming insignificant by today's standards could indeed have had a profound effect on the ecosystems and wild life which was entirely unused to human influence.^{[attribution needed][neutrality is disputed][42]}

Australia

Main articles: Australian megafauna, List of extinct animals of Australia, and List of extinct flora of Australia

See also: Invasive species in Australia, Land clearing in Australia, and Fire-stick farming

The thunder bird was a 2-metre (7 ft) tall flightless bird. Evidence of egg cooking in this species is the first evidence of megafaunal hunting by humans in Australia.^[244]

Australia was once home to a large assemblage of megafauna, with many parallels to those found on the African continent today. Australia's fauna is characterised by primarily marsupial mammals, and many reptiles and birds, all existing as giant forms until recently. Humans arrived on the continent very early, about 50,000 years ago.^[42] The extent human arrival contributed is controversial; climatic drying of Australia 40,000–60,000 years ago was an unlikely cause, as it was less severe in speed or magnitude than previous regional climate change which failed to kill off megafauna. Extinctions in Australia continued from original settlement until today in both plants and animals, whilst many more animals and plants have declined or are endangered.^[245]

Due to the older timeframe and the soil chemistry on the continent, very little subfossil preservation evidence exists relative to elsewhere.^[246] However, continent-wide extinction of all genera weighing over 100 kilograms, and six of seven genera weighing between 45 and 100 kilograms occurred around 46,400 years ago (4,000 years after human arrival)^[247] and the fact that megafauna survived until a later date on the island of Tasmania following the establishment of a land bridge^[248] suggest direct hunting or anthropogenic ecosystem disruption such as fire-stick farming as likely causes. The first evidence of direct human predation leading to extinction in Australia was published in 2016.^[244]

A 2021 study found that the rate of extinction of Australia's megafauna is rather unusual, with some generalistic species having gone extinct earlier while highly specialised ones having become extinct later or even still surviving today. A mosaic cause of extinction with different anthropogenic and environmental pressures has been proposed.^[249]

Caribbean

Recently extinct flightless birds include Madagascar's elephant bird (left), Mauritius's dodo and the great auk of the Atlantic (bottom right).

Human arrival in the Caribbean around 6,000 years ago is correlated with the extinction of many species.^[250] These include many different genera of ground and arboreal sloths across all islands. These sloths were generally smaller than those found on the South American continent. Megalocnus were the largest genus at up to 90 kilograms (200 lb), Acratocnus were medium-sized relatives of modern two-toed sloths endemic to Cuba, Imagocnus also of Cuba, Neocnus and many others.^[251]

Macaronesia

The arrival of the first human settlers in the Azores saw the introduction of invasive plants and livestock to the archipelago, resulting in the extinction of at least two plant species on Pico Island.^[252] Lacustrine ecosystems were ravaged by human colonisation, as evidenced by hydrogen isotopes from C₃₀ fatty acids recording hypoxic bottom waters caused by eutrophication in Lake Funda on Flores Island beginning between 1500 and 1600 AD.^[253]

In the Canary Islands, native thermophilous woodlands were decimated and two tree taxa were driven extinct following the arrival of its first humans, primarily as a result of increased fire clearance and soil erosion and the introduction of invasive pigs, goats, and rats. Invasive species introductions accelerated during the Age of Discovery when Europeans first settled the Macaronesian archipelago. The archipelago's laurel forests, though still negatively impacted, fared better due to being less suitable for human economic use.^[254]

Cabo Verde, like the Canary Islands, witnessed precipitous deforestation upon the arrival of European settlers and various invasive species brought by them in the archipelago,^[255] with the archipelago's thermophilous woodlands suffering the greatest destruction.^[254] Introduced species, overgrazing, increased fire incidence, and soil degradation have been attributed as the chief causes of Cabo Verde's ecological devastation.^[255][256]

Pacific

Archaeological and paleontological digs on 70 different Pacific islands suggested that numerous species became extinct as people moved across the Pacific, starting 30,000 years ago in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands.^[257] It is currently estimated that among the bird species of the Pacific, some 2000 species have gone extinct since the arrival of humans, representing a 20% drop in the biodiversity of birds worldwide.^[258]

The first human settlers of the Hawaiian islands are thought to have arrived between 300 and 800 CE, with European arrival in the 16th century. Hawaii is notable for its endemism of plants, birds, insects, mollusks and fish; 30% of its organisms are endemic. Many of its species are endangered or have gone extinct, primarily due to accidentally introduced species and livestock grazing. Over 40% of its bird species have gone extinct, and it is the location of 75% of extinctions in the United States.^[259] Extinction has increased in Hawaii over the last 200 years and is relatively well documented, with extinctions among native snails used as estimates for global extinction rates.^[58]

Madagascar

Further information: Wildlife of Madagascar and Subfossil lemur

Radiocarbon dating of multiple subfossil specimens shows that now extinct giant lemurs were present in Madagascar until after human arrival.

Within 500 years of the arrival of humans between 2,500 and 2,000 years ago, nearly all of Madagascar's distinct, endemic and geographically isolated megafauna became extinct.^[260] The largest animals, of more than 150 kilograms (330 lb), were extinct very shortly after the first human arrival, with large and medium-sized species dying out after prolonged hunting pressure from an expanding human population moving into more remote regions of the island around 1000 years ago. The eight or more species of elephant birds, giant flightless ratites in the genera Aepyornis, Vorombe, and Mullerornis, are extinct from over-hunting,^[261] as well as 17 species of lemur, known as giant, subfossil lemurs. Some of these lemurs typically weighed over 150 kilograms (330 lb), and their fossils have provided evidence of human butchery on many species.^[262] Smaller fauna experienced initial increases due to decreased competition, and then subsequent declines over the last 500 years.^[48] All fauna weighing over 10 kilograms (22 lb) died out. The primary reasons for the decline of Madagascar's biota, which at the time was already stressed by natural aridification,^[263] were human hunting,^[264][265] herding,^[266][265] farming,^[264] and forest clearing,^[266] all of which persist and threaten Madagascar's remaining taxa today. The natural ecosystems of Madagascar as a whole were further impacted by the much greater incidence of fire as a result of anthropogenic fire production; evidence from Lake Amparihibe on the island of Nosy Be indicates a shift in local vegetation from intact rainforest to a fire-disturbed patchwork of grassland and woodland between 1300 and 1000 BP.^[267]

New Zealand

Main article: List of New Zealand animals extinct in the Holocene

See also: Biodiversity of New Zealand, Timeline of the New Zealand environment, and Invasive species in New Zealand

New Zealand is characterised by its geographic isolation and island biogeography, and had been isolated from mainland Australia for 80 million years. It was the last large land mass to be colonised by humans. The arrival of Polynesian settlers circa 12th century resulted in the extinction of all of the islands' megafaunal birds within several hundred years.^[268] The moa, large flightless ratites, became extinct within 200 years of the arrival of human settlers.^[47] The Polynesians also introduced the Polynesian rat. This may have put some pressure on other birds but at the time of early European contact (18th century) and colonisation (19th century) the bird life was prolific. With them, the Europeans brought various invasive species including ship rats, possums, cats and mustelids which devastated native bird life, some of which had adapted flightlessness and ground nesting habits, and had no defensive behavior as a result of having no native mammalian predators. The kakapo, the world's biggest parrot, which is flightless, now only exists in managed breeding sanctuaries. New Zealand's national emblem, the kiwi, is on the endangered bird list.^[268]

Mitigation

Further information: Nature conservation and Climate change mitigation

Climate March 2017

Extinction symbol

Stabilizing human populations,^{[269][270][271]} reining in capitalism^{[144][146][272]} and decreasing economic demands,^[25][273] transitioning to plant-based diets,^[34][35] and increasing the number and size of terrestrial and marine protected areas^[274][275] are the keys to avoiding or limiting biodiversity loss and a possible sixth mass extinction. Rodolfo Dirzo and Paul R. Ehrlich suggest that "the one fundamental, necessary, 'simple' cure, ... is reducing the scale of the human enterprise."^[85]

A 2018 article in Science advocated for the global community to designate 30 percent of the planet by 2030, and 50 percent by 2050, as protected areas in order to mitigate the contemporary extinction crisis. It highlighted that the human population is projected to grow to 10 billion by the middle of the century, and consumption of food and water resources is projected to double by this time.^[276]

In November 2018, the UN's biodiversity chief Cristiana Pașca Palmer urged people around the world to put pressure on governments to implement significant protections for wildlife by 2020. She called biodiversity loss a "silent killer" as dangerous as global warming, but said it had received little attention by comparison. "It’s different from climate change, where people feel the impact in everyday life. With biodiversity, it is not so clear but by the time you feel what is happening, it may be too late."^[277] In January 2020, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity drafted a Paris-style plan to stop biodiversity and ecosystem collapse by setting the deadline of 2030 to protect 30% of the earth's land and oceans and to reduce pollution by 50%, with the goal of allowing for the restoration of ecosystems by 2050. The world failed to meet the Aichi Biodiversity targets for 2020 set by the convention during a summit in Japan in 2010.^[278][279] Of the 20 biodiversity targets proposed, only six were "partially achieved" by the deadline.^[280] It was called a global failure by Inger Andersen, head of the United Nations Environment Programme:

"From COVID-19 to massive wildfires, floods, melting glaciers and unprecedented heat, our failure to meet the Aichi (biodiversity) targets — protect our our home — has very real consequences. We can no longer afford to cast nature to the side."^[281]

Some scientists have proposed keeping extinctions below 20 per year for the next century as a global target to reduce species loss, which is the biodiversity equivalent of the 2 °C climate target, although it is still much higher than the normal background rate of two per year prior to anthropogenic impacts on the natural world.^[282][283]

An October 2020 report on the "era of pandemics" from IPBES found that many of the same human activities that contribute to biodiversity loss and climate change, including deforestation and the wildlife trade, have also increased the risk of future pandemics. The report offers several policy options to reduce such risk, such as taxing meat production and consumption, cracking down on the illegal wildlife trade, removing high disease-risk species from the legal wildlife trade, and eliminating subsidies to businesses which are harmful to the environment.^{[284][285][286]} According to marine zoologist John Spicer, "the COVID-19 crisis is not just another crisis alongside the biodiversity crisis and the climate change crisis. Make no mistake, this is one big crisis – the greatest that humans have ever faced."^[284]

According to a 2021 paper published in Frontiers in Conservation Science, humanity almost certainly faces a "ghastly future" of mass extinction, biodiversity collapse, climate change and their impacts unless major efforts to change human industry and activity are rapidly undertaken.^[79][287]

A 2022 report published in Science warned that 44% of earth's terrestrial surface, or 24.7 million square miles, must to be conserved and made "ecologically sound" in order to prevent further biodiversity loss.^[288][289]

See also

• Biology portal
• Ecology portal
• Environment portal
• World portal

• Biodiversity loss
• Extinction Rebellion
• Extinction risk from climate change
• Extinction symbol
• Extinction: The Facts (2020 documentary)
• Human impact on the environment
• Lists of extinct species
• Pleistocene rewilding
• Quaternary extinction
• Racing Extinction (2015 documentary film)
• Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene
• World Scientists' Warning to Humanity

Notes

1. 
   

Phylogenetic diversity (PD) is the sum of the phylogenetic branch lengths in years connecting a set of species to each other across their phylogenetic tree, and measures their collective contribution to the tree of life.

2. This may refer to groups of animals endangered by climate change. For example, during a catastrophic drought, remaining animals would be gathered around the few remaining watering holes, and thus become extremely vulnerable.

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Further reading

• Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Anne H.; Ehrlich, Paul R. (2015). The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1421417189.
• deBuys, William (March 2015). "The Politics of Extinction – A Global War on Nature". Tom Dispatch. Uncounted species – not just tigers, gibbons, rhinos, and saola, but vast numbers of smaller mammals, amphibians, birds, and reptiles – are being pressed to the brink. We’ve hardly met them and yet, within the vastness of the universe, they and the rest of Earth’s biota are our only known companions. Without them, our loneliness would stretch to infinity.
• Firestone RB, West A, Kennett JP, Becker L, Bunch TE, Revay ZS, et al. (October 2007). "Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (41): 16016–16021. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10416016F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706977104. PMC 1994902. PMID 17901202.
• Hughes, Emma C.; Edwards, David P.; Thomas, Gavin H. (2022). "The homogenization of avian morphological and phylogenetic diversity under the global extinction crisis". Current Biology. 32 (17): 3830–3837.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.018. PMC 9616725. PMID 35868322. S2CID 247827456.
• Kolbert, Elizabeth (May 25, 2009). "The Sixth Extinction? There have been five great die-offs in history. This time, the cataclysm is us". The New Yorker. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
• Leakey, Richard; Lewin, Roger (1996). The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-46809-1.
• Lees, Alexander C.; Attwood, Simon; et al. (2020). "Biodiversity scientists must fight the creeping rise of extinction denial". Nature Ecology and Evolution. 4 (11): 1440–1443. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-01285-z. PMID 32811999. S2CID 221167551.
• Linkola, Pentti (2011). Can Life Prevail?. Arktos Media. ISBN 978-1907166631.
• Loarie, Scott R.; Duffy, Philip B.; Hamilton, Healy; Asner, Gregory P.; Field, Christopher B.; Ackerly, David D. (2009). "The velocity of climate change". Nature. 462 (7276): 1052–1055. Bibcode:2009Natur.462.1052L. doi:10.1038/nature08649. PMID 20033047. S2CID 4419902.
• Marsh, Bill (1 June 2012). "Are We in the Midst Of a Sixth Mass Extinction?". The New York Times Sunday Review: Opinion Page. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
• Martin, P. S.; Wright, H. E. Jr, eds. (1967). Pleistocene Extinctions: The Search for a Cause. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-00755-8.
• McCallum, Malcolm L. (2015). "Vertebrate biodiversity losses point to sixth mass extinction". Biodiversity and Conservation. 24 (10): 2497–2519. doi:10.1007/s10531-015-0940-6. S2CID 16845698.
• Newman, Lenore (2019). Lost Feast: Culinary Extinction and the Future of Food. ECW Press. ISBN 978-1770414358.
• Nihjuis, Michelle (23 July 2012). "Conservationists Use Triage to Determine Which Species to Save and Not". Scientific American.
• Oakes, Ted (2003). Land of Lost Monsters: Man Against Beast – The Prehistoric Battle for the Planet. Hylas Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59258-005-7.
• Thomas, Chris D. (2017). Inheritors of the Earth: How Nature Is Thriving in an Age of Extinction. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610397278.
• Wiens, John J. (December 2016). "Climate-Related Local Extinctions Are Already Widespread among Plant and Animal Species". PLOS Biology. 14 (12): e2001104. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001104. hdl:10150/622757. PMC 5147797. PMID 27930674.

External links

External video
Are We Living In the Sixth Extinction? on YouTube
Extinction: The Facts in 6 minutes on BBC One

• The Extinction Crisis. Center for Biological Diversity.
• Vanishing: The extinction crisis is far worse than you think. CNN. December 2016.
• Biologists say half of all species could be extinct by end of century, The Guardian, 25 February 2017
• Humans are ushering in the sixth mass extinction of life on Earth, scientists warn, The Independent, 31 May 2017
• Human activity pushing Earth towards 'sixth mass species extinction,' report warns. CBC. Mar 26, 2018
• ‘Terror being waged on wildlife', leaders warn. The Guardian. October 4, 2018.
• Earth Is on the Cusp of the Sixth Mass Extinction. Here’s What Paleontologists Want You to Know. Discover. December 3, 2020.

v t e Extinction events

v t e Extinction

v t e Extinct animals by region

v t e Sustainability

v t e Human impact on the environment

v t e Global catastrophic risks

Categories:

• Holocene extinctions
• Species made extinct by human activities
• Extinction
• Holocene
• Holocene life
• Environmental impact by effect
• Human ecology
• Human impact on the environment
• Anthropocene
• Extinction events

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overabundant_species

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_erosion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutational_meltdown

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muller%27s_ratchet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_vortex

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction

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The Siberian Traps (Russian: Сибирские траппы, romanized: Sibirskiye trappy) is a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in Siberia, Russia. The massive eruptive event that formed the traps is one of the largest known volcanic events in the last 500 million years.

The eruptions continued for roughly two million years and spanned the Permian–Triassic boundary, or P–T boundary, which occurred around 251.9 million years ago. The Siberian Traps are believed to be the primary cause of the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the most severe extinction event in the geologic record.^[1][2]

Large volumes of basaltic lava covered a large expanse of Siberia in a flood basalt event. Today, the area is covered by about 7 million km² (3 million sq mi) of basaltic rock, with a volume of around 4 million km³ (1 million cu mi).^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_Traps

A lithosphere (from Ancient Greek λίθος (líthos) 'rocky', and σφαίρα (sphaíra) 'sphere') is the rigid,^[1] outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of up to thousands of years or more. The crust and upper mantle are distinguished on the basis of chemistry and mineralogy.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithosphere

Volcanic pipes or volcanic conduits are subterranean geological structures formed by the violent, supersonic eruption of deep-origin volcanoes. They are considered to be a type of diatreme. Volcanic pipes are composed of a deep, narrow cone of solidified magma (described as "carrot-shaped"), and are usually largely composed of one of two characteristic rock types — kimberlite or lamproite. These rocks reflect the composition of the volcanoes' deep magma sources, where the Earth is rich in magnesium. Volcanic pipes are relatively rare. They are well known as the primary source of diamonds, and are mined for this purpose.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_pipe

 Underground living refers to living below the ground's surface, whether in natural or manmade caves or structures. Underground dwellings are an alternative to above-ground dwellings for some home seekers, including those who are looking to minimize impact on the environment. Factories and office buildings can benefit from underground facilities for many of the same reasons as underground dwellings such as noise abatement, energy use, and security. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_living

United States
Nuclear program start date	21 October 1939
First nuclear weapon test	16 July 1945
First thermonuclear weapon test	1 November 1952
Last nuclear test	23 September 1992[1]
Largest yield test	15 Mt (63 PJ) (1 March 1954)
Total tests	1,054 detonations
Peak stockpile	31,255 warheads (1967)[2]
Current stockpile	3,750 (2021)[3]
Maximum missile range	ICBM: 15,000 km (9,321 mi) SLBM: 12,000 km (7,456 mi)
NPT party	Yes (1968)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States

 

A few notable U.S. nuclear tests include:

• Trinity test on 16 July 1945, was the world's first test of a nuclear weapon (yield of around 20 kt).

Early weapons models, such as the "Fat Man" bomb, were extremely large and difficult to use.

 

From left are the Peacekeeper, the Minuteman III and the Minuteman I

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States

The Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider is an American strategic bomber under development for the United States Air Force (USAF) by Northrop Grumman. As part of the Long Range Strike Bomber (LRS-B) program, it is to be a long-range, stealth intercontinental strategic bomber for the USAF, able to deliver conventional and thermonuclear weapons.^[1][2][3] The B-21 is to replace the Rockwell B-1 Lancer and Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit by 2040, and perhaps the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress after that.^[4]

B-21 Raider
B-21 in a hangar at Plant 42 in Palmdale, California
Role	Stealth strategic bomber
National origin	United States
Manufacturer	Northrop Grumman
Status	In development
Primary user	United States Air Force

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-21_Raider

The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is an American single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). As the result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed as an air superiority fighter, but also has ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22's airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems. 

F-22 Raptor
An F-22 Raptor flies over Kadena Air Base, Japan, on a routine training mission in 2009.
Role	Air superiority fighter
National origin	United States
Manufacturer	Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Boeing Defense, Space & Security
First flight	7 September 1997; 25 years ago
Introduction	15 December 2005
Status	In service
Primary user	United States Air Force
Produced	1996–2011
Number built	195 (8 test and 187 operational aircraft)[1]
Developed from	Lockheed YF-22
Developed into	Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA Lockheed Martin FB-22

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-22_Raptor

 The Boeing MQ-28 Ghost Bat, previously known as the Boeing Airpower Teaming System (ATS) and the Loyal Wingman project, is a stealth, multirole, unmanned aerial vehicle in development by Boeing Australia for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). It is designed as a force multiplier aircraft capable of flying alongside manned aircraft for support and performing autonomous missions independently using artificial intelligence.^[4]

 

MQ-28 Ghost Bat
A Boeing MQ-28 Ghost Bat during a high-speed taxi test
Role	Unmanned combat aerial vehicle
National origin	Australia
Manufacturer	Boeing Australia Boeing Defense, Space & Security
First flight	27 February 2021[1][2]
Introduction	2024-25 (planned)
Status	Under development
Primary user	Royal Australian Air Force
Number built	2[3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_MQ-28_Ghost_Bat}

New Generation Fighter
Mock-up of the NGF at the 2019 Paris Air Show
Role	Sixth-generation jet fighter
National origin	France, Germany, Spain
First flight	Planned for 2027
Introduction	Planned for 2035-2040
Status	Under development

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Combat_Air_System}

The EADS Barracuda is a jet powered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) currently under development by EADS, intended for the role of aerial reconnaissance and also combat (like UCAV).^[1] The aircraft is a joint venture between Germany and Spain.  

Barracuda
Role	Reconnaissance and UCAV
National origin	Germany and Spain
Manufacturer	EADS
First flight	2 April 2006

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EADS_Barracuda

Have Blue
Have Blue "HB1001" in camouflage paint scheme
Role	Stealth demonstrator
Manufacturer	Lockheed Skunk Works
First flight	1 December 1977
Status	Destroyed
Primary user	Lockheed
Number built	2
Developed into	Lockheed F-117A Nighthawk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Have_Blue

Origins

The Lockheed Have Blue was born out of a requirement to evade radar detection. During the Vietnam War, radar-guided SAMs and AAA posed a significant threat to US aircraft. For this reason, strike aircraft during the war often required support aircraft to perform combat air patrols and suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD).^[3] The 1973 Yom Kippur War again highlighted the vulnerability of aircraft to SAMs – the Israeli Air Force lost 109 aircraft in 18 days.^[3] During the Cold War, the Soviet Union developed an integrated defense network, central to which were medium- to long-range surveillance radars. SAMs and AAAs would be set up around key locations to defend them from incoming enemy aircraft.^[3] If the loss ratio of Israel during the Yom Kippur War was experienced by NATO forces during a military confrontation with the Warsaw Pact, NATO aircraft numbers would be depleted within two weeks.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Have_Blue

 

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