Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information (intelligence). A person who commits espionage is called an espionage agent or spy.[1] Any individual or spy ring (a cooperating group of spies), in the service of a government, company, criminal organization, or independent operation, can commit espionage. The practice is clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome. In some circumstances, it may be a legal tool of law enforcement and in others, it may be illegal and punishable by law.
Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term tends to be associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage.
One way to gather data and information about a targeted organization is by infiltrating its ranks. Spies can then return information such as the size and strength of enemy forces. They can also find dissidents within the organization and influence them to provide further information or to defect.[2] In times of crisis, spies steal technology and sabotage the enemy in various ways. Counterintelligence is the practice of thwarting enemy espionage and intelligence-gathering. Almost all sovereign states have strict laws concerning espionage, including those who practise espionage in other countries, and the penalties for being caught are often severe.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage
Dementia is a disorder which manifests as a set of related symptoms, which usually surfaces when the brain is damaged by injury or disease.[2] The symptoms involve progressive impairments in memory, thinking, and behavior, which negatively affects a person's ability to function and carry out everyday activities. Aside from memory impairment and a disruption in thought patterns, the most common symptoms include emotional problems, difficulties with language, and decreased motivation. The symptoms may be described as occurring in a continuum over several stages.[10][a] Consciousness is not affected. Dementia ultimately has a significant effect on the individual, caregivers, and on social relationships in general.[2] A diagnosis of dementia requires the observation of a change from a person's usual mental functioning and a greater cognitive decline than what is caused by normal aging.[12]
| Dementia | |
|---|---|
| Other names | Senility,[1] senile dementia |
 | |
| Lithography of a man diagnosed with dementia in the 1800s | |
| Specialty | Neurology, psychiatry |
| Symptoms | Decreased ability to think and remember, emotional problems, problems with language, decreased motivation[2] |
| Complications | poor nutrition, pneumonia, inability to perform self-care tasks, personal safety challenges, death.[3] |
| Usual onset | Gradual[2] |
| Duration | Long term[2] |
| Causes | Alzheimer's disease, vascular disease, Lewy body disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration.[2] |
| Diagnostic method | Cognitive testing (Mini-Mental State Examination)[4] |
| Differential diagnosis | Delirium, Hypothyroidism[5][6] |
| Prevention | Early education, prevent high blood pressure, prevent obesity, no smoking, social engagement[7] |
| Treatment | Supportive care[2] |
| Medication | Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (small benefit)[8] |
| Frequency | 55 million (2021)[2] |
| Deaths | 2.4 million (2016)[9] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia
A prion /ˈpriːɒn/ (
listen) is a misfolded protein that can transmit its misfolded shape onto normal variants of the same protein. Prions are the causative agent of several transmissible and fatal neurodegenerative diseases in humans and other animals.[3] It remains unknown what causes a normal protein to misfold into a prion, however, its consequent abnormal three-dimensional structure confers infectious properties by collapsing nearby protein molecules into the same shape in a chain reaction.
The word prion is derived from the term "proteinaceous infectious particle".[4][5][6] In comparison to all other known infectious agents: such as viroids, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, all of which contain nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or both), the hypothesized role of a protein as an infectious agent stands in contrast.
Prion isoforms of the prion protein (PrP), whose specific function is uncertain, are hypothesized as the cause of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs).[7] These include: scrapie in sheep, chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle (commonly known as "mad cow disease") and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) in humans.
All known prion diseases in mammals affect the structure of the brain or other neural tissue; all are progressive, have no known effective treatment, and are always fatal.[8] Until 2015, all known mammalian prion diseases were caused by the prion protein (PrP); however, in 2015 it was hypothesized that multiple system atrophy (MSA) was caused by a prion form of alpha-synuclein.[9]
Prions are a type of intrinsically disordered protein, which change their conformation unless they are bound to a specific partner such as another protein. With a prion, two protein chains are stabilized if one binds to another in the same conformation. The probability of this happening is low, but once it does, the combination of the two is very stable. Then more units can get added, making a sort of "fibril".[10] Prions form abnormal aggregates of proteins called amyloids, which accumulate in infected tissue and are associated with tissue damage and cell death.[11] Amyloids are also responsible for several other neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.[12][13]
A prion disease is a type of proteopathy, or disease of structurally abnormal proteins. In humans, prions are believed to be the cause of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), its variant (vCJD), Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome (GSS), fatal familial insomnia (FFI), and kuru.[4] There is also evidence suggesting prions may play a part in the process of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS); these have been termed prion-like diseases.[14][15][16][17] Several yeast proteins have also been identified as having prionogenic properties,[18][19] as well as a protein involved in modification of synapses during the formation of memories[20][10] (see Eric Kandel § Molecular changes during learning). Prion replication is subject to epimutation and natural selection just as for other forms of replication, and their structure varies slightly between species.[21]
Prion aggregates are stable, and this structural stability means that prions are resistant to denaturation by chemical and physical agents: they cannot be destroyed by ordinary disinfection or cooking. This makes disposal and containment of these particles difficult, and the risk of iatrogenic spread through medical instruments a growing concern.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_wasting_disease
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru_(disease)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_ataxia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagas_disease
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglected_tropical_disease
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_marrow
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocyte
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bursa_of_Fabricius
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spleen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spine_(zoology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_column
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_spine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridisation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_hybridization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal#Interbreeding_with_modern_humans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_transfer_agent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viroid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_spindle_tuber_viroid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcoidosis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_mononucleosis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus%E2%80%93associated_lymphoproliferative_diseases
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocryptovirus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splenic_injury
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpesviridae
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_latency
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episome
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncated_dodecahedron
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_virus_T4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Hydroxymethylcytosine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_demethylation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morula
The morula (at the 16 cell stage), has only a small amount of DNA methylation (black line in Figure).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_demethylation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murine_respirovirus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_bracketing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_virus_disease
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_virus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioterrorism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agro-terrorism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_humanitarian_law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_warfare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiological_warfare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_weapon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tularemia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mononuclear_phagocyte_system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic
In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak.
Researchers have experimented with devices to detect the existence of a threat:
- Tiny electronic chips that would contain living nerve cells to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins)
- Fiber-optic tubes lined with antibodies coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as anthrax, botulinum, ricin)
Some research shows that ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008, issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters.[80]
The United States Department of Defense conducts global biosurveillance through several programs, including the Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System.[81]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioterrorism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_transfer_agent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychochemical_warfare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_hazard
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_decontamination
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_MASINT#Biological_Materials_MASINT
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Medical_Unit
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Army
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocontainment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorisk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_cabinet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_pressure_personnel_suit
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeromedical_Isolation_Team
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_gown
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarantine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_ward
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protective_sequestration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seclusion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitude
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_bioprinting
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_oxide_nanoparticle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinel_group#The_spinel_structure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocellulose
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thixotropy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity#Intelligence_explosion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_amplification
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