Thursday, May 11, 2023

05-11-2023-1511 - temporal rates ; frame rate ; category:data_compression ; etc. (draft)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Temporal_rates

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Data_compression

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_penetration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_signaling_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_video_game_terms#DPS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_operations_per_second

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(frequency)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_refresh_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifling#Twist_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUPS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOPS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute#Examples

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_neutrino

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_return

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_response

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)#Rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_infusion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate#Information_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_correction_code#Forward_error_correction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_speed

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Rate_Interface

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_flux

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_(CDMA)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-sequence_spread_spectrum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_access_method

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_volume_(telecommunications)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn_rate_(chemistry)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_extinction_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacity_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giga-updates_per_second

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate#Gross_bit_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_flow

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_changes_per_hour

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allowed_cell_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_acceleration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency#Aperiodic_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_fire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_repetition_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queries_per_second

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_growth_rate

In telecommunication and information theory, the code rate (or information rate^[1]) of a forward error correction code is the proportion of the data-stream that is useful (non-redundant). That is, if the code rate is $k / n$ for every $k$ bits of useful information, the coder generates a total of $n$ bits of data, of which $n - k$ are redundant.

If $R$ is the gross bit rate or data signalling rate (inclusive of redundant error coding), the net bit rate (the useful bit rate exclusive of error correction codes) is $\leq R \cdot k / n$ .

For example: The code rate of a convolutional code will typically be 1⁄2, 2⁄3, 3⁄4, 5⁄6, 7⁄8, etc., corresponding to one redundant bit inserted after every single, second, third, etc., bit. The code rate of the octet oriented Reed Solomon block code denoted RS(204,188) is 188/204, meaning that $204 - 188 = 16$ redundant octets (or bytes) are added to each block of 188 octets of useful information.

A few error correction codes do not have a fixed code rate—rateless erasure codes.

Note that bit/s is a more widespread unit of measurement for the information rate, implying that it is synonymous with net bit rate or useful bit rate exclusive of error-correction codes.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_exponent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_and_object_carousel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_channel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_phase-shift_keying

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_coded_recording

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_physical_layer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitive_coupling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_recovery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_recovery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseband

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_system

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_wave

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_card

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-field_communication

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_area_network

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocol

Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate with each other. This communication is governed by well-understood protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself.^[19]^[20] In contrast, because there is no shared memory, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared transmission medium. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-field_communication

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISM_radio_band

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_coupling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_coil


Experimental, futuristic	Coilgun Railgun Superconducting machine
Related topics	Blocked-rotor test Circle diagram Electromagnetism Open-circuit test Open-loop controller Power-to-weight ratio Two-phase system Inchworm motor Starter Voltage controller

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_coil

Motors

AC motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_coil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_flux_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-rotor_permanent_magnet_induction_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servomotor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traction_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_magnet_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubly-fed_electric_machine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_reluctance_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brushless_DC_electric_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow%27s_wheel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_bearing_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC-to-AC_converter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloconverter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drive

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_torque_control

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_control_(motor)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepper_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unipolar_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armature_(electrical)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brush_(electric)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator_(electric)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_injection_braking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_(electric)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_ring

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_coil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaded-pole_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wound_rotor_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_induction_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repulsion_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blocked_rotor_test

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-circuit_test

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-loop_controller

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-phase_electric_power

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchworm_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starter_(engine)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_controller

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superposition_principle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_(magnetic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_inductance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degaussing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_(electronics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loading_coil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_transformer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotransformer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroidal_inductors_and_transformers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignition_coil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifilar_coil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual-current_device

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedance_matching

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-wire_circuit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_transformer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_types#Audio_transformer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_cartridge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_quantity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_stack

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_layer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_layer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_IR

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_isolation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-clocking_signal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_bias

Applications

In the design of electronic amplifier circuits, every active device has biasing to set its operating point, the steady state current and voltage on the device when no signal is applied. In bipolar transistor biasing, for example, a network of resistors is used to apply a small amount of DC to the base terminal of the transistor. The AC signal is applied at the same terminal and is amplified. The bias network is designed to preserve the applied AC signal. Similarly, amplifiers using field-effect transistors or vacuum tubes also have bias circuits. The operating point of an amplifier greatly affects its characteristics of distortion and efficiency; power amplifier classes are distinguished by the operating point set by the DC bias.

DC offset is usually undesirable when it causes clipping or other undesirable change in the operating point of an amplifier. An electrical DC bias will not pass through a transformer or capacitor; thus a simple isolation transformer or series-wired capacitor can be used to block or remove it, leaving only the AC component on the other side. In signal processing terms, DC offset can be reduced in real-time by a high-pass filter. For stored digital signals, subtracting the mean amplitude from each sample will remove the offset. Very low frequencies can look like DC bias but are called "slowly changing DC" or "baseline wander".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_bias

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Electrical_parameters

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_power

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude#Root_mean_square_amplitude

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-weight_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paired_disparity_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_encoding#Alternate_mark_inversion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_emission

The classical example of thermionic emission is that of electrons from a hot cathode into a vacuum in a vacuum tube. The hot cathode can be a metal filament, a coated metal filament, or a separate structure of metal or carbides or borides of transition metals. Vacuum emission from metals tends to become significant only for temperatures over 1,000 K (730 °C; 1,340 °F).

This process is crucially important in the operation of a variety of electronic devices and can be used for electricity generation (such as thermionic converters and electrodynamic tethers) or cooling. The magnitude of the charge flow increases dramatically with increasing temperature.

The term 'thermionic emission' is now also used to refer to any thermally-excited charge emission process, even when the charge is emitted from one solid-state region into another.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_emission

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodynamic_tether

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_converter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_ionization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Energy_conversion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_physics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_index

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_electron_emission

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_charge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surface_ionization&redirect=no

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desorption

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiccant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygroscopy

Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization or electron impact ionization in a plasma) to neutralize the electron space charge.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_converter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb#Filament

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_coefficient#Electrical_resistance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity#Resistivity_and_conductivity_of_various_materials

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_concentration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_pressure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stricture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_composite_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-exchange_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium%E2%80%93air_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_bridge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Membrane_technology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion-exchange_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Membrane_technology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_membrane_bioreactor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gills_(human)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perforene

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_exchanger

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure-retarded_osmosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_kidney

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_osmosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_emulsification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibratory_shear-enhanced_process

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-powered_desalination_unit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilized_liquid_membrane_device

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separator_(electricity)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane_devices

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_blistering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_power

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_fiber_membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_point_depression_osmometer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Membrane_biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Endoplasmic_reticulum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometric_dating

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating

The method relies on two separate decay chains, the uranium series from ²³⁸U to ²⁰⁶Pb, with a half-life of 4.47 billion years and the actinium series from ²³⁵U to ²⁰⁷Pb, with a half-life of 710 million years.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamic_generator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_piezoelectric_generator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_battery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_bias

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-point_energy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_record

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_ink_character_recognition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signalling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_medium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_shaping

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-return-to-zero

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_density

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_encoding#Alternate_mark_inversion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unipolar_encoding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-length_limited

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_recovery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2B1Q

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U_interface

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-bit-rate_digital_subscriber_line

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-amplitude_modulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_of_uncertainty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_information#Dibit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-synchronizing_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-length_code#Uniquely_decodable_codes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_corruption

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_synchronization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-length_code#Non-singular_codes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_function

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphism#Monomorphism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective_function

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codomain

In mathematics, a surjective function (also known as surjection, or onto function /ˈɒn.tuː/) is a function $f$ such that every element $y$ can be mapped from element $x$ so that $f (x) = y$ . In other words, every element of the function's codomain is the image of at least one element of its domain.^[1]^[2] It is not required that $x$ be unique; the function $f$ may map one or more elements of $X$ to the same element of $Y$ .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective_function

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_function

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction_(mathematics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function#Left_and_right_inverses

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-Level_Data_Link_Control

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_conductor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_coding_sublayer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media-independent_interface

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory#Channel_coding

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Data_Association

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Wire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_port

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_gun

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_controller

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_(computing)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_wheel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack_and_pinion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recirculating_ball

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_steering#Hydraulic_systems

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid

Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has zero compressibility.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyol#Polyols_in_polymer_chemistry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scavenger_(chemistry)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skydrol

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEXRON

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropneumatic_suspension

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(hydraulic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_brake

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycol_ethers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Ethoxyethanol

The principal uses of cellulose nitrate is for the production of lacquers and coatings, explosives, and celluloid.^[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellulose

Guncotton was originally made from cotton (as the source of cellulose) but contemporary methods use highly processed cellulose from wood pulp. While guncotton is dangerous to store, the hazards it presents can be minimized by storing it dampened with various liquids, such as alcohol. For this reason, accounts of guncotton usage dating from the early 20th century refer to "wet guncotton."

Jam tin grenades were made in World War I using gun cotton

The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting. As a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating.

Artillery shells filled with gun cotton were widely used during the American Civil War, and its use was one of the reasons the conflict was seen as the "first modern war."^[26] In combination with breech-loading artillery, such high explosive shells could cause greater damage than previous solid cannonballs.

During the first World War, British authorities were slow to introduce grenades, with soldiers at the front improvising by filling ration tin cans with gun cotton, scrap and a basic fuse.^[27]

Further research indicated the importance of washing the acidified cotton. Unwashed nitrocellulose (sometimes called pyrocellulose) may spontaneously ignite and explode at room temperature, as the evaporation of water results in the concentration of unreacted acid.^[25]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellulose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smokeless_powder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jam_tin_grenade

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_(paper)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignocellulosic_biomass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenol_formaldehyde_resin

In materials science, a thermosetting polymer, often called a thermoset, is a polymer that is obtained by irreversibly hardening ("curing") a soft solid or viscous liquid prepolymer (resin).^[1] Curing is induced by heat or suitable radiation and may be promoted by high pressure, or mixing with a catalyst. Heat is not necessarily applied externally, but is often generated by the reaction of the resin with a curing agent (catalyst, hardener). Curing results in chemical reactions that create extensive cross-linking between polymer chains to produce an infusible and insoluble polymer network.

The starting material for making thermosets is usually malleable or liquid prior to curing, and is often designed to be molded into the final shape. It may also be used as an adhesive. Once hardened, a thermoset cannot be melted for reshaping, in contrast to thermoplastic polymers which are commonly produced and distributed in the form of pellets, and shaped into the final product form by melting, pressing, or injection molding.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer

Thermosetting polymer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Left: individual linear polymer chains
Right: Polymer chains which have been cross linked to give a rigid 3D thermoset polymer

Chemical process

Curing a thermosetting resin transforms it into a plastic, or elastomer (rubber) by crosslinking or chain extension through the formation of covalent bonds between individual chains of the polymer. Crosslink density varies depending on the monomer or prepolymer mix, and the mechanism of crosslinking:

Acrylic resins, polyesters and vinyl esters with unsaturated sites at the ends or on the backbone are generally linked by copolymerisation with unsaturated monomer diluents, with cure initiated by free radicals generated from ionizing radiation or by the photolytic or thermal decomposition of a radical initiator – the intensity of crosslinking is influenced by the degree of backbone unsaturation in the prepolymer;^[2]

Epoxy functional resins can be homo-polymerized with anionic or cationic catalysts and heat, or copolymerised through nucleophilic addition reactions with multifunctional crosslinking agents which are also known as curing agents or hardeners. As reaction proceeds, larger and larger molecules are formed and highly branched crosslinked structures develop, the rate of cure being influenced by the physical form and functionality of epoxy resins and curing agents^[3] – elevated temperature postcuring induces secondary crosslinking of backbone hydroxyl functionality which condense to form ether bonds;

Polyurethanes form when isocyanate resins and prepolymers are combined with low- or high-molecular weight polyols, with strict stochiometric ratios being essential to control nucleophilic addition polymerisation – the degree of crosslinking and resulting physical type (elastomer or plastic) is adjusted from the molecular weight and functionality of isocyanate resins, prepolymers, and the exact combinations of diols, triols and polyols selected, with the rate of reaction being strongly influenced by catalysts and inhibitors; polyureas form virtually instantaneously when isocyanate resins are combined with long-chain amine functional polyether or polyester resins and short-chain diamine extenders – the amine-isocyanate nucleophilic addition reaction does not require catalysts. Polyureas also form when isocyanate resins come into contact with moisture;^[4]

Phenolic, amino, and furan resins all cured by polycondensation involving the release of water and heat, with cure initiation and polymerisation exotherm control influenced by curing temperature, catalyst selection or loading and processing method or pressure – the degree of pre-polymerisation and level of residual hydroxymethyl content in the resins determine the crosslink density.^[5]

Polybenzoxazines are cured by an exothermal ring-opening polymerisation without releasing any chemical, which translates in near zero shrinkage upon polymerisation.^[6]

Thermosetting polymer mixtures based on thermosetting resin monomers and pre-polymers can be formulated and applied and processed in a variety of ways to create distinctive cured properties that cannot be achieved with thermoplastic polymers or inorganic materials.^[7]^[8]

Properties

Thermosetting plastics are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to the three-dimensional network of bonds (crosslinking), and are also better suited to high-temperature applications up to the decomposition temperature since they keep their shape as strong covalent bonds between polymer chains cannot be broken easily. The higher the crosslink density and aromatic content of a thermoset polymer, the higher the resistance to heat degradation and chemical attack. Mechanical strength and hardness also improve with crosslink density, although at the expense of brittleness.^[9] They normally decompose before melting.

Hard, plastic thermosets may undergo permanent or plastic deformation under load. Elastomers, which are soft and springy or rubbery and can be deformed and revert to their original shape on loading release.

Conventional thermoset plastics or elastomers cannot be melted and re-shaped after they are cured. This usually prevents recycling for the same purpose, except as filler material.^[10] New developments involving thermoset epoxy resins which on controlled and contained heating form crosslinked networks permit repeatedly reshaping, like silica glass by reversible covalent bond exchange reactions on reheating above the glass transition temperature.^[11] There are also thermoset polyurethanes shown to have transient properties and which can thus be reprocessed or recycled.^[12]

Fiber-reinforced materials

When compounded with fibers, thermosetting resins form fiber-reinforced polymer composites, which are used in the fabrication of factory-finished structural composite OEM or replacement parts,^[13] and as site-applied, cured and finished composite repair^[14]^[15] and protection materials. When used as the binder for aggregates and other solid fillers, they form particulate-reinforced polymer composites, which are used for factory-applied protective coating or component manufacture, and for site-applied and cured construction, or maintenance purposes.

Materials

Polyester resin fiberglass systems: sheet molding compounds and bulk molding compounds; filament winding; wet lay-up lamination; repair compounds and protective coatings.
Polyurethanes: insulating foams, mattresses, coatings, adhesives, car parts, print rollers, shoe soles, flooring, synthetic fibers, etc. Polyurethane polymers are formed by combining two bi- or higher functional monomers/oligomers.
Polyurea/polyurethane hybrids used for abrasion resistant waterproofing coatings.
Vulcanized rubber.
Bakelite, a phenol-formaldehyde resin used in electrical insulators and plasticware.
Duroplast, light but strong material, similar to Bakelite formerly used in the manufacture of the Trabant automobile, currently used for household objects
Urea-formaldehyde foam used in plywood, particleboard and medium-density fibreboard.
Melamine resin used on worktop surfaces.^[16]
Diallyl-phthalate (DAP) used in high temperature and mil-spec electrical connectors and other components. Usually glass filled.
Epoxy resin^[17] used as the matrix component in many fiber reinforced plastics such as glass-reinforced plastic and graphite-reinforced plastic; casting; electronics encapsulation;^[18] construction; protective coatings; adhesives; sealing and joining.
Epoxy novolac resins used for printed circuit boards, electrical encapsulation, adhesives and coatings for metal.
Benzoxazines, used alone or hybridised with epoxy and phenolic resins, for structural prepregs, liquid molding and film adhesives for composite construction, bonding and repair.
Polyimides and Bismaleimides used in printed circuit boards and in body parts of modern aircraft, aerospace composite structures, as a coating material and for glass reinforced pipes.
Cyanate esters or polycyanurates for electronics applications with need for dielectric properties and high glass temperature requirements in aerospace structural composite components.
Mold or mold runners (the black plastic part in integrated circuits or semiconductors).
Furan resins used in the manufacture of sustainable biocomposite construction,^[19] cements, adhesives, coatings and casting/foundry resins.
Silicone resins used for thermoset polymer matrix composites and as ceramic matrix composite precursors.
Thiolyte, an electrical insulating thermoset phenolic laminate material.
Vinyl ester resins used for wet lay-up laminating, molding and fast setting industrial protection and repair materials.

Applications

Application/process uses and methods for thermosets include protective coating, seamless flooring, civil engineering construction grouts for jointing and injection, mortars, foundry sands, adhesives, sealants, castings, potting, electrical insulation, encapsulation, 3D printing, solid foams, wet lay-up laminating, pultrusion, gelcoats, filament winding, pre-pregs, and molding.

Specific methods of molding thermosets are:

Reactive injection moulding (used for objects such as milk bottle crates)
Extrusion molding (used for making pipes, threads of fabric and insulation for electrical cables)
Compression molding (used to shape SMC and BMC thermosetting plastics)
Spin casting (used for producing fishing lures and jigs, gaming miniatures, figurines, emblems as well as production and replacement parts)

References

IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "thermosetting polymer". doi:10.1351/goldbook.TT07168

Unsaturated Polyester Technology, ed. P.F. Bruins, Gordon and Breach, New York, 1976

Chemistry and Technology of Epoxy Resins, ed. B. Ellis, Springer Netherlands, 1993, ISBN 978-94-010-5302-0

Polyurethane Handbook, ed. G Oertel, Hanser, Munich, Germany, 2nd edition, 1994, ISBN 1569901570, ISBN 978-1569901571

Reactive Polymers Fundamentals and Applications: A Concise Guide to Industrial Polymers (Plastics Design Library), William Andrew Inc., 2nd edition, 2013, ISBN 978-1455731497

"Polybenzoxazines". Polymer Properties Database.

Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, ed. J.I. Kroschwitz, Wiley, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-471-5 1253-2

Industrial Polymer Applications: Essential Chemistry and Technology, Royal Society of Chemistry, UK, 1st edition, 2016, ISBN 978-1782628149

S.H. Goodman, H. Dodiuk-Kenig, ed. (2013). Handbook of Thermoset Plastics (3rd ed.). USA: William Andrew. ISBN 978-1-4557-3107-7.

The Open University (UK), 2000. T838 Design and Manufacture with Polymers: Introduction to Polymers, page 9. Milton Keynes: The Open University

D. Montarnal, M. Capelot, F. Tournilhac, L. Leibler, Science, 2011, 334, 965-968], doi:10.1126/science.1212648

Fortman, David J.; Jacob P. Brutman; Christopher J. Cramer; Marc A. Hillmyer; William R. Dichtel (2015). "Mechanically Activated, Catalyst-Free Polyhydroxyurethane Vitrimers". Journal of the American Chemical Society. doi:10.1021/jacs.5b08084

Polymer Matrix Composites: Materials Usage, Design, and Analysis, SAE International, 2012, ISBN 978-0-7680-7813-8

PCC-2 Repair of Pressure Equipment and Piping, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015, ISBN 978-0-7918-6959-8

ISO 24817 Composite Repairs for Pipework: Qualification and Design, Installation, Testing and Inspection, 2015, ICS: 75.180.20

Roberto C. Dante, Diego A. Santamaría and Jesús Martín Gil (2009). "Crosslinking and thermal stability of thermosets based on novolak and melamine". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 114 (6): 4059–4065. doi:10.1002/app.31114.

Guzman, Enrique; Cugnoni, Joël; Gmür, Thomas (2014). "Multi-Factorial Models of a Carbon Fibre/Epoxy Composite Subjected to Accelerated Environmental Ageing". Composite Structures. 111 (4): 179–192. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2013.12.028.

Kulkarni, Romit; Wappler, Peter; Soltani, Mahdi; Haybat, Mehmet; Guenther, Thomas; Groezinger, Tobias; Zimmermann, André (1 February 2019). "An Assessment of Thermoset Injection Molding for Thin-Walled Conformal Encapsulation of Board-Level Electronic Packages". Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 3 (1): 18. doi:10.3390/jmmp3010018.

T Malaba, J Wang, Journal of Composites, vol. 2015, Article ID 707151, 8 pages, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/707151

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_bonded_epoxy_coating

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberglass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_coating

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_code

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halftone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moir%C3%A9_pattern

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_field_potential

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple

Seebeck effect

Seebeck effect in a thermopile made from iron and copper wires

A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of different Seebeck coefficients (p-doped and n-doped semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric generator. If the load resistor at the bottom is replaced with a voltmeter, the circuit then functions as a temperature-sensing thermocouple.

The Seebeck effect is the electromotive force (emf) that develops across two points of an electrically conducting material when there is a temperature difference between them. The emf is called the Seebeck emf (or thermo/thermal/thermoelectric emf). The ratio between the emf and temperature difference is the Seebeck coefficient.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect#Seebeck_effect

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_force

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-electromotive_force

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pump

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_cooling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_cycler

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermopile

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barocaloric_material

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_refrigeration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroelectricity

Nikiya Anton Bettey 2021

Blog Archive

Thursday, May 11, 2023

05-11-2023-1511 - temporal rates ; frame rate ; category:data_compression ; etc. (draft)

Applications

Thermosetting polymer

Chemical process

Properties

Fiber-reinforced materials

Materials

Applications

See also

References

Seebeck effect

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