https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number Autism, formally called autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autism spectrum condition (ASC), is a neurodevelopmental disorder
characterized by deficits in social communication and social
interaction, and repetitive or restricted patterns of behaviors,
interests, or activities, which can include hyper- and hyporeactivity to
sensory input. Autism is a spectrum disorder,
meaning that it can manifest very differently in each person. Because
of this, there is wide variation in the support needs of people across
the autism spectrum. For example, some are nonspeaking, while others have proficient spoken language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum The heritability of autism is the proportion of differences in expression of autism that can be explained by genetic variation; if the heritability
of a condition is high, then the condition is considered to be
primarily genetic. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is explained more by multigene interactions or by rare mutations with major effects.[1]
Early studies of twins
estimated the heritability of autism to be more than 90%; in other
words, that 90% of the differences between autistic and non-autistic
individuals are due to genetic effects.[2] This however may be an overestimate: new twin data and models with structural genetic variation are needed.[3] When only one identical twin is autistic, the other often has learning or social disabilities.[4] For adult siblings, the likelihood of having one or more features of the broader autism phenotype might be as high as 30%,[5] much higher than the likelihood in controls.[6]
Genetic linkage analysis has been inconclusive; many association analyses have had inadequate power.[3] For each autistic individual, mutations
in more than one gene may be implicated. Mutations in different sets of
genes may be involved in different autistic individuals. There may be
significant interactions among mutations in several genes, or between
the environment and mutated genes. By identifying genetic markers
inherited with autism in family studies, numerous candidate genes have
been located, most of which encode proteins involved in neural development and function.[7][8]
However, for most of the candidate genes, the actual mutations that
increase the likelihood for autism have not been identified. Typically,
autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to single chromosome abnormalities such as fragile X syndrome or 22q13 deletion syndrome.[9][10]
The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from copy number variations (CNVs)—spontaneous alterations in the genetic material during meiosis that delete or duplicate genetic material.[12][13] Sporadic (non-inherited) cases have been examined to identify candidate genetic loci
involved in autism. A substantial fraction of autism may be highly
heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the
autism is not present in the parental genome.[11]
Although the fraction of autism traceable to a genetic cause may grow to 30–40% as the resolution of array CGH improves,[11]
several results in this area have been described incautiously, possibly
misleading the public into thinking that a large proportion of autism
is caused by CNVs and is detectable via array CGH, or that detecting
CNVs is tantamount to a genetic diagnosis.[14] The Autism Genome Project database contains genetic linkage and CNV data that connect autism to genetic loci and suggest that every human chromosome may be involved.[15]
It may be that using autism-related subphenotypes instead of the
diagnosis of autism per se may be more useful in identifying susceptible
loci.[16]
Twin studiesTwin studies are a helpful tool in determining the heritability of disorders and human traits in general. They involve determining concordance of characteristics between identical (monozygotic or MZ) twins and between fraternal (dizygotic
or DZ) twins. Possible problems of twin studies are: (1) errors in
diagnosis of monozygocity, and (2) the assumption that social
environment sharing by DZ twins is equivalent to that of MZ twins.
A condition that is environmentally caused without genetic
involvement would yield a concordance for MZ twins equal to the
concordance found for DZ twins. In contrast, a condition that is
completely genetic in origin would theoretically yield a concordance of
100% for MZ pairs and usually much less for DZ pairs depending on
factors such as the number of genes involved and assortative mating.
An example of a condition that appears to have very little if any genetic influence is irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), with a concordance of 28% vs. 27% for MZ and DZ pairs respectively.[17] An
example of a human characteristics that is extremely heritable is eye color, with a concordance of 98% for MZ pairs and 7–49% for DZ pairs depending on age.[18]
Identical twin studies put autism's heritability in a range between 36% and 95.7%, with concordance for a broader phenotype usually found at the higher end of the range.[19]
Autism concordance in siblings and fraternal twins is anywhere between 0
and 23.5%. This is more likely 2–4% for classic autism and 10–20% for a
broader spectrum. Assuming a general-population prevalence of 0.1%, the
risk of classic autism in siblings is 20- to 40-fold that of the
general population.
Notable twin studies have attempted to shed light on the heritability of autism.
A small scale study in 1977 was the first of its kind to look
into the heritability of autism. It involved 10 DZ twins and 11 MZ twins
in which at least one twin in each pair showed infantile autism. It
found a concordance of 36% in MZ twins compared to 0% for DZ twins.
Concordance of "cognitive abnormalities" was 82% in MZ pairs and 10% for
DZ pairs. In 12 of the 17 pairs discordant for autism, a biological
hazard was believed to be associated with the condition.[20]
A 1979 case report discussed a pair of identical twins concordant
for autism. The twins developed similarly until the age of 4, when one
of them spontaneously improved. The other twin, who had had infrequent
seizures, remained autistic. The report noted that genetic factors were
not "all important" in the development of twins.[21]
In 1985, a study of twins enrolled with the UCLA Registry for
Genetic Studies found a concordance of 95.7% for autism in 23 pairs of
MZ twins, and 23.5% for 17 DZ twins.[22]
In a 1989 study, Nordic countries
were screened for cases of autism. Eleven pairs of MZ twins and 10 of
DZ twins were examined. Concordance of autism was found to be 91% in MZ
and 0% in DZ pairs. The concordances for "cognitive disorder" were 91%
and 30% respectively. In most of the pairs discordant for autism, the
autistic twin had more perinatal stress.[23]
A British twin sample was reexamined in 1995 and a 60%
concordance was found for autism in MZ twins vs. 0% concordance for DZ.
It also found 92% concordance for a broader spectrum in MZ vs. 10% for
DZ. The study concluded that "obstetric hazards usually appear to be
consequences of genetically influenced abnormal development, rather than
independent aetiological factors."[24]
A 1999 study looked at social cognitive skills in the
general-population of children and adolescents. It found "poorer social
cognition in males", and a heritability of 0.68 with higher genetic
influence in younger twins.[25]
In 2000, a study looked at reciprocal social behavior in
general-population identical twins. It found a concordance of 73% for
MZ, i.e. "highly heritable", and 37% for DZ pairs.[26]
A 2004 study looked at 16 MZ twins and found a concordance of
43.75% for "strictly defined autism". Neuroanatomical differences
(discordant cerebellar white and grey matter volumes) between discordant
twins were found. The abstract notes that in previous studies 75% of
the non-autistic twins displayed the broader phenotype.[27]
Another 2004 study examined whether the characteristic symptoms
of autism (impaired social interaction, communication deficits, and
repetitive behaviors) show decreased variance of symptoms among monozygotic
twins compared to siblings in a sample of 16 families. The study
demonstrated significant aggregation of symptoms in twins. It also
concluded that "the levels of clinical features seen in autism may be a
result of mainly independent genetic traits."[28]
An English twin study in 2006 found high heritability for autistic traits in a large group of 3,400 pairs of twins.[29]
One critic of the pre-2006 twin studies said that they were too
small and their results can be plausibly explained on non-genetic
grounds.[30]
Sibling studiesA
study of 99 autistic probands which found a 2.9% concordance for autism
in siblings, and between 12.4% and 20.4% concordance for a "lesser
variant" of autism.[6]
A study of 31 siblings of autistic children, 32 siblings of
children with developmental delay, and 32 controls. It found that the
siblings of autistic children, as a group, "showed superior spatial and
verbal span, but a greater than expected number performed poorly on the
set-shifting, planning, and verbal fluency tasks."[31]
A 2005 Danish study looked at "data from the Danish Psychiatric
Central Register and the Danish Civil Registration System to study some
risk factors of autism, including place of birth, parental place of
birth, parental age, family history of psychiatric disorders, and
paternal identity." It found an overall prevalence rate of roughly
0.08%. Prevalence of autism in siblings of autistic children was found
to be 1.76%. Prevalence of autism among siblings of children with Asperger syndrome or PDD
was found to be 1.04%. The risk was twice as high if the mother had
been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder. The study also found that
"the risk of autism was associated with increasing degree of
urbanisation of the child's place of birth and with increasing paternal,
but not maternal, age."[32]
A study in 2007 looked at a database containing pedigrees of 86
families with two or more autistic children and found that 42 of the
third-born male children showed autistic symptoms, suggesting that
parents had a 50% chance of passing on a mutation to their offspring.
The mathematical models suggest that about 50% of autistic cases are
caused by spontaneous mutations. The simplest model was to divide
parents into two risk classes depending on whether the parent carries a
pre-existing mutation that causes autism; it suggested that about a
quarter of autistic children have inherited a copy number variation from their parents.[33]
Other family studiesA 1994 study looked at the personalities of parents of autistic children, using parents of children with Down syndrome
as controls. Using standardized tests it was found that parents of
autistic children were "more aloof, untactful and unresponsive" compared
to parents whose children did not have autism.[34]
A 1997 study found higher rates of social and communication
deficits and stereotyped behaviors in families with multiple-incidence
autism.[35]
Autism was found to occur more often in families of physicists,
engineers and scientists. 12.5% of the fathers and 21.2% of the
grandfathers (both paternal and maternal) of children with autism were
engineers, compared to 5% of the fathers and 2.5% of the grandfathers of
children with other syndromes.[36] Other studies have yielded similar results.[37][38] Findings of this nature have led to the coinage of the term "geek syndrome".[39]
A 2001 study of brothers and parents of autistic boys looked into the phenotype
in terms of one current cognitive theory of autism. The study raised
the possibility that the broader autism phenotype may include a
"cognitive style" (weak central coherence) that can confer
information-processing advantages.[40]
A study in 2005 showed a positive correlation between repetitive
behaviors in autistic individuals and obsessive-compulsive behaviors in
parents.[41]
Another 2005 study focused on sub-threshold autistic traits in the
general population. It found that correlation for social impairment or
competence between parents and their children and between spouses is
about 0.4.[42]
A 2005 report examined the family psychiatric history of 58 subjects with Asperger syndrome (AS) diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria. Three (5%) had first-degree relatives with AS. Nine (19%) had a family history of schizophrenia. Thirty five (60%) had a family history of depression. Out of 64 siblings, 4 (6.25%) were diagnosed with AS.[43]
According to a 2022 study held on 86 mother-child dyads across 18
months, "prior maternal depression didn’t predict child behavior
problems later."[44]
Twinning risk![[icon]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png) | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2014) |
It has been suggested that the twinning process itself is a risk factor
in the development of autism, presumably due to perinatal factors.[45] However, three large-scale epidemiological studies have refuted this idea.[2][46] These studies took place in California, Sweden, and Australia.[46]
One study done in Western Australia, utilized the Maternal and Child
Health Research Database that houses birth records for all infants born,
including infants and later children diagnosed with autism spectrum
disorder. During this study, the population analyzed for the incidence
of Autism Spectrum Disorder was restricted to those children with birth
years between 1980 and 1995. The focus was on the incidence of autism
spectrum disorder in the twin population in comparison to the non twin
population. The following two studies,[24][46]
explored the risk of Autism spectrum disorder in the twin population.
The conclusion that the twinning process alone is not a risk factor was
drawn.[46] In these studies the data exemplified that both MZ twins
will have autism spectrum disorder, but only one of the DZ twins will
have autism spectrum disorder with an incidence rate of 90% in MZ twins
compared to 0% in DZ twins.[24]
The high symmetry in MZ twins can explain the high symmetry of autism
spectrum disorder in MZ twins outcome compared to DZ twins and non twin
siblings.[46]
Proposed models
Twin and family studies show that autism is a highly heritable
condition, but they have left many questions for researchers, most
notably
- Why is fraternal twin concordance so low considering that identical twin concordance is high?
- Why are parents of autistic children typically non-autistic?
- Which factors could be involved in the failure to find a 100% concordance in identical twins?
- Is profound intellectual disability a characteristic of the genotype or something totally independent?
Clues to the first two questions come from studies that have shown
that at least 30% of individuals with autism have spontaneous de novo
mutations that occurred in the father's sperm or mother's egg that
disrupt important genes for brain development. These spontaneous
mutations are likely to cause autism in families where there is no
family history of the disorder.[47] The concordance between identical twins isn't quite 100% for two reasons, because these mutations have variable 'expressivity'
and their effects manifest differently due to chance effects,
epigenetic, and environmental factors. Also spontaneous mutations can
potentially occur specifically in one embryo and not the other after
conception.[48]
The likelihood of developing intellectual disability is dependent on
the importance of the gene to brain development and how the mutation
changes this function, also playing a role is the genetic and
environmental background upon which a mutation occurs.[49]
The recurrence of the same mutations in multiple individuals affected by
autism has led Brandler and Sebat to suggest that the spectrum of
autism is breaking up into quanta of many different genetic disorders.[49]
Single genesThe
most parsimonious explanation for cases of autism where a single child
is affected and there is no family history or affected siblings is that a
single spontaneous mutation that impacts one or multiple genes is a
significant contributing factor.[49][50]
Tens of individual genes or mutations have been definitively identified
and are cataloged by the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative.[51][52]
Examples of autism that has arisen from a rare or de novo mutation in a single-gene or locus include the neurodevelopmental disorders fragile X syndrome, 22q13 deletion syndrome, and 16p11.2 deletion syndrome.[53]
These mutations themselves are characterized by considerable
variability in clinical outcome and typically only a subset of mutation
carriers meet criteria for autism. For example, carriers of the 16p11.2
deletion have a mean IQ 32 points lower than their first-degree
relatives that do not carry the deletion, however only 20% are below the
threshold IQ of 70 for intellectual disability, and only 20% have
autism.[54][55] Around 85% have a neurobehavioral diagnosis, including autism, ADHD, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, gross motor delay, and epilepsy, while 15% have no diagnosis.[55]
Alongside these neurobehavioral phenotypes, the 16p11.2 deletions /
duplications have been associated with macrocephaly / microcephaly, body
weight regulation, and the duplication in particular is associated with
schizophrenia.[54][56][57]
Controls that carry mutations associated with autism or schizophrenia
typically present with intermediate cognitive phenotypes or fecundity
compared to neurodevelopmental cases and population controls.[58] Therefore, a single mutation can have multiple different effects depending on other genetic and environmental factors.
Multigene interactionsIn
this model, autism often arises from a combination of common,
functional variants of genes. Each gene contributes a relatively small
effect in increasing the risk of autism. In this model, no single gene
directly regulates any core symptom of autism such as social behavior.
Instead, each gene encodes a protein that disrupts a cellular process,
and the combination of these disruptions, possibly together with
environmental influences,[59] affect key developmental processes such as synapse formation. For example, one model is that many mutations affect MET and other receptor tyrosine kinases, which in turn converge on disruption of ERK and PI3K signaling.[53]
Two family typesIn
this model most families fall into two types: in the majority, sons
have a low risk of autism, but in a small minority their risk is near
50%. In the low-risk families, sporadic autism is mainly caused by
spontaneous mutation with poor penetrance
in daughters and high penetrance in sons. The high-risk families come
from (mostly female) children who carry a new causative mutation but are
unaffected and transmit the dominant mutation to grandchildren.[33]
Epigenetic
Several epigenetic models of autism have been proposed.[60]
These are suggested by the occurrence of autism in individuals with
fragile X syndrome, which arises from epigenetic mutations, and with
Rett syndrome, which involves epigenetic regulation factors. An
epigenetic model would help explain why standard genetic screening
strategies have so much difficulty with autism.[61]
Genomic imprintingGenomic imprinting models have been proposed; one of their strengths is explaining the high male-to-female ratio in ASD.[62] One hypothesis is that autism is in some sense diametrically opposite to schizophrenia
and other psychotic-spectrum conditions, that alterations of genomic
imprinting help to mediate the development of these two sets of
conditions, and that ASD involves increased effects of paternally
expressed genes, which regulate overgrowth in the brain, whereas
schizophrenia involves maternally expressed genes and undergrowth.[63]
Environmental interactionsThough
autism's genetic factors explain most of autism risk, they do not
explain all of it. A common hypothesis is that autism is caused by the
interaction of a genetic predisposition and an early environmental
insult.[64]
Several theories based on environmental factors have been proposed to
address the remaining risk. Some of these theories focus on prenatal
environmental factors, such as agents that cause birth defects; others
focus on the environment after birth, such as children's diets. All
known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.[65] Although evidence for other environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies,[66] extensive searches are underway.[67]
Sex biasAutism spectrum disorder affects all races, ethnicities, and socioeconomic groups. Still, more males than females are affected across all cultures,[68] the ratios of males-to-females is appropriately 3 to 1.[69] A study analyzed the Autism Genetics Resource Exchange (AGRE database),
which holds resources, research, and records of autism spectrum
disorder diagnosis. In this study, it was concluded that when a
spontaneous mutation causes autism spectrum disorder (ASD), there is
high penetrance in males and low penetrance in females.[69][70] A study published in 2020 explored the reason behind this idea further.[71]
It is commonly known that the main difference between males and females
is the fact that males have one X and one Y sex chromosome whereas
female have two X chromosomes. This leads to the idea that there is a
gene on the X chromosome that is not on the Y that is involved with the
sex bias of ASD.[71][68]
In another study, it has been found that the gene called NLGN4, when mutated, can cause ASD.[72] This gene and other NLGN genes are important for neuron communications.[68] This NLGN4 gene is found on both the X (NLGN4X) and the Y (NLGN4Y) chromosome. The sex chromosomes are 97% identical.[68][71] It has been determined that most of the mutations that occur are located on the NLGN4X gene.[68][72]
Research into the differences between NLGN4X and NLGN4Y found that the
NLGN4Y protein has poor surface expectations and poor synapses
regulations, leading to poor neuron communication.[68][71] Researchers concluded that males have a higher incidence of autism when the mechanism is NLGN4X-associated.[68]
This association was concluded since females have two X chromosomes; if
there is a mutation in a gene on an X chromosome, the other X
chromosome can be used to compensate for the mutation. Whereas males
have only one X chromosome, meaning that if there is a mutation in a
gene on an X chromosome, then that is the only copy of the gene and it
will be used. The genomic difference between males and females is one
mechanism that leads to the higher incidence of ASD in males.[68][71][72]
Candidate gene lociKnown genetic syndromes, mutations, and metabolic diseases account for up to 20% of autism cases.[73] A number of alleles have been shown to have strong linkage to the autism phenotype.
In many cases the findings are inconclusive, with some studies showing
no linkage. Alleles linked so far strongly support the assertion that
there is a large number of genotypes that are
manifested as the autism phenotype.
At least some of the alleles associated with autism are fairly
prevalent in the general population, which indicates they are not rare
pathogenic mutations. This also presents some challenges in identifying
all the rare allele combinations involved in the etiology of autism.
A 2008 study compared genes linked with autism to those of other
neurological diseases, and found that more than half of known autism
genes are implicated in other disorders, suggesting that the other
disorders may share molecular mechanisms with autism.[74]
Primary
| Gene |
OMIM/# |
Locus |
Description
|
| CDH9, CDH10 |
|
5p14.1 |
A 2009 pair of genome-wide association studies found an association
between autism and six single-nucleotide polymorphisms in an intergenic
region between CDH10 (cadherin 10) and CDH9 (cadherin 9). These genes
encode neuronal cell-adhesion molecules, implicating these molecules in
the mechanism of autism.[75]
|
| CDH8 |
|
16q21 |
A family based study identified a deletion of CDH8 that was transmitted to three out of three affected children and zero out of four unaffected siblings.[76] Further evidence for the role of CDH8 comes from a spontaneous 1.52 megabase inversion that disrupts the gene in an affected child.[77]
|
| MAPK3 |
|
16p11.2 |
A 2008 study observed a de novo deletion of 593 kb on this
chromosome in about 1% of persons with autism, and similarly for the
reciprocal duplication of the region.[78] Another 2008 study also found duplications and deletions associated with ASD at this locus.[79] This gene encodes ERK1, one of the extracellular signal regulated kinase subfamily of mitogen-activated protein kinases
which are central elements of an intracellular signaling pathways that
transmits signals from cell surfaces to interiors. 1% of autistic
children have been found to have either a loss or duplication in a
region of chromosome 16 that encompasses the gene for ERK1. A similar
disturbance in this pathway is also found in neuro-cardio-facial-cutaneous syndromes (NCFC), which are characterized by cranio-facial development disturbances that also can be found in some cases of autism.[80]
|
| SERT (SLC6A4) |
|
17q11.2 |
This gene locus has been associated with rigid-compulsive behaviors.
Notably, it has also been associated with depression but only as a
result of social adversity, although other studies have found no link.[81] Significant linkage in families with only affected males has been shown.[82][83] Researchers have also suggested that the gene contributes to hyperserotonemia.[84]
However, a 2008 meta-analysis of family- and population-based studies
found no significant overall association between autism and either the
promoter insertion/deletion (5-HTTLPR) or the intron 2 VNTR (STin2 VNTR) polymorphisms.[85]
|
| CACNA1G |
|
17q21.33 |
Markers within an interval containing this gene are associated with
ASD at a locally significant level. The region likely harbors a
combination of multiple rare and common alleles that contribute to
genetic risk for ASD.[86]
|
| GABRB3, GABRA4 |
|
multiple |
GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the human brain. Ma et al. (2005) concluded that GABRA4 is involved in the etiology of autism, and that it potentially increases autism risk through interaction with GABRB1.[87] The GABRB3 gene has been associated with savant skills.[88] The GABRB3 gene deficient mouse has been proposed as a model of ASD.[89]
|
| EN2 |
|
7q36.2 |
Engrailed 2 is believed to be associated with cerebellar development. Benayed et al..
(2005) estimate that this gene contributes to as many as 40% of ASD
cases, about twice the prevalence of the general population.[90] But at least one study has found no association.[91]
|
| ? |
|
3q25-27 |
A number of studies have shown a significant linkage of autism and Asperger syndrome with this locus.[92][93] The most prominent markers are in the vicinity of D3S3715 and D3S3037.[94]
|
| RELN |
|
7q21-q36 |
In adults, Reelin glycoprotein
is believed to be involved in memory formation, neurotransmission, and
synaptic plasticity. A number of studies have shown an association
between the REELIN gene and autism,[95][96] but a couple of studies were unable to duplicate linkage findings.[97]
|
| SLC25A12 |
|
2q31 |
This gene encodes the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier (AGC1). It has been found to have a significant linkage to autism in some studies,[98][99][100] but linkage was not replicated in others,[101] and a 2007 study found no compelling evidence of an association of any mitochondrial haplogroup in autism.[102]
|
| HOXA1 and HOXB1 |
|
multiple |
A link has been found between HOX genes and the development of the
embryonic brain stem. In particular, two genes, HOXA1 and HOXB1, in
transgenic 'knockout' mice, engineered so that these genes were absent
from the genomes of the mice in question, exhibited very specific brain
stem developmental differences from the norm, which were directly
comparable to the brain stem differences discovered in a human brain
stem originating from a diagnosed autistic patient.[103]
Conciatori et al.. (2004) found an association of HOXA1 with increased head circumference.[104] A number of studies have found no association with autism.[105][106][107]
The possibility remains that single allelic variants of the HOXA1 gene
are insufficient alone to trigger the developmental events in the
embryo now associated with autistic spectrum conditions. Tischfield et al..
published a paper which suggests that because HOXA1 is implicated in a
wide range of developmental mechanisms, a model involving multiple
allelic variants of HOXA1 in particular may provide useful insights into
the heritability mechanisms involved.[108] Additionally, Ingram et al.. alighted upon additional possibilities in this arena.[109]
Transgenic mouse studies indicate that there is redundancy spread
across HOX genes that complicate the issue, and that complex
interactions between these genes could play a role in determining
whether or not a person inheriting the requisite combinations manifests
an autistic spectrum condition[110]—transgenic
mice with mutations in both HOXA1 and HOXB1 exhibit far more profound
developmental anomalies than those in which only one of the genes
differs from the conserved 'norm'.
In Rodier's original work, teratogens are considered to play a
part in addition, and that the possibility remains open for a range of
teratogens to interact with the mechanisms controlled by these genes
unfavourably (this has already been demonstrated using valproic acid, a
known teratogen, in the mouse model).[111]
|
| PRKCB1 |
|
16p11.2 |
Philippi et al. (2005) found a strong association between this gene and autism. This is a recent finding that needs to be replicated.[112]
|
| TAOK2 |
|
16p11.2 |
Richter et al. (2018) found a strong association between this gene and autism.[113]
|
| MECP2 |
300496, AUTSX3 |
Xq28 |
Mutations in this gene can give rise to autism spectrum disorders and related postnatal neurodevelopmental disorders.[114]
|
| UBE3A |
|
15q11.2–q13 |
The maternally expressed imprinted gene UBE3A has been associated with Angelman syndrome. MeCP2 deficiency results in reduced expression of UBE3A in some studies.[115]
|
| SHANK3 (ProSAP2) |
|
22q13 |
The gene called SHANK3 (also designated ProSAP2) regulates the structural organization of neurotransmitter receptors in post-synaptic dendritic spines making it a key element in chemical binding crucial to nerve cell communication.[116] SHANK3 is also a binding partner of chromosome 22q13 (i.e. a specific section of Chromosome 22) and neuroligin proteins; deletions and mutations of SHANK3, 22q13
(i.e. a specific section of Chromosome 22) and genes encoding
neuroligins have been found in some people with autism spectrum
disorders.[117]
Mutations in the SHANK3 gene have been strongly associated with the
autism spectrum disorders. If the SHANK3 gene is not adequately passed
to a child from the parent (haploinsufficiency)
there will possibly be significant neurological changes that are
associated with yet another gene, 22q13, which interacts with SHANK3.
Alteration or deletion of either will effect changes in the other.[117]
A deletion of a single copy of a gene on chromosome 22q13
has been correlated with global developmental delay, severely delayed
speech or social communication disorders and moderate to profound delay
of cognitive abilities. Behavior is described as "autistic-like" and
includes high tolerance to pain and habitual chewing or mouthing[117] (see also 22q13 deletion syndrome). This appears to be connected to the fact that signal transmission between nerve cells is altered with the absence of 22q13.
SHANK3 proteins also interact with neuroligins at the synapses of
the brain further complicating the widespread effects of changes at the
genetic level and beyond.[118]
|
| NLGN3 |
300425, AUTSX1 |
Xq13 |
Neuroligin is a cell surface protein (homologous to acetylcholinesterase and other esterases) that binds to synaptic membranes.[119]
Neuroligins organize postsynaptic membranes that function to transmit
nerve cell messages (excitatory) and stop those transmissions
(inhibitory);[120]
In this way, neuroligins help to ensure signal transitions between
nerve cells. Neuroligins also regulate the maturation of synapses and
ensure there are sufficient receptor proteins on the synaptic membrane.
Mice with a neuroligin-3 mutation exhibit poor social skills but increased intelligence.[121]
Though not present in all individuals with autism, these mutations hold
potential to illustrate some of the genetic components of spectrum
disorders.[118] However, a 2008 study found no evidence for involvement of neuroligin-3 and neuroligin-4x with high-functioning ASD.[122]
|
| MET |
|
7q31 |
The MET gene (MET receptor tyrosine kinase gene) linked to brain development, regulation of the immune system, and repair of the gastrointestinal system, has been linked to autism. This MET gene codes for a protein that relays signals that turn on a cell's internal machinery. Impairing the receptor's signaling interferes with neuron migration and disrupts neuronal growth in the cerebral cortex and similarly shrinks the cerebellum—abnormalities also seen in autism.[123]
It is also known to play a key role in both normal and abnormal development, such as cancer metastases. A mutation of the gene, rendering it less active, has been found to be common amongst children with autism.[123] Mutation in the MET gene demonstrably raises risk of autism by 2.27 times.[124]
|
| NRXN1 |
|
2q32 |
In February 2007, researchers in the Autism Genome Project (an
international research team composed of 137 scientists in 50
institutions) reported possible implications in aberrations of a
brain-development gene called neurexin 1 as a cause of some cases of
autism.[15] Linkage analysis was performed on DNA from 1,181 families in what was the largest-scale genome scan conducted in autism research at the time.
The objective of the study was to locate specific brain cells involved in autism to find regions in the genome linked to autism susceptibility genes. The focus of the research was copy number variations
(CNVs), extra or missing parts of genes. Each person does not actually
have just an exact copy of genes from each parent. Each person also has
occasional multiple copies of one or more genes or some genes are
missing altogether. The research team attempted to locate CNVs when they
scanned the DNA.
Neurexin 1 is one of the genes that may be involved in communication between nerve cells (neurons).
Neurexin 1 and other genes like it are very important in determining
how the brain is connected from cell to cell, and in the chemical
transmission of information between nerve cells. These genes are
particularly active very early in brain development, either in utero or
in the first months or couple of years of life. In some families their
autistic child had only one copy of the neurexin 1 gene.
Besides locating another possible genetic influence (the findings
were statistically insignificant), the research also reinforced the
theory that autism involves many forms of genetic variations.
A 2008 study implicated the neurexin 1 gene in two independent
subjects with ASD, and suggested that subtle changes to the gene might
contribute to susceptibility to ASD.[125]
A Neurexin 1 deletion has been observed occurring spontaneously
in an unaffected mother and was passed on to an affected child,
suggesting that the mutation has incomplete penetrance.[77]
|
| CNTNAP2 |
|
7q35-q36 |
Multiple 2008 studies have identified a series of functional variants in the CNTNAP2 gene, a member of the neurexin superfamily, that implicate it as contributing to autism.[59][126][127][128]
|
| FOXP2 |
|
7q31 |
The FOXP2 gene is of interest because it is known to be associated with developmental language and speech deficits.[129][130]
A 2008 study found that FOXP2 binds to and down-regulates CNTNAP2, and
that the FOXP2-CNTNAP2 pathway links distinct syndromes involving
disrupted language.[131]
|
| GSTP1 |
|
11q13 |
A 2007 study suggested that the GSTP1*A haplotype of the glutathione S-transferase P1 gene (GSTP1) acts in the mother during pregnancy and increases the likelihood of autism in the child.[132]
|
| PRL, PRLR, OXTR |
|
multiple |
A 2014 meta-analysis found significant associations between autism and several single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the OXTR gene.[133]
|
OthersThere is a large number of other candidate loci which either should be looked at or have been shown to be promising. Several genome-wide scans have been performed identifying markers across many chromosomes.[134][135][136]
A few examples of loci that have been studied are the 17q21 region,[137][138] the 3p24-26 locus,[134] PTEN,[139] 15q11.2–q13[115] and deletion in the 22q11.2 area.[140]
Homozygosity mapping in pedigrees with shared ancestry and autism
incidence has recently implicated the following candidate genes: PCDH10, DIA1 (formerly known as C3ORF58), NHE9, CNTN3, SCN7A, and RNF8. Several of these genes appeared to be targets of MEF2,[141][142] one of the transcription factors known to be regulated by neuronal activity[143] and that itself has also recently been implicated as an autism-related disorder candidate gene.[144]
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Further reading
External links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_autism Kanner syndrome, officially childhood autism, was a neurodevelopmental diagnosis before the release of the DSM-5 and ICD-11. It has been superseded by autism spectrum disorder. In daily speech it is often referred to as "classic autism", or "Kanner autism."[3][10]
Even though the official name was always "childhood autism" this
term was seldom used since all forms of autism develop in childhood and
persist throughout the entire life of the patient. The term "autism",
"Kanner syndrome/autism" or "low functioning autism" was often used to
refer to classic autism.[10] After DSM-V/ICD-11 the term "autism" has become more commonly used in reference to the autism spectrum more broadly.[11][12][13]
Parents often noticed signs of autism during the first three years of their child's life.[1][3]
Autism was hypothesized to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors,[4] with genetic factors thought to heavily predominate.[14] Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which although disproved, continues to hold sway in certain communities.[15][16] Contemporary diagnostic manuals include only one diagnosis - autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - which includes classic autism along with Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS).[3]
Globally, classic autism was estimated to affect 24.8 million people as of 2015.[9]
CharacteristicsClassic autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder[17] whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission.[18] Autistic people may be severely impaired in some respects but average, or even superior, in others.[19] Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months and become established by age two or three years.[20] Some autistic children experience regression in their communication and social skills after reaching developmental milestones at a normal pace.[21]
It was said to be distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms:
impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and
repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also
common but are not essential for diagnosis.[22]
Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and
appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating
pathologically severe from common traits.[23]
Social developmentAutistic
people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about
others that many people take for granted. Unusual social development
becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less
attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and
respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things.[24]
Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit
social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond
to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers.[25] Most autistic children displayed moderately less attachment security
than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in
children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic
traits.[26]
Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent
loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief
that autistic children prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining
friendships often proves to be difficult for autistic people. For them,
the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how
lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in
invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.[27]
CommunicationDifferences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling,
unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that
are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years,
autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling,
consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often
integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make
requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat
others' words (echolalia)[28] or reverse pronouns.[29]
Deficits in joint attention may be present - for example, they may look
at a pointing hand instead of the object to which the hand is pointing.[24] Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.[28]
It is also thought that autistic and non-autistic adults produce
different facial expressions, and that these differences could
contribute to bidirectional communication difficulties. [30]
Repetitive behaviorA young autistic boy who has arranged his toys in a row Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or
restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R)
categorizes as follows.[31][better source needed]
- Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.
- Compulsive behaviors:
Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce the anxiety that an
individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid
rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or
handwashing.
- Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted.
- Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual.
- Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in
theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single
television program, toy, or game.
No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific
to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence
and severity of these behaviors.[32]
Other symptomsAutistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis.[22] An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with classic autism show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants.[33] Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people, and are considered core features by some,[22] although there was no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.[34] An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking.[22]
Causes
It was presumed initially that there was a common cause at the
genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for classic autism's
characteristic triad of symptoms.[35] However, over time, there was increasing evidence that autism was instead a complex and highly heritable disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes which often often co-occur.[35][36][37]
Although theories regarding vaccines lack convincing scientific evidence, are biologically implausible,[38] and originated from a fraudulent study,[39] parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism (and subsequent concern about ASD) has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.[40][41]
DiagnosisDiagnosis of classic autism was based on behavioral symptoms, not cause or mechanism.[23][42]
ClassificationClassic autism was listed as autistic disorder in the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual, as one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs).[10] However, the PDDs were collapsed into the single diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder in 2013,[10] and the WHO's diagnostic manual ICD-11 (which had listed it as childhood autism in its previous edition[43]) followed suit a few years later.[44]
Classic autism was said to be characterized by widespread abnormalities
of social interactions and communication, severely restricted
interests, and highly repetitive behavior.[18]
Of the PDDs, Asperger syndrome was closest to classic autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with it, but were understood to potentially have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism) was diagnosed when the criteria were not met for one of the other four PDDs.[45]
People would usually attract a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome rather
than classic autism if they showed no substantial delay in language development,[46] but early language ability was found to be a poor predictor of outcomes in adulthood.[47]
Prognosis and management
An
autistic three-year-old points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an
experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on
language development. [48]There is no known cure for autism,[6] and very little research addressed long-term prognosis for classic autism.[49] Many autistic children lack social support, future employment opportunities or self-determination.[27]
The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen
associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life
and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with
greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes.[50] Services should be carried out by behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists.
Intensive, sustained special education
programs and behavior therapy early in life often improves functioning
and decreases symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;[51] claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.[52]
No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.[medical citation needed]
Education
Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children;[53] it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group.[51][53] It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up,[51] and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.[54]
Alternative medicineAlthough many alternative therapies and interventions were used, few are supported by scientific studies.[55] Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.[27] Some alternative treatments placed autistic individuals at risk.[56] For example, in 2005, a five-year-old child with autism was killed by botched chelation therapy (which is not recommended for autism as risks outweigh any potential benefits).[57][58][59]
Epidemiology
Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children rose considerably in the US from 1996 to 2007. Globally, classic autism was understood to affect an estimated 24.8 million people as of 2015.[9]
After it was recognised as a distinct disorder, reports of autism cases
substantially increased, which was largely attributable to changes in
diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age
at diagnosis, and public awareness[60][61] (particularly among women).[62]
Several other conditions were commonly seen in children with autism. They include:
History
Leo Kanner introduced the label early infantile autism in 1943. The Neo-Latin word autismus (English translation autism) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word autós
(αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration,
referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies,
against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable
disturbance".[68] The word autism first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology autistic psychopaths in a lecture in German about child psychology.[69] Asperger was investigating Asperger syndrome which, for various reasons, was not widely considered a separate diagnosis until 1981,[67] although both are now considered part of ASD. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used autism in English to refer to classic autism when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report.[29]
Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the
subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are
still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.[36] Starting in the late 1960s, classic autism was established as a separate syndrome.[70]
It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R
provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was
released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental
disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism,
Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced
with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorder.[71]
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External links
| Classification | |
|---|
| External resources | |
|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_autism Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of mental disorders that affect the development of the nervous system, leading to abnormal brain function which may affect emotion, learning ability, self-control, and memory. The effects of neurodevelopmental disorders tend to last for a person's lifetime. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder Joseph Smith Jr. (December 23, 1805 – June 27, 1844) was an American religious leader and the founder of Mormonism and the Latter Day Saint movement. Publishing the Book of Mormon
at the age of 24, Smith had attracted tens of thousands of followers by
the time of his death fourteen years later. The religion he founded
continues to the present day, with millions of global adherents and
several churches claiming Smith as their founder, the largest being The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).
Born in Sharon, Vermont, Smith moved with his family to the western region of New York State, following a series of crop failures in 1816. Living in an area of intense religious revivalism during the Second Great Awakening, Smith reported experiencing a series of visions. The first of these was in 1820, when he saw "two personages" (whom he eventually described as God the Father and Jesus Christ). In 1823, he said he was visited by an angel who directed him to a buried book of golden plates
inscribed with a Judeo-Christian history of an ancient American
civilization. In 1830, Smith published the Book of Mormon, which he
described as an English translation of those plates. The same year he
organized the Church of Christ, calling it a restoration of the early Christian Church. Members of the church were later called "Latter Day Saints" or "Mormons".
In 1831, Smith and his followers moved west, planning to build a communal Zion in the American heartland. They first gathered in Kirtland, Ohio, and established an outpost in Independence, Missouri, which was intended to be Zion's "center place". During the 1830s, Smith sent out missionaries, published revelations, and supervised construction of the Kirtland Temple. Because of the collapse of the church-sponsored Kirtland Safety Society, violent skirmishes with non-Mormon Missourians, and the Mormon extermination order, Smith and his followers established a new settlement at Nauvoo, Illinois, of which he was the spiritual and political leader. In 1844, when the Nauvoo Expositor criticized Smith's power and his practice of polygamy, Smith and the Nauvoo City Council ordered the destruction of its printing press, inflaming anti-Mormon sentiment. Fearing an invasion of Nauvoo, Smith rode to Carthage, Illinois, to stand trial, but was killed when a mob stormed the jailhouse.
During his ministry, Smith published numerous documents and
texts, many of which he attributed to divine inspiration and revelation
from God. He
dictated the majority of these in the first-person, saying they were
the writings of ancient prophets or expressed the voice of God. His
followers accepted his teachings as prophetic and revelatory, and
several of these texts were canonized by denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement, which continue to treat them as scripture. Smith's teachings discuss God's nature, cosmology,
family structures, political organization, and religious community and
authority. Mormons generally regard Smith as a prophet comparable to Moses and Elijah. Several religious denominations identify as the continuation of the church that he organized, including LDS Church and the Community of Christ.
Life
Early years (1805–1827)
Joseph Smith was born on December 23, 1805, in Vermont, on the border between the villages of South Royalton and Sharon, to Lucy Mack Smith and her husband Joseph Smith Sr., a merchant and farmer.[6][c]
He was one of eleven children. At the age of seven, Smith suffered a
crippling bone infection and, after receiving surgery, used crutches for
three years.[7] After an ill-fated business venture and three successive years of crop failures culminating in the 1816 Year Without a Summer, the Smith family left Vermont and moved to the western region of New York State,[8] and took out a mortgage on a 100-acre (40 ha) farm in the townships of Palmyra and Manchester.[9]
The region was a hotbed of religious enthusiasm during the Second Great Awakening.[10][11] Between 1817 and 1825, there were several camp meetings and revivals in the Palmyra area.[12] Smith's parents disagreed about religion, but the family was caught up in this excitement.[13] Smith later recounted that he had become interested in religion by age 12, and as a teenager, may have been sympathetic to Methodism.[14] With other family members, he also engaged in religious folk magic, a relatively common practice in that time and place.[15]
Both his parents and his maternal grandfather reported having visions
or dreams that they believed communicated messages from God.[16]
Smith said that, although he had become concerned about the welfare of
his soul, he was confused by the claims of competing religious
denominations.[17]
Years later, Smith wrote that he had received a vision that resolved his religious confusion.[18] He said that in 1820, while he had been praying in a wooded area near his home, God the Father and Jesus Christ
together appeared to him, told him his sins were forgiven, and said
that all contemporary churches had "turned aside from the gospel."[19] Smith said he recounted the experience to a Methodist minister, who dismissed the story "with great contempt".[20]
According to historian Steven C. Harper, "There is no evidence in the
historical record that Joseph Smith told anyone but the minister of his
vision for at least a decade", and Smith might have kept it private
because of how uncomfortable that first dismissal was.[21]
During the 1830s, Smith orally described the vision to some of his
followers, though it was not widely published among Mormons until the
1840s.[22] This vision later grew in importance to Smith's followers, who eventually regarded it as the first event in the restoration of Christ's church to Earth.[23] Smith himself may have originally considered the vision to be a personal conversion.[24]
According to Smith's later accounts, while praying one night in 1823, he was visited by an angel named Moroni. Smith claimed this angel revealed the location of a buried book made of golden plates, as well as other artifacts including a breastplate and a set of interpreters composed of two seer stones set in a frame, which had been hidden in a hill near his home.[25] Smith said he attempted to remove the plates the next morning, but was unsuccessful because Moroni returned and prevented him.[26]
He reported that during the next four years he made annual visits to
the hill, but, until the fourth and final visit, each time he returned
without the plates.[27]
Meanwhile, Smith's family faced financial hardship, due in part to the death of his oldest brother Alvin, who had assumed a leadership role in the family.[28] Family members supplemented their meager farm income by hiring out for odd jobs and working as treasure seekers,[29] a type of magical supernaturalism common during the period.[30]
Smith was said to have an ability to locate lost items by looking into a
seer stone, which he also used in treasure hunting, including,
beginning in 1825, several unsuccessful attempts to find buried treasure
sponsored by Josiah Stowell, a wealthy farmer in Chenango County.[31]
In 1826, Smith was brought before a Chenango County court for
"glass-looking", or pretending to find lost treasure; Stowell's
relatives accused Smith of tricking Stowell and faking an ability to
perceive hidden treasure, though Stowell attested that he believed Smith
had such abilities.[32][d] The result of the proceeding remains unclear because primary sources report conflicting outcomes.[e]
While boarding at the Hale house, located in the township of Harmony (now Oakland) in Pennsylvania, Smith met and courted Emma Hale. When he proposed marriage, her father, Isaac Hale, objected; he believed Smith had no means to support his daughter.[33] Hale also considered Smith a stranger who appeared "careless" and "not very well educated."[34] Smith and Emma eloped
and married on January 18, 1827, after which the couple began boarding
with Smith's parents in Manchester. Later that year, when Smith promised
to abandon treasure seeking, his father-in-law offered to let the
couple live on his property in Harmony and help Smith get started in
business.[35]
Smith made his last visit to the hill shortly after midnight on September 22, 1827, taking Emma with him.[36] This time, he said he successfully retrieved the plates.[37]
Smith said Moroni commanded him not to show the plates to anyone else,
but to translate them and publish their translation. He also said the
plates were a religious record of Middle-Eastern indigenous Americans and were engraved in an unknown language, called reformed Egyptian.[38] He told associates that he was capable of reading and translating them.[39]
Although Smith had abandoned treasure hunting, former associates
believed he had double crossed them and had taken the golden plates for
himself, property they believed should be jointly shared.[40] After they ransacked places where they believed the plates might have been hidden, Smith decided to leave Palmyra.[41]
Founding a church (1827–1830)
In October 1827, Smith and Emma permanently moved to Harmony, aided by a relatively prosperous neighbor, Martin Harris.[42]
Living near his in-laws, Smith transcribed some characters that he said
were engraved on the plates and dictated their translations to Emma.[43]
In February 1828, after visiting Smith in Harmony, Harris took a sample of the characters Smith had copied to a few prominent scholars, including Charles Anthon.[44]
He said Anthon initially authenticated the characters and their
translation, but then retracted his opinion after learning that Smith
claimed to have received the plates from an angel.[45]
Anthon denied Harris's account of the meeting, claiming instead that he
had tried to convince Harris that he was the victim of a fraud.[46] In any event, Harris returned to Harmony in April 1828 and began serving as Smith's scribe.[47]
Although Harris and his wife Lucy were early supporters of Smith,
by June 1828 they began to have doubts about the existence of the
golden plates. Harris persuaded Smith to let him take 116 pages of manuscript to Palmyra to show a few family members, including his wife.[48] While in Harris's possession, the manuscript—of which there was no other copy—was lost.[f]
Smith was devastated by this loss, especially since it came at the same
time as he lost his first son, who died shortly after birth.[49]
Smith said that as punishment for his having lost the manuscript,
Moroni returned, took away the plates, and revoked his ability to
translate.[50]
During this period, Smith briefly attended Methodist meetings with his
wife, until a cousin of hers objected to inclusion of a "practicing necromancer" on the Methodist class roll.[51]
Smith said that Moroni returned the plates to him in September 1828,[52] and he then dictated some of the book to his wife Emma.[53][g] In April 1829 he met Oliver Cowdery, who had also dabbled in folk magic; and with Cowdery as scribe, Smith began a period of "rapid-fire translation".[54][h] Between April and early June 1829, the two worked full time on the manuscript, then moved to Fayette, New York, where they continued the work at the home of Cowdery's friend, Peter Whitmer.[55] When the narrative described an institutional church and a requirement for baptism, Smith and Cowdery baptized each other.[56] Dictation was completed about July 1, 1829.[57]
Although Smith had previously refused to show the plates to anyone, he told Harris, Cowdery, and Whitmer's son David that they would be allowed to see them.[58] These men, known collectively as the Three Witnesses,
signed a statement stating that they had been shown the golden plates
by an angel, and that the voice of God had confirmed the truth of their
translation. Later, a group of Eight Witnesses
— composed of male members of the Whitmer and Smith families – issued a
statement that they had been shown the golden plates by Smith.[59] According to Smith, Moroni took back the plates once Smith finished using them.[60]
The completed work, titled the Book of Mormon, was published in Palmyra by printer Egbert Bratt Grandin[61] and was first advertised for sale on March 26, 1830.[62] Less than two weeks later, on April 6, 1830, Smith and his followers formally organized the Church of Christ, and small branches were established in Manchester, Fayette, and Colesville, New York.[63]
The Book of Mormon brought Smith regional notoriety and renewed the
hostility of those who remembered the 1826 Chenango County trial.[64] After Cowdery baptized several new church members, Smith's followers were threatened with mob violence. Before Smith could confirm the newly baptized, he was arrested and charged with being a "disorderly person."[65] Although he was acquitted, both he and Cowdery fled to Colesville to escape a gathering mob. Smith later claimed that, probably around this time, Peter, James, and John had appeared to him and had ordained him and Cowdery to a higher priesthood.[66]
Smith's authority was undermined when Cowdery, Hiram Page, and other church members also claimed to receive revelations.[67] In response, Smith dictated a revelation which clarified his office as a prophet and an apostle, stating that only he had the ability to declare doctrine and scripture for the church.[68] Smith then dispatched Cowdery, Peter Whitmer, and others on a mission to proselytize Native Americans.[69] Cowdery was also assigned the task of locating the site of the New Jerusalem, which was to be “on the borders” of the United States with what was then Indian territory.[70]
On their way to Missouri, Cowdery's party passed through northeastern Ohio, where Sidney Rigdon and over a hundred followers of his variety of Campbellite Restorationism converted to the Church of Christ, swelling the ranks of the new organization dramatically.[71] After Rigdon visited New York, he soon became Smith's primary assistant.[72] With growing opposition in New York, Smith announced a revelation that his followers should gather to Kirtland, Ohio, establish themselves as a people and await word from Cowdery's mission.[73]
Life in Ohio (1831–1838)
When Smith moved to Kirtland in January 1831, he encountered a religious culture that included enthusiastic demonstrations of spiritual gifts, including fits and trances, rolling on the ground, and speaking in tongues.[74] Rigdon's followers were practicing a form of communalism. Smith brought the Kirtland congregation under his authority and tamed ecstatic outbursts.[75] He had promised church elders that in Kirtland they would receive an endowment of heavenly power, and at the June 1831 general conference, he introduced the greater authority of a High ("Melchizedek") Priesthood to the church hierarchy.[76]
Converts poured into Kirtland. By the summer of 1835, there were
fifteen hundred to two thousand Latter Day Saints in the vicinity,[77] many expecting Smith to lead them shortly to the Millennial kingdom.[78] Though his mission to the Native Americans had been a failure,[79][i] Cowdery and the other missionaries with him were charged with finding a site for "a holy city". They found Jackson County, Missouri. After Smith visited in July 1831, he pronounced the frontier hamlet of Independence the "center place" of Zion.[80]
For most of the 1830s, the church was effectively based in Ohio.[81]
Smith lived there, though he visited Missouri again in early 1832 to
prevent a rebellion of prominent church members who believed the church
in Missouri was being neglected.[82]
Smith's trip was hastened by a mob of Ohio residents who were incensed
over the church's presence and Smith's political power. The mob beat
Smith and Rigdon unconscious, tarred and feathered them, and left them for dead.[83]
In Jackson County, existing Missouri residents resented the Latter Day Saint newcomers for both political and religious reasons.[j]
Tension increased until July 1833, when non-Mormons forcibly evicted
the Mormons and destroyed their property. Smith advised his followers to
bear the violence patiently until after they had been attacked multiple
times, after which they could fight back.[84][k]
Armed bands exchanged fire, killing one Mormon and two non-Mormons,
until the old settlers forcibly expelled the Latter Day Saints from the
county.[85]
In response, Smith led a small paramilitary expedition, called Zion's Camp, to aid the Latter Day Saints in Missouri.[86] As a military endeavor, the expedition was a failure. The men of the expedition were disorganized, suffered from a cholera outbreak and were severely outnumbered. Smith sent two church representatives to petition Missouri governor Daniel Dunklin
for protection and support, but Dunklin declined to aid the Mormons. By
the end of June, Smith deescalated the confrontation, sought peace with
Jackson County's residents, and disbanded Zion's Camp.[87]
Nevertheless, Zion's Camp transformed Latter Day Saint leadership
because many future church leaders came from among the participants.[88]
After the Camp returned to Ohio, Smith drew heavily from its participants to establish various governing bodies in the church.[89] He gave a revelation announcing that in order to redeem Zion, his followers would have to receive an endowment in the Kirtland Temple.[90]
In March 1836, at the temple's dedication, many who received the
endowment reported seeing visions of angels and engaged in prophesying
and speaking in tongues.[l][91]
In January 1837, Smith and other churchleaders created a joint stock company, called the Kirtland Safety Society (KSS), to act as a quasi-bank; the company issued banknotes partly capitalized
by real estate. Smith encouraged his followers to buy the notes, in
which he invested heavily himself. The bank failed within a month.[92] As a result, Latter Day Saints in Kirtland suffered extreme high volatility
and intense pressure from debt collectors. Smith was held responsible
for the failure, and there were widespread defections from the church,
including many of Smith's closest advisers.[93]
The failure of the bank was but one part a series of internal disputes led to the demise of the Kirtland community.[94] Cowdery, who by then was Assistant President of the Church,[95] had accused Smith of engaging in a sexual relationship with a teenage servant in his home, Fanny Alger.[96] Construction of the Kirtland Temple had only added to the church's debt, and Smith was hounded by creditors.[97] Having heard of a large sum of money supposedly hidden in Salem, Massachusetts, he traveled there and announced a revelation that God had "much treasure in this city".[98] After a month, however, he returned to Kirtland empty-handed.[99] After a warrant was issued for Smith's arrest on a charge of banking fraud, he and Rigdon fled for Missouri in January 1838.[100]
Life in Missouri (1838–39)
By 1838, Smith had abandoned plans to redeem Zion in Jackson County, and instead declared the town of Far West, Missouri, in Caldwell County, as the new "Zion".[101][m]
In Missouri, the church also took the name "Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter Day Saints", and construction began on a new temple.[102] In the weeks and months after Smith and Rigdon arrived at Far West, thousands of Latter Day Saints followed them from Kirtland.[103] Smith encouraged the settlement of land outside Caldwell County, instituting a settlement in Adam-ondi-Ahman, in Daviess County.[104]
During this time, a church council expelled many of the oldest
and most prominent leaders of the church—including Cowdery, John
Whitmer, David Whitmer, and W. W. Phelps—on allegations of misusing church property and finance amid tense relations between them and Smith.[105] Smith explicitly approved of the excommunication of these men, who were known collectively as the "dissenters".[106]
Political and religious differences between old Missourians and
newly arriving Latter Day Saint settlers provoked tensions between the
two groups, much as they had in Jackson County. By this time, Smith's
experiences with mob violence led him to believe that his faith's
survival required greater militancy against anti-Mormons.[107] Around June 1838, Sampson Avard formed a covert organization called the Danites to intimidate Latter Day Saint dissenters and oppose anti-Mormon militia units.[108] Though it is unclear how much Smith knew of the Danites' activities, he clearly approved of those of which he did know.[109] After Rigdon delivered a sermon that implied dissenters had no place in the Latter Day Saint community, the Danites forcibly expelled them from the county.[110]
In a speech given at Far West’s Fourth of July
celebration, Rigdon declared that Mormons would no longer tolerate
persecution by the Missourians and spoke of a "war of extermination" if
Mormons were attacked.[111] Smith implicitly endorsed this speech,[112]
and many non-Mormons understood it to be a thinly veiled threat. They
unleashed a flood of anti-Mormon rhetoric in newspapers and in stump
speeches given during the 1838 election campaign.[113]
On August 6, 1838, non-Mormons in Gallatin, Missouri, tried to prevent Mormons from voting,[114] and the election day scuffles initiated the 1838 Mormon War. Non-Mormon vigilantes raided and burned Mormon farms, while Danites and other Mormons pillaged non-Mormon towns.[115] In the Battle of Crooked River, a group of Mormons attacked the Missouri state militia, mistakenly believing them to be anti-Mormon vigilantes. Governor Lilburn Boggs then ordered that the Mormons be "exterminated or driven from the state".[116] On October 30, a party of Missourians surprised and killed seventeen Mormons in the Haun's Mill massacre.[117]
Smith was held for four months in Liberty jail. The following day, the Mormons surrendered to 2,500 state troops and agreed to forfeit their property and leave the state.[118] Smith was immediately brought before a military court, accused of treason, and sentenced to be executed the next morning, but Alexander Doniphan, who was Smith's former attorney and a brigadier general in the Missouri militia, refused to carry out the order.[119] Smith was then sent to a state court for a preliminary hearing, where several of his former allies testified against him.[120] Smith and five others, including Rigdon, were charged with treason, and transferred to the jail at Liberty, Missouri, to await trial.[121]
Smith's months in prison with an ill and complaining Rigdon strained their relationship. Meanwhile, Brigham Young–as president of the church's Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, one of the church's governing bodies–rose to prominence when he organized the move of about 14,000 Mormon refugees to Illinois and eastern Iowa.[122]
Smith bore his imprisonment stoically. Understanding that he was
effectively on trial before his own people, many of whom considered him a
fallen prophet, he wrote a personal defense and an apology for the
activities of the Danites. "The keys of the kingdom", he wrote, "have not been taken away from us".[123]
Though he directed his followers to collect and publish their stories
of persecution, he also urged them to moderate their antagonism toward
non-Mormons.[124] On April 6, 1839, after a grand jury
hearing in Daviess County, Smith and his companions escaped custody,
almost certainly with the connivance of the sheriff and guards.[125]
Life in Nauvoo, Illinois (1839–1844)
Many American newspapers criticized Missouri for the Haun's Mill massacre and the state's expulsion of the Mormons.[126] Illinois then accepted Mormon refugees who gathered along the banks of the Mississippi River,[127] where Smith purchased high-priced, swampy woodland in the hamlet of Commerce.[128] He attempted to portray the Mormons as an oppressed minority and unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government for help in obtaining reparations.[129] During the summer of 1839, while Mormons in Nauvoo suffered from a malaria
epidemic, Smith sent Young and other apostles to missions in Europe,
where they made numerous converts, many of them poor factory workers.[130]
Smith also attracted a few wealthy and influential converts, including John C. Bennett, the Illinois quartermaster general.[131] Bennett used his connections in the Illinois state legislature to obtain an unusually liberal charter for the new city, which Smith renamed "Nauvoo" (Hebrew נָאווּ, meaning "to be beautiful").[132] The charter granted the city virtual autonomy, authorized a university, and granted Nauvoo habeas corpus power—which allowed Smith to fend off extradition to Missouri.[n] Though Latter Day Saint authorities controlled Nauvoo's civil government, the city guaranteed religious freedom for its residents.[133] The charter also authorized the Nauvoo Legion,
a militia whose actions were limited only by state and federal
constitutions. Smith and Bennett became its commanders, and were styled Lieutenant General and Major General respectively. As such, they controlled by far the largest body of armed men in Illinois.[134] Smith appointed Bennett as Assistant President of the Church, and Bennett was elected Nauvoo's first mayor.[135]
Smith planned the construction of the Nauvoo Temple, which was completed after his death. The early Nauvoo years were a period of doctrinal innovation. Smith introduced baptism for the dead in 1840, and in 1841 construction began on the Nauvoo Temple as a place for recovering lost ancient knowledge.[136]
An 1841 revelation promised the restoration of the "fullness of the
priesthood"; and in May 1842, Smith inaugurated a revised endowment or
"first anointing".[137] The endowment resembled the rites of Freemasonry that Smith had observed two months earlier when he had been initiated "at sight" into the Nauvoo Masonic lodge.[138] At first, the endowment was open only to men, who were initiated into a special group called the Anointed Quorum. For women, Smith introduced the Relief Society, a service club and sorority within which Smith predicted women would receive "the keys of the kingdom".[139]
Smith also elaborated on his plan for a Millennial kingdom; no longer
envisioning the building of Zion in Nauvoo, he viewed Zion as
encompassing all of North and South America, with Mormon settlements
being "stakes" of Zion's metaphorical tent.[140] Zion also became less a refuge from an impending tribulation than a great building project.[141] In the summer of 1842, Smith revealed a plan to establish the millennial Kingdom of God, which would eventually establish theocratic rule over the whole Earth.[142]
It was around this time that Smith began secretly marrying additional wives, a practice called plural marriage.[143]
He introduced the doctrine to a few of his closest associates,
including Bennett, who used it as an excuse to seduce numerous women,
wed and unwed.[144][o]
When rumors of polygamy (called "spiritual wifery" by Bennett) got
abroad, Smith forced Bennett's resignation as Nauvoo mayor. In
retaliation, Bennett left Nauvoo and began publishing sensational
accusations against Smith and his followers.[145]
By mid-1842, popular opinion in Illinois had turned against the
Mormons. After an unknown assailant shot and wounded Missouri governor
Lilburn Boggs in May 1842, anti-Mormons circulated rumors that Smith's
bodyguard, Porter Rockwell, was the gunman.[146]
Though the evidence was circumstantial, Boggs ordered Smith's
extradition. Certain he would be killed if he ever returned to Missouri,
Smith went into hiding twice during the next five months, until the U.S. Attorney for Illinois argued that his extradition would be unconstitutional.[147] (Rockwell was later tried and acquitted.) In June 1843, enemies of Smith convinced a reluctant Illinois Governor Thomas Ford
to extradite Smith to Missouri on an old charge of treason. Two law
officers arrested Smith but were intercepted by a party of Mormons
before they could reach Missouri. Smith was then released on a writ of habeas corpus from the Nauvoo municipal court.[148] While this ended the Missourians' attempts at extradition, it caused significant political fallout in Illinois.[149]
In December 1843, Smith petitioned Congress to make Nauvoo an independent territory with the right to call out federal troops in its defense.[151]
Smith then wrote to the leading presidential candidates, asking what
they would do to protect the Mormons. After receiving noncommittal or
negative responses, he announced his own independent candidacy for president of the United States, suspended regular proselytizing, and sent out the Quorum of the Twelve and hundreds of other political missionaries.[152] In March 1844 – following a dispute with a federal bureaucrat – he organized the secret Council of Fifty,
which was given the authority to decide which national or state laws
Mormons should obey, as well as establish its own government for
Mormons.[153] Before his death the Council also voted unanimously to elect Smith "Prophet, Priest, and King."[154] The Council was likewise appointed to select a site for a large Mormon settlement in the Republic of Texas, Oregon, or California (then controlled by Mexico), where Mormons could live under theocratic law beyond the control of other governments.[155]
Death
A 19th-century painting depicting the mob attack inside Carthage Jail By early 1844, a rift developed between Smith and a half dozen of his closest associates.[156] Most notably, William Law, his trusted counselor, and Robert Foster, a general of the Nauvoo Legion, disagreed with Smith about how to manage Nauvoo's economy.[157] Both also said that Smith had proposed marriage to their wives.[158] Believing these men were plotting against his life, Smith excommunicated them on April 18, 1844.[159] Law and Foster subsequently formed a competing "reform church", and in the following month, at the county seat in Carthage, they procured indictments against Smith for perjury (as Smith publicly denied having more than one wife) and polygamy.[160]
On June 7, the dissidents published the first (and only) issue of the Nauvoo Expositor, calling for reform within the church but also appealing politically to non-Mormons.[161]
The paper decried Smith's new "doctrines of many Gods", alluded to his
theocratic aspirations, and called for a repeal of the Nauvoo city
charter.[q]
It also attacked Smith's practice of polygamy, implying that he was
using religion as a pretext to draw unassuming women to Nauvoo to seduce
and marry them.[162]
Fearing the Expositor would provoke a new round of
violence against the Mormons, the Nauvoo city council declared the
newspaper a public nuisance and ordered the Nauvoo Legion to destroy its
printing press.[163] During the council debate, Smith vigorously urged the council to order the press destroyed,[164] not realizing that destroying a newspaper was more likely to incite an attack than any of the newspaper's accusations.[165]
Smith was shot multiple times before and after falling from the window. [166]Destruction of the newspaper provoked a strident call to arms from Thomas C. Sharp, editor of the Warsaw Signal and longtime critic of Smith.[167] Fearing mob violence, Smith mobilized the Nauvoo Legion on June 18 and declared martial law.[168]
Officials in Carthage responded by mobilizing a small detachment of the
state militia, and Governor Ford intervened, threatening to raise a
larger militia unless Smith and the Nauvoo city council surrendered
themselves.[169] Smith initially fled across the Mississippi River, but shortly returned and surrendered to Ford.[170] On June 25, Smith and his brother Hyrum arrived in Carthage to stand trial for inciting a riot.[171] Once the Smiths were in custody, the charges were increased to treason, preventing them from posting bail.[172] John Taylor and Willard Richards voluntarily accompanied the Smiths in Carthage Jail.[173]
On June 27, 1844, an armed mob with blackened faces stormed Carthage Jail,
where Joseph and Hyrum were being detained. Hyrum, who was trying to
secure the door, was killed instantly with a shot to the face. Smith
fired three shots from a pepper-box pistol that his friend, Cyrus H. Wheelock, had lent him, wounding three men,[174] before he sprang for the window.[175][r]
He was shot multiple times before falling out the window, crying, "Oh
Lord my God!" He died shortly after hitting the ground, but was shot
several more times by an improvised firing squad before the mob dispersed.[176] Five men were tried for Smith's murder, but all were acquitted.[177]
Following his death, non-Mormon newspapers were nearly unanimous in portraying Smith as a religious fanatic.[178] Conversely, within the Latter Day Saint community, Smith was viewed as a prophet, martyred to seal the testimony of his faith.[179]
After a public funeral and viewing of the deceased brothers, Smith's widow – who feared hostile non-Mormons might try to desecrate the bodies – had their remains buried at night in a secret location, with substitute coffins filled with sandbags interred in the publicly attested grave.[180][181] The bodies were later moved and reburied under an outbuilding on the Smith property off the Mississippi River.[182] Members of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church), under the direction of then-RLDS Church president Frederick M. Smith
(Smith's grandson) searched for, located, and disinterred the Smith
brothers' remains in 1928 and reinterred them, along with Smith's wife,
in Nauvoo at the Smith Family Cemetery.[180][182]
Legacy
Gravesite of Joseph, Emma, and Hyrum Smith, in Nauvoo, Illinois Impact and assessment
Smith attracted thousands of devoted followers before his death, and millions in the century that followed.[11] Among Mormons, he is regarded as a prophet on par with Moses and Elijah.[183] In a 2015 compilation of the 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time, Smithsonian magazine ranked Smith first in the category of religious figures.[184]
Assessments of Smith in the nineteenth century were typically
dismissive, such as that of Philip Schaff, whose 1855 appraisal called
him an "uneducated but cunning Yankee."[185] Naturalistic biographers in the early twentieth century suggested that Smith suffered from epileptic seizures or from psychological disorders, such as migraines, hallucinations, and "melancholic depression" that might explain his visions and revelations.[186] Fawn Brodie's 1945 biography No Man Knows My History
rejected delusive experience as an explanation for Smith's behavior and
instead cast him as an intentional charlatan, albeit a talented and
accomplished one.[187]
After academic Mormon studies developed in the latter half of the
twentieth century, two conflicting characterizations of Smith emerged: a
fraud preying on the ignorance and credulity of his followers on the
one hand (a view associated with detractors of Smith), and a man of God
and of great character on the other (the view advanced typically by
believers). Historian Jan Shipps called this "the prophet puzzle".[188]
In the twenty-first century, academic assessments became less
dismissive of Smith, and scholars became generally more interested in
understanding his experiences and his influence in the history of the
United States and of religious thought.[185]
Biographers – Mormon and non-Mormon alike – agree that Smith was one of
the most influential, charismatic, and innovative figures in American
religious history.[189] For instance, Wayne Hudson, a humanities scholar, considers Smith "a genuine prophet of world historical importance".[190] Theologian and anthropologist Douglas J. Davies characterizes Smith as a person of striking "moral energy" and courage.[191] According to Laurie Maffly-Kipp, historian Richard Bushman's 2005 Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling
– a biography which "steers a deliberate middle ground" between
hagiography and exposé – is "the definitive account" of Smith's life. Rough Stone Rolling
discusses Smith's financial reversals, mercurial temper and run-ins
with the law, while also making a case that Smith's theology and ecclesiology were coherent and appealing.[192]
Historian John G. Turner noted that outside academia, non-Mormons in the
U.S. generally consider Smith a "charlatan, scoundrel, and heretic",
while outside the U.S., he is "obscure".[193] His legacy within the Latter Day Saint movement varies between denominations.[194] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and its members consider Smith the founding prophet of their church.[195] In the words of LDS apostle D. Todd Christofferson,
Latter-day Saints "readily acknowledge" Smith's "continuing influence
for good in the world, the revelations that he brought forth, his
example of service and sacrifice, and his devotion to and witness of the
living God".[196] Meanwhile, Smith's reputation is ambivalent in the Community of Christ,
formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
(RLDS Church), which never accepted his Nauvoo-era theological
innovations, and late-twentieth-century theological changes further
separated the denomination's self-identity from Smith.[194]
The Community of Christ continues "honoring his role" in the church's
founding history but deemphasizes human leadership, including that of
Smith, in favor of "greater focus on Jesus Christ."[197] Conversely, Woolleyite Mormon fundamentalism has deified Smith within a cosmology of many gods.[198]
Memorials to Smith include the Joseph Smith Memorial Building in Salt Lake City, Utah,[199] the former Joseph Smith Memorial building on the campus of Brigham Young University as well as the current Joseph Smith Building there,[200] a granite obelisk marking Smith's birthplace,[201] and a fifteen-foot-tall bronze statue of Smith in the World Peace Dome in Pune, India.[196]
Successors and denominations
Smith's death resulted in a succession crisis within the Latter Day Saint movement.[202] He had proposed several ways to choose his successor, but never clarified his preference.[203] Smith's brother Hyrum, had he survived, would have had the strongest claim, followed by Smith's brother Samuel, who died abruptly a month after Joseph and Hyrum.[204][s] Another brother, William, was unable to attract a sufficient following.[205] Smith's sons Joseph III and David were too young: Joseph was aged 11, and David was born after Smith's death.[206] The Council of Fifty had a theoretical claim to succession, but it was a secret organization.[t] Two of Smith's chosen successors, Oliver Cowdery and David Whitmer, had already left the church.[207]
Emma Smith and some members of the Anointed Quorum supported appointing
Nauvoo stake president William Marks as church president, but Marks
ultimately supported Rigdon's claim to succession.[208]
The two strongest succession candidates were Young, senior member
and president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and Rigdon, the
senior remaining member of the First Presidency. In a church-wide
conference on August 8, most of the Latter Day Saints present elected
Young. They eventually left Nauvoo and settled the Salt Lake Valley, Utah Territory.[209] Nominal membership in Young's denomination, which became the LDS Church, surpassed 16 million in 2018.[210] Smaller groups followed Rigdon and James J. Strang, who had based his claim on a letter of appointment ostensibly written by Smith but which some scholars believe was forged.[211][u] Some hundreds followed Lyman Wight to establish a community in Texas.[212] Others followed Alpheus Cutler.[213] Many members of these smaller groups, including most of Smith's family,[214] eventually coalesced in 1860[215] under the leadership of Joseph Smith III and formed the RLDS Church, which now has about 250,000 members.[216]
Family and descendants
The first of Smith's wives, Emma Hale, gave birth to nine children
during their marriage, five of whom died before the age of two.[217] The eldest, Alvin (born in 1828), died within hours of birth, as did twins Thaddeus and Louisa (born in 1831).[218] When the twins died, the Smiths adopted another set of twins, Julia and Joseph Murdock, whose mother had recently died in childbirth; the adopted Smith died of measles in 1832.[v] In 1841, Don Carlos, who had been born a year earlier, died of malaria, and five months later, in 1842, Emma gave birth to a stillborn son.[219]
Joseph and Emma had five children who lived to maturity: adopted
Julia Murdock, Joseph Smith III, David Hyrum Smith, Frederick Granger
Williams Smith, and Alexander Hale Smith.[220]
Some historians have speculated—based on journal entries and family
stories—that Smith fathered children with his plural wives. However, in
cases where DNA testing of potential Smith descendants from plural wives
has been possible, results have been negative.[w]
After Smith's death, Emma was quickly alienated from Young and the LDS leadership.[221]
Emma feared and despised Young, who in turn was suspicious of Emma's
desire to preserve the family's assets from inclusion with those of the
church. He also disliked her open opposition to plural marriage. Young
excluded Emma from ecclesiastical meetings and from social gatherings.[222] When most Mormons moved west, Emma stayed in Nauvoo and married a non-Mormon, Major Lewis C. Bidamon.[223]
She withdrew from religion until 1860, when she affiliated with the
RLDS Church headed by her son, Joseph III. Emma maintained her belief
that Smith had been a prophet, and she never repudiated her belief in
the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.[224]
Polygamy
By some accounts, Smith had been teaching a polygamy doctrine as
early as 1831, and there is evidence that he may have been a polygamist
by 1835.[225][x] Although the church had publicly repudiated polygamy, in 1837 there was a rift between Smith and Cowdery over the issue.[226] Cowdery suspected Smith had engaged in a relationship with Fanny Alger, who worked in the Smith household as a serving girl.[y] Smith did not deny having a relationship, but he insisted that he had never admitted to adultery.[227] "Presumably," historian Bushman argues, "because he had married Alger" as a plural wife.[z]
In April 1841, Smith secretly wed Louisa Beaman.[228] During the next two-and-a-half years he secretly married or was sealed to about thirty or forty additional women.[b] Ten of his plural wives were between the ages of fourteen and twenty; others were over fifty.[229][aa]
Ten were already married to other men, though some of these polyandrous
marriages were contracted with the consent of the first husbands.[230]
Evidence for whether or not and to what degree Smith's polygamous
marriages involved sex is ambiguous and varies between marriages;
between Smith's busy life and keeping the plural marriages secret,
private interactions between Smith and his other wives were limited.[ab] Some polygamous marriages may have been considered special religious marriages that would not take effect until after death.[ac]
In any case, during Smith's lifetime, the practice of polygamy was kept
secret from both non-Mormons and most members of the church.[231]
Polygamy caused a breach between Smith and his first wife, Emma.[232]
Historian Laurel Thatcher Ulrich argues that "Emma vacillated in her
support for plural marriage, sometimes acquiescing to Joseph's sealings, sometimes resisting."[233]
Although she knew of some of her husband's marriages, she almost
certainly did not know the full extent of his polygamous activities.[234]
In 1843, Emma temporarily accepted Smith's marriage to four women of
her choosing who boarded in the Smith household, but later regretted her
decision and demanded the other wives leave.[ad]
That July, at his brother Hyrum's encouragement, Joseph dictated a
revelation directing Emma to accept plural marriage. Hyrum delivered the
message to Emma, but she furiously rejected it.[235][ae] Joseph and Emma were not reconciled over the matter until September 1843, after Emma began participating in temple ceremonies,[236] and after Joseph made other concessions to her.[af]
The next year, in March 1844, Emma publicly denounced polygamy as evil
and destructive; and though she did not directly disclose Smith's secret
practice of plural marriage, she insisted that people should heed only
what he taught publicly – implicitly challenging his private
promulgation of polygamy.[237]
Despite her knowledge of polygamy, Emma publicly denied that her husband had ever taken additional wives.[238] While Smith was still alive, Emma spoke against polygamy,[239] and she (along with multiple other signatories directly involved in polygamy) signed an 1842 petition denying that Smith or his church endorsed the practice.[240]
After his death, she continued to deny his polygamy. When Joseph III
and Alexander specifically asked about polygamy in an interview with
their mother, she stated, "No such thing as polygamy, or spiritual
wifery, was taught, publicly or privately, before my husband's death,
that I have now, or ever had any knowledge of ... He had no other wife
but me; nor did he to my knowledge ever have".[241][ag]
Revelations
An
artistic representation of the golden plates with the Urim and Thummim
connected to a breastplate, based on descriptions by Smith and others According to Bushman, the "signal feature" of Smith's life was "his
sense of being guided by revelation". Instead of presenting his ideas
with logical arguments, Smith dictated authoritative scripture-like
"revelations" and let people decide whether to believe,[242] doing so with what Peter Coviello calls "beguiling offhandedness".[243]
Smith and his followers treated his revelations as being above
teachings or opinions, and he acted as though he believed in his
revelations as much as his followers.[244] [ah]
Smith's first recorded revelation was a rebuke chastising Smith for
having let Martin Harris lose 116 pages of Book of Mormon manuscript.[245]
The revelation was written as if God were talking rather than as a
declaration mediated through Smith; subsequent revelations assumed a
similar authoritative style, often opening with words such as, "Hearken O
ye people which profess my name, saith the Lord your God."[246]
Book of Mormon
The Book of Mormon has been called the longest and most complex of Smith's revelations.[247] Its language resembles the King James Version of the Bible, as does its organization as a compilation of smaller books, each named after prominent figures in the narrative,[248] though unlike the Bible the compilation is integrated as a "uniform whole".[249] It tells the story of the rise and fall of a religious civilization beginning about 600 BC and ending in the fifth century.[248][250] The story begins with a family that leaves Jerusalem, just before the Babylonian captivity.[251] They eventually construct a ship and sail to a "promised land" in the Western Hemisphere.[252] There, they eventually divide into two factions: Nephites and Lamanites.[253] The Nephites become a righteous people who build a temple and live the law of Moses, though their prophets teach a Christian gospel. The book explains itself to be largely the work of Mormon, a Nephite prophet and military figure. The book closes when Mormon's son, Moroni, finishes engraving and buries the records written on the golden plates.[248]
The character of Moroni, and the angel of the same name who Smith
claimed to have guided him to the golden plates, are considered the same
figure.
Christian themes permeate the work; for instance, Nephite prophets in the Book of Mormon teach of Christ's coming and talk of the star that will appear at his birth.[254] After the crucifixion and resurrection in Jerusalem, Jesus appears in the Americas, repeats the Sermon on the Mount, blesses children, and appoints twelve disciples.[253] The book ends with Moroni's exhortation to "come unto Christ".[255]
Early Mormons regarded the Book of Mormon as a companion to the
Bible and a religious history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[256] Parley P. Pratt
said the book "filled my soul with joy and gladness", and he "esteemed
the Book, or the information contained in it, more than all the riches
of the world".[257] Other readers regarded the book as the work of a fanatic or fraud and thought it was derivative of Smith's surroundings. Alexander Campbell
accused Smith of writing "in his Book of Mormon, every error and almost
every truth discussed in New York for the last ten years."[258]
Some scholars have considered the Book of Mormon a response to pressing cultural and environmental issues in Smith's day.[259] Historian Dan Vogel regards the book as autobiographical in nature, reflecting Smith's life and perceptions.[260] Biographer Robert V. Remini calls the Book of Mormon "a typically American story" that "radiates the revivalist passion of the Second Great Awakening."[261]
Brodie suggested that Smith composed the Book of Mormon by drawing on
sources of information available to him, such as the 1823 book View of the Hebrews.[ai]
Other scholars argue the Book of Mormon is more biblical in inspiration
than American. Bushman writes that "the Book of Mormon is not a
conventional American book" and that its "innermost structure" better
resembles the Bible.[262] According to historian Daniel Walker Howe,
the book's "dominant themes are biblical, prophetic, and patriarchal,
not democratic or optimistic" like the prevailing American culture.[263]
Shipps argues that the Book of Mormon's "complex set of religious
claims" provided "the basis of a new mythos" or "story" which early
converts accepted and lived in as their world, thus departing from "the
early national period in America into a new dispensation of the fulness
of times".[264]
According to some accounts, Smith dictated most of the Book of Mormon by looking into a seer stone placed in a stovepipe hat. Smith never fully described how he produced the Book of Mormon,
saying only that he translated by the power of God and implying that he
had read its words.[265]
The Book of Mormon itself states only that its text will "come forth by
the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof".[266]
Accordingly, there is considerable disagreement about the actual method
used. For at least some of the earliest dictation, Smith's compatriots
said he used the "Urim and Thummim", a pair of seer stones he said were
buried with the plates.[267]
However, people close to Smith said that later in the process of
dictation, he used a chocolate-colored stone he had found in 1822 that
he had used previously for treasure hunting.[aj] Joseph Knight
said that Smith saw the words of the translation while, after excluding
all light, he gazed at the stone or stones in the bottom of his hat, a
process similar to divining the location of treasure.[268]
Sometimes, Smith concealed the process by raising a curtain or
dictating from another room; at other times he dictated in full view of
witnesses while the plates lay covered on the table or were hidden
elsewhere.[269]
After completing the translation, Smith gave the brown stone to
Cowdery, but continued to receive revelations using another stone until
about 1833 when he said he no longer needed it.[270]
The Book of Mormon became influential in the church Smith
founded. The book drew some converts to the movement; some adherents
incorporated its phrases into their speech and writing; and its
depiction of a Christian church provided an early model for the Church
of Christ's ecclesiastical organization.[257] To early Mormons, the book verified Smith's claims to prophethood.[271]
Smith accepted the world described by the Book of Mormon—one in which
people preserved and recovered sacred records—as his own, and he adopted
the role it described for him as a prophet, seer, and translator.[272] By early 1831, he was introducing himself as "Joseph the Prophet".[273] Smith voiced and promulgated the revelations with confidence, as if he were an Old Testament prophet, and the language of authority in Smith's revelations appealed to converts.[274]
Bible revision
In June 1830, Smith dictated a revelation in which Moses narrates a
vision in which he sees "worlds without number" and speaks with God
about the purpose of creation and the relation of humankind to deity.[275] This revelation initiated a revision of the Bible which Smith worked on sporadically until 1833 but which remained unpublished until after his death.[276]
Smith expressed to his followers that this "new translation" of the
Bible would be published "as soon the Lord permit." He may have
considered it complete, though according to Emma Smith, the biblical
revision was still unfinished when Joseph died.[277]
In the course of producing the Book of Mormon, Smith declared
that the Bible was missing "the most plain and precious parts of the
gospel".[278]
He produced a "new translation" of the Bible, not by directly
translating from manuscripts in another language, but by amending and
appending to a King James Bible
in a process which he and Latter Day Saints believed was guided by
inspiration; Smith asserted his translation would correct lacuna and
restore what the contemporary Bible was missing.[279]
While many changes involved straightening out seeming contradictions or
making small clarifications, other changes added large interpolations
to the text.[280] For example, Smith's revision nearly tripled the length of the first five chapters of Genesis into a text called the Book of Moses.[281]
Book of Moses
The Book of Moses begins with Moses speaking with God "face to face"
and seeing a vision of all existence. Moses is initially overwhelmed by
the immensity of the cosmos and humanity's smallness in comparison, but
God then explains that he made the earth and heavens to bring humans to
eternal life.[282] The book subsequently provides an enlarged account of the Genesis creation narrative which describes God having a corporeal body,[283] followed by a rendering of the fall of Adam and Eve in celebratory terms which emphasize eating the forbidden fruit as part of a process of gaining knowledge and becoming more like God.[284] The Book of Moses also expands the story of Enoch, described in the Bible as being an ancestor of Noah. In the expanded narrative, Enoch has a theophany in which he discovers that God is capable of sorrow, and that human sin and suffering cause him to grieve.[285] Enoch then receives a prophetic calling, and he eventually builds a city of Zion so righteous that it is taken to heaven.[286] Enoch's example inspired Smith's own hopes to establish the nascent Church of Christ as a Zion community.[287]
The book also elaborates some passages that (to Christians)
foreshadowed the coming of Christ, into explicit Christian knowledge of
and faith in Jesus as a Savior - in effect Christianizing the Old
Testament.[288]
Book of Abraham
In 1835, Smith encouraged some Latter Day Saints in Kirtland to purchase rolls of ancient Egyptian papyri from a traveling exhibitor. He said they contained the writings of the ancient patriarchs Abraham and Joseph.
Over the next several years, Smith dictated to scribes what he reported
was a revelatory translation of one of these rolls, which was published
in 1842 as the Book of Abraham.[289]
The Book of Abraham speaks of the founding of the Abrahamic nation,
astronomy, cosmology, lineage and priesthood, and gives another account
of the creation story.[290]
The papyri associated with the Book of Abraham were thought to have been lost in the Great Chicago Fire, but several fragments were rediscovered in the 1960s. Egyptologists have subsequently determined them to be part of the Egyptian Book of Breathing with no connection to Abraham.[291] [ak]
Other revelations
[The Holy Spirit] may give you sudden strokes of ideas, so that by
noticing it, you may find it fulfilled the same day or soon; those
things that were presented unto your minds by the Spirit of God, will
come to pass.
—Joseph Smith[292]
According to Pratt, Smith dictated his revelations, which were recorded by a scribe without revisions or corrections.[293]
Revelations were immediately copied and then circulated among church
members. Smith's revelations often came in response to specific
questions. He described the revelatory process as having "pure
Intelligence" flowing into him. Smith, however, never viewed the wording
to be infallible. The revelations were not God's words verbatim, but
"couched in language suitable to Joseph's time".[294] In 1833, Smith edited and expanded many of the previous revelations, publishing them as the Book of Commandments, which later became part of the Doctrine and Covenants.[295]
Smith gave varying types of revelations. Some were temporal,
while others were spiritual or doctrinal. Some were received for a
specific individual, while others were directed at the whole church. An
1831 revelation called "The Law" contained directions for missionary
work, rules for organizing society in Zion, a reiteration of the Ten Commandments, an injunction to "administer to the poor and needy" and an outline for the law of consecration.[296]
An 1832 revelation called "The Vision" added to the fundamentals of sin
and atonement, and introduced doctrines of life after salvation, exaltation, and a heaven with degrees of glory.[297] Another 1832 revelation was the first to explain priesthood doctrine.[298]
Three months later, Smith gave a lengthy revelation called the "Olive
Leaf" that discussed subjects such as light, truth, intelligence, and
sanctification. A related revelation, given in 1833, put Christ at the
center of salvation.[299]
Also in 1833, at a time of temperance agitation, Smith delivered a revelation called the "Word of Wisdom",
which counseled a diet of wholesome herbs, fruits, grains and a sparing
use of meat. It also recommended that Latter Day Saints avoid "strong"
alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and "hot drinks" (later interpreted to mean
tea and coffee).[300]
The Word of Wisdom was originally framed as a recommendation rather
than a commandment and was not strictly followed by Smith and other
early Latter Day Saints,[301]
though it later became a requirement in the LDS Church. In 1835, Smith
gave the "great revelation" that organized the priesthood into quorums and councils, and functioned as a complex blueprint for church structure.[302]
His last revelation, on the "New and Everlasting Covenant", was
recorded in 1843 and dealt with the theology of family, the doctrine of sealing, and plural marriage.[303]
Before 1832, most of Smith's revelations concerned establishing
the church, gathering followers, and building the city of Zion. Later
revelations dealt primarily with the priesthood, endowment, and
exaltation.[304] The pace of formal revelations slowed during the autumn of 1833 and again after the dedication of the Kirtland Temple.[305]
Smith moved away from formal written revelations spoken in God's voice,
and instead taught more in sermons, conversations, and letters.[306]
For instance, the doctrines of baptism for the dead and the nature of
God were introduced in sermons, and one of Smith's most famed
statements, about there being "no such thing as immaterial matter", was
recorded from a casual conversation with a Methodist preacher.[307]
Views and teachings
Smith described Jesus and God the Father as two distinct physical beings. Cosmology and theology
Smith taught that all existence was material, including a world of "spirit matter" so fine that it was invisible to all but the purest mortal eyes.[308] Matter, in Smith's view, could be neither created nor destroyed; the creation
involved only the reorganization of existing matter. Like matter, Smith
saw "intelligence" as co-eternal with God, and he taught that human
spirits had been drawn from a pre-existent pool of eternal intelligences.[309]
Nevertheless, according to Smith, spirits could not experience a
"fullness of joy" unless joined with corporeal bodies. Therefore, the
work and glory of God was to create worlds across the cosmos where
inferior intelligences could be embodied.[310]
Historians have debated about Smith's early conception of God.[311] According to Dan Vogel and Thomas Alexander, in the early-to-mid-1830s Smith viewed God the Father as a spirit.[312]
However, Terryl Givens and Brian Hauglid argue that although Smith
sometimes spoke of God using trinitarian language, revelations he
dictated as early as 1830 described God as an embodied being.[283] Catholic philosopher Stephen H. Webb
describes Smith having had a "corporeal and anthropomorphic
understanding of God" evinced in his 1830 Book of Moses that described
God as a physical being who literally resembles human beings.[313]
Steven C. Harper states that because, in the 1830s, Smith privately
described to some of his followers his 1820 first vision as a theophany
of "two divine, corporeal beings," "its implications for the trinity and
materiality of God were asserted that early".[314]
Over time, Smith widely and clearly articulated a belief that God was an advanced and glorified man,[315] embodied within time and space.[316][al] By 1841, he publicly taught that God the Father and Jesus were distinct beings with physical bodies.[318] Nevertheless, he conceived of the Holy Spirit as a "personage of Spirit".[319]
Smith extended this materialist conception to all existence and taught
that "all spirit is matter", meaning that a person's embodiment in flesh
was not a sign of fallen carnality, but a divine quality that humans
shared with deity. Humans are, therefore, not so much God's creations as
they are God's "kin".[320] There is also considerable evidence that Smith taught, at least to limited audiences, that God the Father was accompanied by God the Mother.[321][am] In this conception, God fully understood is plural, embodied, gendered, and both male and female.[322]
Through the gradual acquisition of knowledge, according to Smith,
those who received exaltation could eventually become like God.[323] These teachings implied a vast hierarchy of gods, with God himself having a father.[324]
In Smith's cosmology, those who became gods would reign, unified in
purpose and will, leading spirits of lesser capacity to share
immortality and eternal life.[325]
In Smith's view, the opportunity to achieve exaltation extended to all humanity. Those who died with no opportunity to accept saving ordinances could achieve exaltation by accepting them in the afterlife through proxy ordinances performed on their behalf.[326]
Smith said that children who died in their innocence would be
guaranteed to rise at the resurrection and receive exaltation. Apart
from those who committed the eternal sin, Smith taught that even the wicked and disbelieving would achieve a degree of glory in the afterlife.[327]
Religious authority and ritual
Smith's teachings were rooted in dispensational restorationism.[328] He taught that the Church of Christ restored through him was a latter-day restoration of the early Christian faith, which had been lost in the Great Apostasy.[329]
At first, Smith's church had little sense of hierarchy, and his
religious authority was derived from his visions and revelations.[330]
Though he did not claim exclusive prophethood, an early revelation
designated him as the only prophet allowed to issue commandments "as
Moses".[331]
This religious authority included economic and political, as well as
spiritual, matters. For instance, in the early 1830s, Smith temporarily
instituted a form of religious communism, called the United Order, that required Latter Day Saints to give all their property to the church, to be divided among the faithful.[332]
He also envisioned that the theocratic institutions he established
would have a role in the worldwide political organization of the
Millennium.[333]
By the mid-1830s, Smith began teaching a hierarchy of three priesthoods—the Melchizedek, the Aaronic, and the Patriarchal.[334]
Each priesthood was a continuation of biblical priesthoods through
lineal succession or through ordination by biblical figures appearing in
visions.[335]
Upon introducing the Melchizedek or "High" Priesthood in 1831, Smith
taught that its recipients would be "endowed with power from on high",
fulfilling a desire for a greater holiness and an authority commensurate
with the New Testament apostles.[336]
This doctrine of endowment evolved through the 1830s until, in 1842,
the Nauvoo endowment included an elaborate ceremony containing elements
similar to those of Freemasonry[337] and the Jewish Kabbalah.[338]
Although the endowment was extended to women in 1843, Smith never
clarified whether women could be ordained to priesthood offices.[339]
Smith taught that the High Priesthood's endowment of heavenly
power included the sealing powers of Elijah, allowing High Priests to
perform ceremonies with effects that continued after death.[340] For example, this power would enable proxy baptisms for the dead and marriages that would last into eternity.[341] Elijah's sealing powers also enabled the second anointing, or "fulness [sic] of the priesthood", which, according to Smith, sealed married couples to their exaltation.[342]
Theology of family
During the early 1840s, Smith unfolded a theology of family
relations, called the "New and Everlasting Covenant", that superseded
all earthly bonds.[343][an]
He taught that outside the covenant, marriages were simply matters of
contract, and that in the afterlife, individuals who were unmarried or
who married outside the covenant would be limited in their progression
towards Godhood.[344]
To fully enter the covenant, a man and woman must participate in a
"first anointing", a "sealing" ceremony, and a "second anointing" (also
called "sealing by the Holy Spirit of Promise").[345] When fully sealed into the covenant, Smith said that no sin nor blasphemy (other than murder and apostasy[346]) could keep them from their exaltation in the afterlife.[347]
According to a revelation Smith dictated, God appointed only one person
on Earth at a time—in this case, Smith—to possess this power of
sealing.[348]
According to Smith, men and women needed to be sealed to each other in
this new and everlasting covenant (also called "celestial marriage") in
order to be exalted in heaven after death and that such celestial
marriage, perpetuated across generations, could reunite extended
families of ancestors and descendants in the afterlife.[349]
Plural marriage, or polygamy, was Smith's "most famous innovation", according to historian Matthew Bowman.[11] Once Smith introduced polygamy, it became part of his "Abrahamic project," in the phrasing of historian Benjamin Park,
wherein the solution to humanity's chaos would be found through
accepting the divine order of the cosmos, under God's authority, in a
"fusion of ecclesiastical and civic authority".[350]
Smith also taught that the highest level of exaltation could be
achieved through polygamy, the ultimate manifestation of the New and
Everlasting Covenant.[351][ao]
In Smith's theology, marrying in polygamy made it possible for
practitioners to unlearn the Christian tradition which identified the
physical body as carnal, and to instead recognize their embodied joy as
sacred.[352]
Smith also taught that the practice allowed an individual to transcend
the angelic state and become a god, accelerating the expansion of one's
heavenly kingdom.[353]
Political views
While campaigning for president in 1844, Smith had opportunity to take political positions on issues of the day. He considered the U.S. Constitution, and especially the Bill of Rights, to be inspired by God and "the [Latter Day] Saints' best and perhaps only defense."[354]
He believed a strong central government was crucial to the nation's
well-being and thought democracy better than tyranny—although he also
taught that a theocratic monarchy was the ideal form of government.[355] In foreign affairs, Smith was an expansionist, though he viewed "expansionism as brotherhood"[356]
and envisioned expanding the United States with the permission of
indigenous peoples and at the request of other sovereign peoples.[357]
In practice, Smith advocated accepting Texas into the Union, claiming
the disputed Oregon country, and someday incorporating Canada and Mexico
into the United States.[358]
To protect U.S. business and agriculture, Smith favored high tariffs
and a publicly-owned central national bank with democratically elected
officers that would print currency but "never issue any more bills than
the amount of capital stock in her vaults and the interest".[359][360]
He opposed imprisonment for debt or as a criminal penalty (except in
the case of murder), recommended abolishing courts-martial for military
deserters, and encouraged citizens to petition their state leaders to pardon all convicts.[359][361]
He suggested that courts instead sentence convicts to labor on public
works projects, such as road building, and he argued that providing
education would make prisons obsolete.[362] He also advocated capital punishment for public officials who failed to aid people whose constitutional rights had been abridged.[359]
Smith declared that he would be one of the instruments in fulfilling Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in the Book of Daniel: that secular government would be destroyed without bloodshed, and would be replaced with a "theodemocratic" Kingdom of God.[363]
He taught that this kingdom would be governed by theocratic principles,
but that it would also be multi-denominational and democratic, so long
as the people chose wisely.[364]
Slavery and race
Smith held differing positions on the issue of slavery.[365] Initially he opposed it, but during the mid-1830s, when the Mormons were settling in Missouri (a slave state) he justified slavery in an anti-abolitionist essay.[366]
In the early 1840s, after Mormons had been expelled from Missouri, he
changed his position again and opposed slavery. During his presidential
campaign of 1844, he proposed that the federal government end slavery by
1850 by financially compensating enslavers.[367]
However, biographer Donna Hills notes that Smith's "feelings were complex...and cannot be neatly classified as liberal."[368] Smith did not support black self-government[369] and opposed interracial marriage.[370] Although he welcomed black Americans, enslaved and free, into church membership,[371] he instructed his followers not to baptize slaves without permission of their enslavers.[372]
He once said that black people "came into the world as slaves" but that
this was a situational condition of enslavement rather than a permanent
characteristic, and that black Americans were as capable of education
as white Americans.[370]
Smith and other early Mormons believed racial division was a
temporary estrangement of an initially united human family, and they
considered Smith's religious movement a divinely ordained way to restore
humanity to its original relationship.[373]
However, they envisioned this unity in terms of a "white universalism"
in which people of color and indigenous people would assimilate into
whiteness and "overcome the legacy of spiritual inferiority of the
cursed lineages" into which Smith and his followers believed people of
color were born.[374][ap]
See also
Notes
Church of Christ was the official name on April 6, 1830.[1] In 1834, the official name was changed to Church of the Latter Day Saints[2] and then in 1838 to Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.
The spelling "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" was
adopted by the LDS Church in Utah in 1851, after Joseph Smith's death in
1844, and is today specified in Doctrine and Covenants.[3]
Remini (2002, p. 153) notes the exact figure is debated. Smith (1994, p. 14) counts 42 polygamous wives; Quinn (1994, pp. 587–88) counts 46; Compton (1997, p. 11) counts at least 33 total; Bushman (2005, pp. 437, 644) accepts Compton's count, excepting one, resulting in a total of 32; Davenport (2022, p. 139) counts 37.
Modern DNA testing of Smith's relatives suggests that his family were of Irish descent. Perego,
Ugo A.; Myres, Natalie M.; Woodward, Scott R. (2005). "Reconstructing
the Y-Chromosome of Joseph Smith: Genealogical Applications". Journal of Mormon History. 31 (2): 42–60. JSTOR 23289931.; De Groote, Michael (August 8, 2008). "DNA shows Joseph Smith was Irish". Deseret News. Retrieved July 2, 2018.; "Joseph Smith DNA Revealed: New Clues from the Prophet's Genes – FairMormon". FairMormon. Retrieved July 2, 2018.
Butler, Benjamin Franklin; Spencer, John Canfield (1829). Revised Statutes of the State of New York. Vol. 1. Albany, NY: Packard and Van Benthuysen. p. 638: part I, title 5, § 1.
(According to New York law at the time "[A]ll persons pretending to
tell fortunes, or where lost or stolen goods may be found, ... shall be
deemed disorderly persons."); According to Bushman (2008, p. 22), this practice was "an illegal activity in New York because it was often practiced by swindlers".
Jortner (2022, p. 33) summarizes, "It is unclear what happened next." For a survey of the primary sources, see Vogel, Dan. "Rethinking the 1826 Judicial Decision". Mormon Scripture Studies: An e-Journal of Critical Thought. Archived from the original on June 9, 2011. See also "Introduction to State of New York v. JS–A". The Joseph Smith Papers. Archived from the original on December 20, 2022. Retrieved December 26, 2022,
which includes a calendar of documents and likewise concludes that "the
lack of verifiable contemporary records renders tentative any
conclusion about the case's outcome."
Shipps (1985,
p. 16) identifies the manuscript Harris lost as having been "the only
existing copy". The Harrises initially kept the manuscript locked in
Lucy Harris's bureau drawers. When Martin Harris wanted to show the
pages to a friend while Lucy was absent, he broke the lock and moved the
manuscript to his own drawers. The Harrises "later discovered the
manuscript was missing", presumably stolen by an unidentified party; see
Easton-Flake & Cope (2020, pp. 117–118).
For
a tentative view that Smith may have dictated significant portions of
the book of Mosiah to Emma Smith's and Samuel Smith's scribing, see p.
27 in Jensen, Robin Scott (2022). "The Authenticity of the Chicago Leaves of the Original Manuscript of the Book of Mormon: A Fragmented Approach". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 31: 1–30. doi:10.14321/23744774.37.01 (inactive February 24, 2023).
Bushman (2005, p. 74) states that Smith and Cowdery began dictation where the narrative left off after the lost 116 pages, in a location now representing the Book of Mosiah.
A revelation would later direct them not to re-translate the lost text,
to ensure that the lost pages could not later be found and compared to
the re-translation.Bushman (2005, p. 71) states Cowdery was a school teacher who had previously boarded with the Smith family. Bushman (2005, p. 73). See also Quinn (1998, pp. 35–36, 121).
Per Bushman (2005, p. 161), Richard W. Cummins, a government liaison to the Shawnee and Delaware
tribes, issued an order to desist because the missionaries had not
received official permission to meet with and proselytize the tribes
under his authority.
These reasons included the settlers' understanding that the Mormons intended to appropriate their property and establish a Millennial political kingdom (Remini (2002, pp. 114)), their friendliness with the Indians (Remini (2002, pp. 114–15); Arrington & Bitton (1979, p. 61)), their perceived religious blasphemy Remini (2002, p. 114), and especially the belief that they were abolitionists (Remini (2002,
pp. 113–14)). Additionally, their rapid growth aroused fears that they
would soon constitute a majority in local elections, and thus "rule the
county." Bushman (2005, p. 222).
Quinn (1994,
pp. 82–83) explains: Smith’s August 1833 revelation said that after a
fourth attack, "the [Latter Day] Saints were "justified" by God in
violence against any attack by any enemy "until they had avenged
themselves on all their enemies to the third and fourth generation",
citing Smith et al. (1835, p. 218)).
Remini (2002,
p. 116) also notes that "the ultimate cost [of the temple] came to
approximately $50,000, an enormous sum for a people struggling to stay
alive."
In an attempt to address the crisis caused by the Mormon expulsion from Jackson County, the Missouri state legislature "informally designed" Caldwell County "to accommodate Mormons"; see p. 23 in Walker, Jeffrey N. (2008). "Mormon Land Rights in Caldwell and Daviess Counties and the Mormon Conflict of 1838: New Findings and New Understandings". BYU Studies. 47 (1): 4–55. JSTOR 43044611 – via JSTOR.
Prior to the charter, Smith had narrowly avoided two extradition attempts. See Quinn (1994, p. 110); Brodie (1971, pp. 272–273); Bushman (2005, pp. 425–426).
Brodie (1971, pp. 311–12) also explains that Bennett, a minimally trained doctor, also promised abortions to any who might become pregnant.
There
is disagreement among historians about the identification and
provenance of this daguerrotype; for an overview of arguments and
positions for and against, see Stack, Peggy Fletcher (July 29, 2022). "'The Whole Affect Feels Off to Me' — Why Some Historians Doubt That's a Photo of Joseph Smith". The Salt Lake Tribune.
Smith had recently given his King Follett discourse, in which he taught that God was once a man, and that men and women could become gods. Bushman (2005, p. 539); Brodie (1971, pp. 375); Marquardt (1999, p. 312); Quinn (1994, p. 139) notes that the publishers "intended to emphasize the details of Smith's 'delectable plan of government' " in a subsequent edition which was planned but never produced; Ulrich (2017, pp. 113–114) explains that statements in the Expositor
"were powerful because they were simple, straightforward, and true" and
that they accompanied content which "fanned a fury that soon exploded
into violence".
Smith and his companions were staying in the jailer's bedroom, which did not have bars on the windows.
William
Smith, also a brother of Joseph Smith, later claimed Samuel had been
poisoned by a follower of Young in order to strengthen Young's claim to
succession. Quinn (1994, p. 153) argues that William's claim "should not be ignored" but also notes that it "cannot be verified". Anderson (2001,
pp. 7501n22) points out that "William did not make this claim of
poisoning until 1892", and she "found no documentation that Lucy [Mack
Smith, their mother,] ever considered Samuel's death to be murder". Bushman (2005, p. 555) writes that Samuel died of bilious fever.
Quinn (1994,
pp. 192–98) explains that before his death, Smith had charged the Fifty
with the responsibility of establishing the Millennial kingdom in his
absence. The Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, whose members were all also
members of the Council of Fifty, would eventually claim this "charge" as
their own.
Rigdon's
remnant denominations faded when he became more erratic later in life,
but William Bickerton took up the leadership of a large group of Rigdonites which ultimately became its own denomination, today called the Church of Jesus Christ; see Gutjahr (2012, p. 72). Strang's following largely dissipated after his assassination in 1856—an event from which Gutjahr (2012, p. 76) states Strangism "never recover[ed]"—though some persisted into the late-twentieth century; see Quinn (1994, pp. 210–211). Strang's current followers consist of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite).
The adopted twins were born of Julia Clapp Murdock and John Murdock; see Newell & Avery (1994,
p. 39). The adopted Joseph died after a mob broke into the Smiths' home
to tar and feather Smith Jr.; the exposure may have contributed to his
death. See Newell & Avery (1994, p. 43); Jortner (2022, p. 88); "Smith, Joseph Murdock". The Joseph Smith Papers. Archived from the original on May 18, 2022. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
Perego, Ugo. "Joseph Smith, the Question of Polygamous Offspring, and DNA Analysis". Persistence of Polygamy, in Bringhurst & Foster (2010, pp. 233–256)
Perego's summary of alleged children of Smith by polygamous wives lists
fourteen (236). His chapter discusses six cases of DNA analysis in
detail. Successful analyses disconfirmed paternity for Smith. However,
Perego notes that for other alleged cases, issues such as insufficient
data and "genealogical noise" make confident conclusions impossible. For
more on DNA research and Smith's alleged paternity of children of women
other than Emma Smith, also see: "Research focuses on Smith family". Deseret News. May 28, 2005. Archived from the original on June 30, 2006.; "DNA tests rule out 2 as Smith descendants: Scientific advances prove no genetic link". Deseret News. November 10, 2007. Archived from the original on November 13, 2007.; Perego, Ugo A.; Myers, Natalie M.; Woodward, Scott R. (Summer 2005). "Reconstructing the Y-Chromosome of Joseph Smith, Jr.: Genealogical Applications" (PDF). Journal of Mormon History. 32 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 25, 2006.
Ulrich (2017,
pp. 16, 404n48) writes that "In 1837, there was as yet no hint that
Joseph Smith would within a few years radically revise the meaning of
marriage among the Latter-day Saints… by proclaiming 'plural marriage' " and notes that "some Mormons… interpret… this [Smith's relationship with Alger] as "an attempt at plural marriage"; Davenport (2022,
p. 138) states, "In 1835 in Kirtland, she [Emma Smith] had invited
Fanny Alger into their home, only to expel her after discovering she was
also married to Joseph."
Ulrich (2017,
p. 404n48) notes, "Some writers interpret an allusion in an 1838
slander trial against Oliver Cowdery as evidence that Smith had an
extramarital relationship with Fanny Alger". This was probably between
1833 and 1836. Compton (1997, p. 26) dates the relationship and marriage to "early 1833". Bushman (2005,
pp. 323–326) notes Compton's dating, that Alger was fourteen in 1830
when she met Smith, that she and Smith interacted between that date and
1836, and that the relationship may have begun as early as 1831. See Smith (2008,
pp. 38–39 n.81) on how Cowdery questioned whether Smith and Alger were
actually married and called it "a dirty, nasty, filthy affair".
Bushman (2005,
pp. 323–25): "Presumably, he felt innocent because he had married
Alger." "Only Cowdery, who was leaving the Church, asserted Joseph's
involvement.") For an extended argument in favor of the Smith–Alger
relationship being an early attempt at polygamy, see Bradley, Don. "Mormon Polygamy Before Nauvoo? The Relationship of Joseph Smith and Fanny Alger". Persistence of Polygamy, in Bringhurst & Foster (2010, pp. 14–58) For another view, see Park (2020,
pp. 62–63), who considers the "reliable evidence" for pre-Nauvoo
polygamy "very thin" such that "it seems more likely that the doctrine
originated in Nauvoo in 1840, when Smith began envisioning a new society
and revealed the centrality of priesthood keys, familial networks, and
eternal unions", though Park grants that "the precise origins of the
practice remain murky".
Smith's last marriage was in November 1843 to Fanny Murray, a fifty-six-year-old widow; his youngest plural wife, Helen Mar Kimball, was fourteen.
Van Wagoner (1992, p. 73n3) reports that "Melissa Lott Willis testified that she was his [Smith's] wife 'in very deed' "; Bushman (2005,
pp. 418–419) states, "nothing indicates that sexual relations were left
out of plural marriages" but Smith "could not have spent much time with
Beaman or any of the women he married" on account of maintaining
secrecy and being occupied with church business and evading Missourian
extradition officers. Park (2020,
pp. 67, 104–105) summarizes, "It is impossible to know how many of
these marriages were consummated" and of a series of marriages Smith
entered between spring 1841 and spring 1842, Park adds, "There is only
evidence that one of these unions, Beman, involved sex."
Foster (1981, p. 159) writes that "some of these marriages may have been only for 'eternity' ". Compton (1997,
pp. 171–179, 558) describes marriages to Patty Sessions and Rhoda
Richards as having been "ceremonial" and "purely religious in nature".
Hales avers that "Specific evidence exists supporting that Joseph Smith
personally experienced sealings for 'eternity,' not 'time and eternity'
and therefore without sexual relations"; see Hales, Brian C. "Joseph Smith and the Puzzlement of 'Polyandry'". Persistence of Polygamy. pp. 129–130, in Bringhurst & Foster (2010, pp. 99–152) as well as Hales (2013, pp. 1:418–425, 2:282). Park (2020,
p. 67) reports that those of Smith's wives who were already married to
other husbands "either denied or refused to confirm that they had been
physically intimate with him [Smith]… They understood the union to be
spiritual in nature… with limited implications for their current life."
Park (2020,
p. 152) summarizes, "Emma's support proved tenuous". The four women
were Emily Partridge, Eliza Partridge, Sarah Lawrence, and Maria
Lawrence; Emma Smith was not aware that Joseph Smith had already
previously courted and married the Partridges, and they did not disclose
this to Emma. See Davenport (2022, p. 138); Bushman (2005, p. 494); Remini (2002, pp. 152–53); and Brodie (1971, p. 339).
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints later canonized the text as D&C 132, in 1876; see Bringhurst, Newell G. "Section 132 of the LDS Doctrine and Covenants: Its Complex Contents and Controversial Legacy". Persistence of Polygamy. p. 60, in Bringhurst & Foster (2010, pp. 59–86).
Smith
allowed Emma to destroy a copy of the revelation (though he had already
had copies made), signed property over to Emma to give her and their
children more independent financial security, and promised to not marry
any additional women for the rest of the season. See Park (2020,
p. 154): "after Joseph had copies made—she was allowed to express her
frustration by destroying the document", and "Emma did not back down at
all until Joseph promised not to take any more plural wives that fall.
With one exception, he remained true to his word"; Davenport (2022,
p. 144): "in November he [Smith] took his last plural wife—but he
hardly relinquished 'all.' He even told William Clayton that 'he should
not relinquish anything.' "
Historians have proposed several possible motivations for Emma Smith's continued denials of Joseph's polygamy. Brodie (1971, p. 399) speculates that the denial was a form of revenge and animosity against his plural wives; Van Wagoner (1992,
pp. 113–114) posits that the subject of polygamy "evoked painful
memories for Emma" and she "refused to give tongue to memory simply
because she could not face the shadows of the past"; Newell & Avery (1994,
pp. 292) note that Emma received covenants associated with the temple
and celestial marriage which involved strict promises to maintain
secrecy; they argue Emma may have extended that secrecy to plural
marriage itself which she never directly repudiated. Newell and Avery
also aver that "when Emma decided not to tell her children about plural
marriage, it was an attempt to remove problems from their lives."; Quinn (1994,
pp. 237) points out that Emma "opposed polygamy during most of the time
her husband practiced it" and proposes that she did not teach her
children about plural marriage because she "regarded it as the cause of
his death"; Park (2020, p. 277) states that "denial" about polygamy was Emma's "method for dealing with" the experience "[a]fter years of anguish".
Vogel (2004,
p. viii, xvii) argues that Smith believed he was called of God, but
occasionally engaged in fraudulent activities to preach God's word more
effectively; and that Smith's private beliefs were revealed through his
revelations.
Brodie (1971, pp. 46–48, 57–73). Whether or not the Book of Mormon's content is connected to View of the Hebrews is disputed among scholars. Elizabeth Fenton summarizes, "Some argue that [Oliver] Cowdery must have read View of the Hebrews and shared its contents with Joseph Smith, laying the groundwork for the latter’s development of The Book of Mormon's
Hebraic Indian plotlines. Others contend that it is unlikely Cowdery
ever interacted with Ethan Smith – indeed, to date no archival evidence
has surfaced to link them directly – and highlight the numerous
differences in style and content between View of the Hebrews and The Book of Mormon." See Fenton, Elizabeth (2020). Old Canaan in a New World: Native Americans and the Lost Tribes of Israel. New York University Press. pp. 71, 224n16, 224n17. ISBN 978-1-4798-6636-6.
Quinn (1998,
pp. 171–73) writes that witnesses said that Smith shifted from the Urim
and Thummim to the single brown seer stone after the loss of the
earliest 116 manuscript pages; Bushman (2005,
pp. 70, 578n46) notes that "Lucy Smith said that Joseph received the
interpreters again on September 22, 1828" but that "Although the
assertion clashes with other accounts, David Whitmer said Moroni did not
return the Urim and Thummum… Instead Joseph used a seerstone for the
remaining translation"; Jortner (2022,
p. 42) follows Lucy Smith's account and writes of "the removal and
subsequent restoration of the Urim and Thummum by an angel".
The
papyri were prepared for the funerary rites of one Ta-Shert-Min,
daughter of New-Khensu. For further details about the papyri,
manuscripts, and Egyptian alphabets, see Ritner, Robert K. "Translation and Historicity of the Book of Abraham: A Response" (PDF). University of Chicago. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 5, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2018.
Latter-day Saints have posited that the papyri could have inspired
Smith to dictate the Book of Abraham as a revelation, even if it is not a
conventional translation of the papyri's content. For a non-Mormon
scholar's description of this Latter-day Saint position, see p.
191n83–192n83 in Hazard, Sonia (Summer 2021). "How Joseph Smith Encountered Printing Plates and Founded Mormonism". Religion & American Culture. 31 (2): 137–192. doi:10.1017/rac.2021.11. S2CID 237394042.
According to Smith's teachings, God's throne is situated near a star or planet named Kolob[317]
According to Susa Young Gates, Smith told Zina Huntington
that in the afterlife, "you will meet and become acquainted with your
eternal Mother, the wife of your Father in Heaven… How could a Father
claim His title unless there were also a Mother to share that
parenthood?" See Derr, Jill Mulvay (1996–1997). "The Significance of 'O My Father' in the Personal Journey of Eliza R. Snow". Brigham Young University Studies. 36 (1): 84–126. JSTOR 43042019
For
photographic facsimiles of, transcriptions of, and contextual
commentary on Smith's 1842 revelation outlining part of this theology,
see Grua,
David W.; Rogers, Brent M.; Godfrey, Matthew C.; Jensen, Robin Scott;
Nelson, Jessica M., eds. (2021). "Revelation, 12 July 1843 [D&C
132]". The Joseph Smith Papers: Documents, Volume 12: March–July 1843. 457–478: Church Historian's Press. ISBN 978-1-62972-888-9. Archived from the original on December 18, 2022.
Bushman (2005,
p. 443) explains that it was only later that Latter-day Saints
interpreted Smith's 1843 revelation on "celestial marriage" as applying
exaltation to both polygamy and monogamy. However, see Hales (2013,
pp. 3: 191–194) for a contrary interpretation holding that although
Smith taught that God commanded Latter-day Saints to practice polygamy
in his time, "there is no known evidence that Joseph Smith taught that
all men and women, irrespective of the time and place they existed, must
practice plural marriage in order to be exalted"; for this, see also Foster, Craig L. "Doctrine and Covenants Section 132 and Joseph Smith's Expanding Concept of Family". Persistence of Polygamy. p. 96, in Bringhurst & Foster (2010, pp. 87–98)
Citations
Shields, Steven (1990). Divergent Paths of the Restoration (Fourth ed.). Independence, Missouri: Restoration Research. ISBN 0-942284-00-3.
Joseph Smith. "Minutes of a Conference". Evening and Morning Star. Vol. 2, no. 20. Kirtland, OH. p. 160. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
"D&C 115:4".
Garr, Arnold K. (Spring 2002). "Joseph Smith: Mayor of Nauvoo" (PDF). Mormon Historical Studies. 1 (1): 5–6.
Jenson, Andrew, ed. (1888). The Historical Record: A Monthly Periodical. Salt Lake City. p. 843. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Bushman (2005, pp. 9, 30); Smith (1832, p. 1)
Bushman (2005, p. 21)
Bushman (2005, pp. 27–32)
"Smith Family Log Home, Palmyra, New York". Ensign Peak Foundation. Archived from the original on October 5, 2022. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
Martin, John H. (2005). "An Overview of the Burned-Over District". Saints, Sinners and Reformers: The Burned-Over District Re-Visited, published in the Crooked Lake Review. No. 137. Fall 2005.
Bowman, Matthew (March 3, 2016). Butler, Jon (ed.). "Mormonism". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.326. ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5.
Bushman (2005, pp. 36–37); Quinn (1998, p. 136)
Vogel (2004, p. xx); Hill (1989, pp. 10–11); Brooke (1994, p. 129)
Vogel (2004, pp. 26–7); D. Michael Quinn (July 12, 2006). "Joseph Smith's Experience of a Methodist 'Camp-Meeting' in 1820" (PDF). Dialogue Paperless. p. 3. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved December 26, 2022.
Quinn (1998, pp. 30–31); Bushman (2005, p. 51); Shipps (1985, pp. 7–8); Remini (2002, pp. 16, 33); Hill (1977, p. 53)
Quinn (1998, pp. 14–16, 137); Bushman (2005, pp. 26, 36); Brooke (1994, pp. 150–51); Mack (1811, p. 25); Smith (1853, pp. 54–59, 70–74)
Bushman (2005, pp. 38–9); Vogel (2004, p. 30); Quinn (1998, p. 136); Remini (2002, p. 37)
Bushman (2005, p. 39); Vogel (2004, p. 30); Quinn (1998, p. 136)
Remini (2002, pp. 37–38); Bushman (2005, p. 39); Vogel (2004, p. 30)
Vogel (2004, p. 30); Remini (2002, p. 40); Harper (2019, p. 9)
Harper (2019, pp. 10–12)
Harper (2019, pp. 1, 51–55)
Allen, James B. (Autumn 1966). The Significance of Joseph Smith's "First Vision" in Mormon Thought. Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. Vol. 1. pp. 29–46. doi:10.2307/45223817. JSTOR 45223817. S2CID 222223353.
Bushman (2005, p. 39); Vogel (2004, p. 30); Remini (2002, p. 39)
Quinn (1998, pp. 136–38); Bushman (2005, p. 43); Shipps (1985, pp. 151–152)
Bushman (2005, p. 50); Jortner (2022, p. 38)
Quinn (1998, pp. 163–64); Bushman (2005, p. 54)
Bushman (2005, p. 42)
Bushman (2008, p. 21); Bushman (2005, pp. 33, 48)
Taylor, Alan (Spring 1986). "The Early Republic's Supernatural Economy: Treasure Seeking in the American Northeast, 1780–1830". American Quarterly. 38 (1): 6–34. doi:10.2307/2712591. JSTOR 2712591.
Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 17); Brooke (1994, pp. 152–53); Quinn (1998, pp. 43–44, 54–57); , Persuitte (2000, pp. 33–53); Bushman (2005, pp. 45–53); Jortner (2022, p. 29)
Jortner (2022, pp. 29–31)
Bushman (2005, p. 53); Vogel (2004, p. 89); Quinn (1998, p. 164)
Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 17–18)
Bushman (2005, pp. 53–54)
Shipps (1985, p. 12); Quinn (1998, pp. 163–64); Bushman (2005, pp. 54, 59); Easton-Flake & Cope (2020, p. 126)
Bushman (2005, pp. 59–60); Shipps (1985, p. 153)
Shipps (1985, p. 9); Bushman (2005, p. 54); Howe (2007, pp. 313–314); Jortner (2022, p. 41)
Bushman (2004, pp. 238–242); Howe (2007, p. 313)
Bushman (2005, p. 61); Howe (2007, p. 315); Jortner (2022, pp. 36–38)
Shipps (1985, p. 12); Remini (2002, p. 55); Bushman (2005, pp. 60–61)
Remini (2002, pp. 55–56); Newell & Avery (1994, p. 2); Bushman (2005, pp. 62–63)
Easton-Flake & Cope (2020, p. 133); Bushman (2005, p. 63); Remini (2002, p. 56)
Shipps (1985, pp. 15, 153); Bushman (2005, p. 63)
Bushman (2005, pp. 63–66); Remini (2002, pp. 57–58)
Howe (1834, pp. 269–72) (Anthon's description of his meeting with Harris). But see Vogel (2004, p. 115) (arguing that Anthon's initial assessment was likely more positive than he would later admit).
Easton-Flake & Cope (2020, p. 129)
Shipps (1985, pp. 15–16); Easton-Flake & Cope (2020, pp. 117–119); Smith (1853, pp. 117–18)
Bushman (2005, pp. 67–68)
Shipps (1985, p. 17)
Bushman (2005, pp. 68–70)
Shipps (1985, p. 18); Bushman (2005, pp. 70, 578n46); Phelps (1833, sec. 2:4–5); Smith (1853, p. 126)
Bushman (2005, p. 70)
Bushman (2005, p. 70)
Bushman (2005, pp. 70–74)
Quinn (1994, pp. 5–6, 15–20); Bushman (2005, pp. 74–75)
Bushman (2005, p. 78)
Bushman (2005, p. 77)
Bushman (2005, pp. 77–79)
Remini (2002, p. 68)
Jortner (2022, p. 43)
Shipps (1985, p. 154)
For the April 6 establishment of a church organization, see Shipps (1985, p. 154); for Fayette and Manchester (and some ambiguity over a Palmyra presence), see Hill (1989, pp. 27, 201n84); for the Colesville congregation, see Jortner (2022, p. 57);
Bushman (2005, p. 117); Vogel (2004, pp. 484–486, 510–512)
Hill (1989, p. 28); Bushman (2005, pp. 116–18)
Quinn (1994, pp. 24–26); Bushman (2005, p. 118)
Hill (1989, p. 27); Bushman (2005, p. 120)
Hill (1989, pp. 27–28); Bushman (2005, p. 121); Phelps (1833, p. 67)
Hill (1989, p. 28); Bushman (2005, p. 112); Jortner (2022, pp. 59–60, 93, 95)
Phelps (1833, p. 68); Bushman (2005, p. 122)
Parley
Pratt said that the Mormon mission baptized 127 within two or three
weeks "and this number soon increased to one thousand". See McKiernan, F. Mark (Summer 1970). "The Conversion of Sidney Rigdon to Mormonism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 5 (2): 71–78. doi:10.2307/45224203. JSTOR 45224203. S2CID 254399092; Bushman (2005, p. 124); Jortner (2022, pp. 60–61)
McKiernan, F. Mark (Summer 1970). "The Conversion of Sidney Rigdon to Mormonism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 5 (2): 71–78. doi:10.2307/45224203. JSTOR 45224203. S2CID 254399092
- Bushman (2005, p. 124)
Bushman (2005, pp. 124–25); Howe (2007, p. 315)
Bushman (2005, pp. 150–52); Remini (2002, p. 95)
Bushman (2005, pp. 154–55); Hill (1977, p. 131)
Quinn (1994, pp. 31–32); Bushman (2005, pp. 125, 156–60)
Arrington & Bitton (1979, p. 21)
Shipps (1985, p. 81)
Turner (2012, p. 41)
Bushman (2005, pp. 162–163); Smith et al. (1835, p. 154)
Arrington & Bitton (1979, p. 21)
Bushman (2005, pp. 180–182)
Remini (2002, pp. 109–10); Bushman (2005, pp. 178–80)
Bushman (2005, pp. 181–83, 235)
Quinn (1994, pp. 83–84); Bushman (2005, pp. 222–27)
Remini (2002, p. 115)
Hill (1989, pp. 44–46) (for the petition to Dunklin and his declination as well as Smith deescalating and disbanding the camp); Bushman (2005, pp. 235–46) (for the numerical limitations, social tension, and cholera outbreak in the camp).
Bushman (2005, pp. 246–247); Quinn (1994, p. 85)
Bushman (2005, p. 247); see also Remini (2002, pp. 100–104) for a timeline of Smith introducing the new organizational entities.
Brodie (1971, pp. 156–57); Smith et al. (1835, p. 233); Prince (1995, p. 32 & n.104).
Bushman (2005, pp. 310–19)
Remini (2002, pp. 122–123); Bushman (2005, pp. 328–334)
Remini (2002, p. 124); Bushman (2005, pp. 331–32, 336–39)
Brooke (1994, p. 221)
Cluff, Randall (February 2000). Cowdery, Oliver (1806–1850), Mormon leader. American National Biography Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0802307.
Bushman (2005, p. 322); Compton1997, pp. 25–42)
Bushman (2005, pp. 217, 329)
Quinn (1998, pp. 261–64); Bushman (2005, p. 328)
Bushman (2005, pp. 328–329)
Remini (2002, p. 125); Bushman (2005, pp. 339–40); Hill (1977, p. 216)
Hill (1977, pp. 181–82); Bushman (2005, pp. 345, 384)
Brodie (1971, pp. 210, 222–23); Quinn (1994, p. 628); Remini (2002, p. 131)
Remini (2002, p. 125); Bushman (2005, pp. 341–46)
Walker, Jeffrey N. (2008). "Mormon Land Rights in Caldwell and Daviess Counties and the Mormon Conflict of 1838: New Findings and New Understandings". BYU Studies. 47 (1): 4–55. JSTOR 43044611 – via JSTOR; LeSueur, Stephen C. (Fall 2005). "Missouri's Failed Compromise: The Creation of Caldwell County for the Mormons". Journal of Mormon History. 31 (2): 113–144. JSTOR 23289934 – via JSTOR
Marquardt (2005, p. 463) ; Remini (2002, p. 128); Quinn (1994, p. 93); Bushman (2005, pp. 324, 346–348)
Bushman (2005, pp. 347–48)
Quinn (1994, p. 92); Brodie (1971, p. 213); Bushman (2005, p. 355)
Quinn (1994, p. 93); Remini (2002, p. 129)
Bushman (2005, pp. 346–52); Quinn (1994, p. 93); Hill (1977, p. 225)
Quinn (1994, pp. 94–95)
Remini (2002, pp. 131–33)
Quinn (1994, p. 96); Bushman (2005, p. 355)
Remini (2002, p. 133)
Bushman (2005, p. 357)
Remini (2002, p. 134); Quinn (1994, pp. 96–99, 101); Bushman (2005, p. 363)
Bushman (2005, pp. 364–65); Quinn (1994, p. 100)
Bushman (2005, pp. 365–66); Quinn (1994, p. 97)
Bushman (2005, pp. 366–67); Brodie (1971, p. 239)
Bushman (2005, pp. 242, 344, 367); Brodie (1971, p. 241)
Bushman (2005, p. 369); Brodie (1971, pp. 225–26, 243–45)
Bushman (2005, pp. 369–70)
Brodie (1971, pp. 245–51); Bushman (2005, pp. 375–77))
Remini (2002, pp. 136–37); Brodie (1971, pp. 245–46);Quinn (1998, pp. 101–02)
Bushman (2005, pp. 377–78)
Bushman (2005, p. 375); Brodie (1971, pp. 253–55); Bushman (2005, pp. 382, 635–36); Bentley, Joseph I. (1992). "Smith, Joseph: Legal Trials of Joseph Smith". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 1346–1348. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
Brodie (1971, pp. 246–47, 259); Bushman (2005, p. 398)
Bushman (2005, p. 381)
Bushman (2005, pp. 383–4)
Bushman (2005, pp. 392–94, 398–99); Brodie (1971, pp. 259–60)
Bushman (2005, pp. 386, 409); Brodie (1971, pp. 258, 264–65)
Bushman (2005, pp. 410–11)
Brodie (1971, pp. 267–68); Bushman (2005, p. 412,415)
Quinn (1998, pp. 106–08)
Brodie (1971, p. 271)
Bushman (2005, pp. 410–411)
Bushman (2005, pp. 448–49); Park (2020, pp. 57–61)
Quinn (1994, p. 113)
Bushman (2005, pp. 449); Quinn (1994, pp. 114–15)
Quinn (1994, p. 634)
Bushman (2005, p. 384,404)
Bushman (2005, p. 415)
Quinn (1994, pp. 111–12)
Bushman (2005, pp. 427–28)
Bushman (2005, p. 460)
Ostling & Ostling (1999, p. 12); Bushman (2005, pp. 461–62); Brodie (1971, p. 314)
Bushman (2005, p. 468); Brodie (1971, p. 323); Quinn (1994, p. 113)
Bushman (2005, pp. 468–75)
Bushman (2005, pp. 504–08)
Bushman (2005, p. 508)
Romig, Ronald; Mackay, Lachlan (Spring–Summer 2022). "Hidden Things Shall Come to Light: The Visual Image of Joseph Smith Jr". John Whitmer Historical Association Journal. 42 (1): 28–60. ISSN 0739-7852.
Brodie (1971, p. 356); Quinn (1994, pp. 115–116)
Quinn (1994, pp. 118–19); Bushman (2005, pp. 514–15); Brodie (1971, pp. 362–64)
Bushman (2005, p. 519); Quinn (1994, pp. 120–22)
"How Joseph Smith and the Early Mormons Challenged American Democracy". The New Yorker. March 20, 2020. Retrieved April 18, 2023.
Bushman (2005, p. 517)
Bushman (2005, pp. 527–28)
Brodie (1971, pp. 368–9); Quinn (1994, p. 528)
Ostling & Ostling (1999, p. 14); Brodie (1971, pp. 369–371); Van Wagoner (1992, p. 39); Bushman (2005, pp. 660–61)
Bushman (2005, pp. 549, 531)
Brodie (1971, p. 373); Bushman (2005, pp. 531, 538); Park (2020, p. 227)
Bushman (2005, p. 539); Brodie (1971, pp. 374); Quinn (1994, p. 138)
Oaks & Hill (1975, p. 14); Davenport (2022, pp. 147–148). The text of the Nauvoo Expositor is available on Wikisource.
Park (2020, pp. 228–230); Marquardt (1999, p. 312)
Park (2020, pp. 229–230)
Bushman (2005, p. 541)
Brodie (1971, p. 394)
Ulrich (2017, p. 114); Park (2020, p. 230)
Park (2020, pp. 231–232); McBride (2021, pp. 186–187)
Ostling & Ostling (1999, p. 16)
Bushman (2005, p. 546); Park (2020, p. 233)
Ostling & Ostling (1999, p. 17); Park (2020, p. 234); McBride (2021, p. 191)
Bentley, Joseph I. (1992). "Smith, Joseph: Legal Trials of Joseph Smith". In Ludlow, Daniel H (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Macmillan Publishing. pp. 1346–1348. ISBN 0-02-879602-0. OCLC 24502140. Retrieved May 5, 2023.; Oaks & Hill (1975, p. 18); Park (2020, p. 234)
McBride (2021, p. 192)
Oaks & Hill (1975, p. 52); Brodie (1971, p. 393)
Bushman (2005, p. 549)
Brodie (1971, pp. 393–94); Bushman (2005, pp. 549–50)
Oaks & Hill (1975, p. 185)
Bushman (2005, pp. 332, 557–59)
Bushman (2005, p. 558); Brodie (1971, pp. 396–97)
Wiles, Lee (Summer 2013). "Monogamy Underground: The Burial of Mormon Plural Marriage in the Graves of Joseph and Emma Smith". Journal of Mormon History. 39 (3): vi–59. doi:10.2307/24243852. JSTOR 24243852. S2CID 254486845
Bernauer, Barbara Hands (1991). "Still 'Side by Side'—The Final Burial of Joseph and Hyrum Smith". John Whitmer Historical Association Journal. 11: 17–33. JSTOR 43200879
Mackay, Lachlan (Fall 2002). "A Brief History of the Smith Family Nauvoo Cemetery" (PDF). Mormon Historical Studies. 3 (2): 240–252.
Brodie (1971, p. vii); Shipps (1985, p. 37); Bushman (2005, p. xx); Widmer (2000, p. 97)
Lloyd, R. Scott (January 9, 2015). "Joseph Smith, Brigham Young Rank First and Third in Magazine's List of Significant Religious Figures". Church News.
Neilson, Reid L.; Givens, Terryl L., eds. (2008). "Introduction". Joseph Smith, Jr.: Reappraisals After Two Centuries. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–12. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195369786.003.001. ISBN 978-0-19-536978-6.
Turner, John G. (October 2021). "Sincerity, Imagination, and Mythmaking: Fawn Brodie and the First Vision". Journal of Mormon History. 47 (4): 95–109. doi:10.5406/jmormhist.47.4.0095. S2CID 246615613. As an example, Turner identifies Riley, I. Woodbridge (1902). The Founder of Mormonism: A Psychological Study of Joseph Smith, Jr. New York: Dodd, Mead.
Turner, John G. (October 2021). "Sincerity, Imagination, and Mythmaking: Fawn Brodie and the First Vision". Journal of Mormon History. 47 (4): 95–109. doi:10.5406/jmormhist.47.4.0095. S2CID 246615613
Shipps, Jan (1974). "The Prophet Puzzle: Suggestions Leading Toward a More Comprehensive Interpretation of Joseph Smith". Journal of Mormon History. 1: 3–20. JSTOR 23285878 – via JSTOR
Bloom (1992, pp. 96–99); Persuitte (2000, p. 1); Remini (2002, p. ix)
Hudson, Wayne (2008). "The Prophethood of Joseph Smith". In Neilson, Reid L.; Givens, Terryl L. (eds.). Joseph Smith, Jr.: Reappraisals After Two Centuries. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 201–208. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195369786.003.013. ISBN 978-0-19-536978-6
Davies, Douglas J. (2008). "Visions, Revelations, and Courage in Joseph Smith". In Neilson, Reid L.; Givens, Terryl L. (eds.). Joseph Smith, Jr.: Reappraisals After Two Centuries. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 119–142. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195369786.003.009. ISBN 978-0-19-536978-6
Maffly-Kipp, Laurie (Fall 2011). "Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling". A Retrospective on the Scholarship of Richard Bushman. Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 44 (3): 28–36. doi:10.5406/dialjmormthou.44.3.0028. S2CID 246624905 – via Scholarly Publishing Collective.
Turner, John G. (May 6, 2022). "Why Joseph Smith Matters". Marginalia Review. Archived from the original on August 17, 2022.
Launius, Roger D. (Winter 2006). "Is Joseph Smith Relevant to the Community of Christ?". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 39 (4): 58–67. doi:10.2307/45227214. JSTOR 45227214. S2CID 254402921 – via JSTOR
Oaks, Dallin H. (2005). "Joseph Smith in a Personal World". The Worlds of Joseph Smith: A Bicentennial Conference at the Library of Congress. Brigham Young University Studies. 44 (4): 153–172. JSTOR 43045057 – via JSTOR
Stack, Peggy Fletcher (November 26, 2022). "What's a Giant Statue of Mormonism's Joseph Smith Doing in India?". Salt Lake Tribune.
Moore, Richard G. (Spring 2014). "LDS Misconceptions about the Community of Christ" (PDF). Mormon Historical Studies. 15 (1): 1–23. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 20, 2021.
Rosetti, Cristina (Fall 2021). "Praise to the Man: The Development of Joseph Smith Deification in Woolleyite Mormonism, 1929–1977". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 54 (3): 41–65. doi:10.5406/dialjmormthou.54.3.0041. S2CID 246647004
Rockwell, Ken; Neatrour, Anna; Muir-Jones, James (2018). "Repurposing Secular Buildings". Religious Diversity in Salt Lake City. University of Utah.
Cook, Emily (June 18, 2018). "Joseph Smith Memorial Building (JSB)". Intermountain Histories. Retrieved December 22, 2022.
Erekson, Keith A. (Summer–Fall 2005). "The
Joseph Smith Memorial Monument and Royalton's 'Mormon Affair':
Religion, Community, Memory, and Politics in Progressive Vermont" (PDF). Vermont History. 73: 118–151.
Quinn (1994, p. 143); Brodie (1971, p. 398)
Shipps (1985, pp. 83–84); Quinn (1994, p. 143); Davenport (2022, p. 159)
Quinn (1994, p. 213); Bushman (2005, p. 555)
Quinn (1994, pp. 213–26); Bushman (2005, p. 555)
Quinn (1994, pp. 226–41); Ostling & Ostling (1999, p. 42)
Quinn (1994, pp. 187–91)
Davenport (2022, pp. 162–163); Quinn (1994, pp. 149–155)
Bushman (2005, pp. 556–57); Davenport (2022, p. 163)
Walsh, Tad (March 31, 2018). "LDS Church Membership Officially Surpasses 16 Million". Deseret News.
Bushman (2005, pp. 555–557)
McBride (2021, p. 205)
Quinn (1994, pp. 198–09)
Peter, Karin; Mackay, Lachlan; Chvala-Smith, Tony (October 14, 2022). "Theo-History: Plano Period". Cuppa Joe (Podcast). Project Zion Podcast. Event occurs at 1:52 and 9:47.
Howlett, David J. (December 11, 2022). "Community of Christ". World Religions and Spirituality Project. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023
"Community of Christ". Encyclopædia Britannica. April 15, 2004. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023
Posterity tree in Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 12–13)
Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 27, 39)
Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 102–103); Rappleye, Christine (March 19, 2021). "Remembering Emma Hale Smith, the First President of the Relief Society". Church Newsroom. Archived from the original on January 5, 2023
Bushman (2005, pp. 554)
Bushman (2005, p. 554); Avery & Newell (1980, p. 82)
Bushman (2005, p. 554)
Newell, Linda King (Fall–Winter 2011). "Emma's Legacy: Life After Joseph". 2010 Sterling M. McMurrin Lecture. John Whitmer Historical Association Journal. 31 (2): 1–22. JSTOR 43200523 – via JSTOR.; Bushman (2005, pp. 554–55)
Bushman (2005, p. 555)
Hill (1977, p. 340); Compton (1997, p. 27); Bushman (2005, pp. 323, 326)
Bushman (2005, pp. 323–25); Hill (1977, p. 188)
Bushman (2005, p. 325)
Park (2020, pp. 61–62)
Compton (1997, p. 11); Remini (2002, p. 154); Brodie (1971, pp. 334–43); Bushman (2005, pp. 492–498)
Bushman (2005, p. 439)
Bushman (2005, p. 491); Park (2020, pp. 61, 67); Davenport (2022, pp. 131, 136–137)
Bushman (2005, pp. 494–495)
Ulrich (2017, p. 89); see Park (2020, pp. 193–194) for a concurring assessment.
Bushman (2005, p. 439)
Brodie (1971, pp. 340–341); Hill (1989, p. 119); Bushman (2005, pp. 495–96); Ulrich (2017, pp. 92–93); Park (2020, pp. 152–154)
Bushman (2005, pp. 494–497); Quinn (1994, p. 638)
Park (2020, pp. 195–196)
Van Wagoner (1992, pp. 113–114); Quinn (1994, p. 239); Park (2020, p. 277)
Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 114–115); Park (2020, pp. 195–196)
Van Wagoner (1992, p. 53); Newell & Avery (1994, pp. 128–129)
Van Wagoner (1992, pp. 113–115).
Bushman (2005, p. xxi)
Coviello (2019, p. 59)
Bushman (2005, p. xxi,173)
Bushman (2005, p. 69); Vogel (2004, pp. 128–129); Brodie (1971, pp. 55–57)
Bushman (2005, pp. xx, 129)
Bushman (2005, p. 105)
Maffly-Kipp, Laurie (2008). "Introduction". The Book of Mormon. Penguin Classics. New York: Penguin. pp. vi–xxxii. ISBN 978-0-14-310553-4.
Jortner (2022, p. 47)
Bushman (2005, p. 85)
Bushman (2005, p. 85); Vogel (2004, p. 118)
Bushman (2005, pp. 85–87); Jortner (2022, p. 48)
Jortner (2022, p. 49)
Bushman (2005, p. 108); Vogel (2004, pp. 122–23, 161, 311, 700)
Hardy, Grant (2010). Understanding the Book of Mormon: A Reader's Guide. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–181, 190–195, 262–263. ISBN 978-0-19-974544-9; Turner, John G. (2016). The Mormon Jesus: A Biography. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-674-73743-3; Smith (1830, p. 587)
Bushman (2005, p. 106)
Johnson, Janiece (April 1, 2018). "Becoming a People of the Books: Toward an Understanding of Early Mormon Converts and the New Word of the Lord". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 27: 1–43. doi:10.5406/jbookmormstud2.27.2018.0001. ISSN 2374-4766. S2CID 254309156.
Hughes, Richard T. (2005). "Joseph Smith as an American Restorationist". The Worlds of Joseph Smith: A Bicentennial Conference at the Library of Congress. Brigham Young University Studies. 44 (4): 31–39. JSTOR 43045048 – via JSTOR. Hughes's quotation from Campbell can be found in Campbell, Alexander (1832). Delusions: An Analysis of the Book of Mormon. Boston: Benjamin H. Greene. p. 13.
Bushman (2004, p. 48)
Vogel (2004, pp. xviii–xix)
Remini, Robert V. (2005). "Biographical Reflections on the American Joseph Smith". The Worlds of Joseph Smith: A Bicentennial Conference at the Library of Congress. Brigham Young University Studies. 44 (4): 21–30. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43045047.
Bushman (2004, pp. 58–59)
Howe (2007, p. 314)
Shipps (1985, pp. 35–36)
Bushman (2005, p. 72)
Book of Mormon, title page.
Remini (2002, p. 57); Bushman (2005, p. 66); Quinn (1998, pp. 169–70)
Bushman (2005, pp. 71–72); Marquardt & Walters (1994, pp. 103–04); Van Wagoner & Walker (1982, pp. 52–53)
Remini (2002, p. 62); Van Wagoner & Walker (1982, p. 53); Bushman (2005, pp. 71–72); Marquardt & Walters (1994, pp. 103–04)
Quinn (1998, p. 242); Bushman (2005, p. 142)
Shipps (1985, p. 33)
Bushman (2004, pp. 74–76)
Brodie (1971, p. 84); Bushman (2005, p. 127)
Brodie (1971, p. 57); Bushman (2005, pp. xxi, 128, 388)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, p. 37), quoting Moses 1:3
Bushman (2005, pp. 132, 142); Givens & Hauglid (2019, p. 32)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, pp. 32–33)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, p. 31)
Bushman (2005, p. 133); Givens & Hauglid (2019, pp. 31–32)
Hill (1977, p. 131); Givens & Hauglid (2019, p. 32)
Bushman (2005, p. 138)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, pp. 37–38)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, p. 73)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, pp. 39–41)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, pp. 47–48)
Bushman (2005, pp. 138–41)
Givens & Hauglid (2019, pp. 57–60)
Bushman (2005, pp. 133–34)
Brodie (1971, pp. 170–75); Bushman (2005, pp. 286, 289–290)
Bushman (2005, pp. 157, 288–290)
Wilson, John A. (Summer 1968). "A Summary Report". The Joseph Smith Egyptian Papyri: Translations and Interpretations. Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 3 (2): 67–88. doi:10.2307/45227259. JSTOR 45227259. S2CID 254343491 – via JSTOR.
Bushman (2005, p. 388)
Bushman (2005, p. 130)
Bushman (2005, p. 174)
Quinn (1994, pp. 5–6, 9, 15–17, 26, 30, 33, 35, 38–42, 49, 70–71, 88, 198); Brodie (1971, p. 141)
Brodie (1971, pp. 106–7); "D&C 42".
Brodie (1971, pp. 117–18); "D&C 76".
Bushman (2005, pp. 202–205); "D&C 84".
Bushman (2005, pp. 205–212); "D&C 93".
Brodie (1971, p. 166); Bushman (2005, pp. 212–213); "D&C 89".
Brodie (1971, p. 289); Bushman (2005, p. 213); Ostling & Ostling (1999, pp. 177–78)
Bushman (2005, pp. 253–60); "D&C 107".
Brodie (1971, p. 340); Bushman (2005, pp. 438–46); "D&C 132".
Bushman (2005, pp. 193–195)
Brodie (1971, pp. 159–60); Bushman (2005, pp. 229, 310–322)
Bushman (2005, p. 419)
Bushman (2005, pp. 419, 421–3)
Bushman (2005, pp. 419–20); Brooke (1994, pp. 3–5)
Widmer (2000, p. 119)
Bushman (2005, pp. 420–21); Bloom (1992, p. 101)
Park, Benjamin E. (Summer 2010). "Salvation through a Tabernacle: Joseph Smith, Parley P. Pratt, and Early Mormon Theologies of Embodiment". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 43 (2): 1–44. doi:10.5406/dialjmormthou.43.2.0001. S2CID 171908868 – via Scholarly Publishing Collective
Vogel, Dan (1989). "The Earliest Mormon Conception of God". Line Upon Line, in Bergera (1989, pp. 17–33); Alexander, Thomas (1989). "The Reconstruction of Mormon Doctrine: From Joseph Smith to Progressive Theology". Line Upon Line. p. 53, in Bergera (1989, pp. 53–66)
Webb (2011, p. 254)
Harper (2019, p. 55)
Widmer (2000, p. 119); Alexander, Thomas (1989). "The Reconstruction of Mormon Doctrine: From Joseph Smith to Progressive Theology". Line Upon Line. p. 59, in Bergera (1989, pp. 53–66); Bloom (1992, p. 101)
Bushman (2005, pp. 421); Bloom (1992, p. 101)
Bushman (2005, pp. 455)
Remini (2002, p. 106); Givens (2014, p. 95); Coviello (2019, p. 59)
Bartholomew, Ronald E. (2013). "The Textual Development of D&C 130:22 and the Embodiment of the Holy Ghost". BYU Studies Quarterly. 52 (3): 4–24. JSTOR 43039922 – via JSTOR; Givens (2014, p. 96)
Coviello (2019, pp. 65–68)
Paulsen, David L.; Pulido, Martin (2011). "'A Mother There': A Survey of Historical Teachings about Mother in Heaven". Brigham Young University Studies. 50 (1): 70–97. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43044842
Ostler, Blair (Winter 2018). "Heavenly Mother: The Mother of All Women". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 51 (4): 171–182. doi:10.5406/dialjmormthou.51.4.0171. S2CID 214816567; Toscano, Margaret (Spring 2022). "In Defense of Heavenly Mother: Her Critical Importance for Mormon Culture and Theology". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 55 (1): 37–68. doi:10.5406/15549399.55.1.02. S2CID 247971894.
Larson (1978, pp. 201, 205); Widmer (2000, p. 119)
Widmer (2000, p. 119); Bushman (2005, pp. 535, 544)
Bushman (2005, pp. 455–56, 535–37)
Bushman (2005, p. 422)
Bushman (2005, p. 199)
Brooke (1994, p. 33)
Remini (2002, p. 84)
Quinn (1994, p. 7)
Quinn (1994, pp. 7–8); Bushman (2005, pp. 121, 175); Phelps (1833, p. 67)
Brodie (1971, pp. 106, 112, 121–22)
Quinn (1994, pp. 111–12, 115)
Quinn (1994, pp. 27–34); Bushman (2005, pp. 264–65)
Quinn (1994, p. 7)
Brodie (1971, p. 111); Bushman (2005, pp. 156–60); Quinn (1994, pp. 31–32); Prince (1995, pp. 19, 115–116, 119)
Ostling & Ostling (1999, pp. 194–95); Prince (1995, pp. 31–32, 121–31, 146)
Bushman (2005, p. 451)
Prince (1995, pp. 140, 201)
Brooke (1994, pp. 30, 194–95, 203, 208)
Brooke (1994, pp. 221, 242–43); Brooke (1994, pp. 236)
Brooke (1994, pp. 256, 294); Bushman (2005, pp. 497–98)
Foster (1981, pp. 161–62)
Foster (1981, p. 145)
Bushman (2005, pp. 497–98); Brooke (1994, pp. 256–57)
Brooke (1994, p. 257)
Bushman (2005, pp. 497–98)
Davenport (2022, p. 143), quoting D&C 132:7.
Foster, Craig L. "Doctrine and Covenants Section 132 and Joseph Smith's Expanding Concept of Family". Persistence of Polygamy, in Bringhurst & Foster (2010, pp. 87–98)
Park (2020, pp. 91–92, 105, 153)
Foster (1981, pp. 206–11); Compton (1997, pp. 11, 22–23); Smith (2008, pp. 356); Brooke (1994, p. 255); Brodie (1971, p. 300)
Coviello (2019, pp. 56–57, 68–69, 82–88)
Bloom (1992, p. 105); Foster (1981, p. 145); Brodie (1971, p. 300); Coviello (2019, pp. 56–57)
Bushman (2005, p. 377)
Bushman (2005, p. 522)
Bushman (2005, p. 516)
McBride (2021, p. 97)
McBride (2021, p. 97); Bushman (2005, p. 516)
Hickman, Martin B. (1968). "The Political Legacy of Joseph Smith". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 3 (3): 22–27. ISSN 0012-2157. JSTOR 45224011 – via JSTOR.
McBride (2021, pp. 101–102)
McBride (2021, pp. 103–104)
McBride (2021, pp. 104–105)
Brodie (1971, pp. 356–57); Bushman (2005, p. 521); Bloom (1992, p. 90)
Bushman (2005, pp. 522–23)
McBride (2021, p. 98); Park (2020, p. 70); Harris & Bringhurst (2015, p. 1)
Bushman (2005, pp. 289, 327–28); Harris & Bringhurst (2015, pp. 21–22); Hill (1977, pp. 380–383); Brodie (1971, pp. 173, 212)
Hill (1977, p. 384); Harris & Bringhurst (2015, pp. 27–28); McBride (2021, p. 99)
Hill (1977, p. 383)
Hill (1977, pp. 384–385)
Bushman (2005, p. 289)
Bushman (2005, p. 289); Harris & Bringhurst (2015, p. 19); Mueller (2017, p. 28)
Harris & Bringhurst (2015, p. 17)
Mueller (2017, pp. 34–35, 38, 91)
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- Gutjahr, Paul C. (2012). The Book of Mormon: A Biography. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14480-1.
- Hales, Brian C. (2013). Joseph Smith's Polygamy. Vol. 1–3. With the assistance of Don Bradley. Salt Lake City, UT: Greg Kofford.
- Harper, Steven C. (2019). First Vision: Memory and Mormon Origins. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199329472.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-932947-2.
- Harris, Matthew L.; Bringhurst, Newell G., eds. (2015). The Mormon Church and Blacks: A Documentary History. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-09784-3.
- Hill, Donna (1977). Joseph Smith: The First Mormon. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co. ISBN 0-385-00804-X.
- Hill, Marvin S. (1989). Quest for Refuge: The Mormon Flight from American Pluralism. Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 978-0-941214-70-4.
- Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford History of the United States. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7.
- Howe, Eber Dudley (1834). Mormonism Unvailed: Or, A Faithful Account of that Singular Imposition and Delusion, from its Rise to the Present Time. Painesville, OH: Telegraph Press. OCLC 10395314.
- Jortner, Adam (2022). No Place for Saints: Mobs and Mormons in Jacksonian America. Witness to History. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-4176-4.
- Larson, Stan (1978). "The King Follett Discourse: A Newly Amalgamated Text". Brigham Young University Studies. 18 (2): 193–208. JSTOR 43040756.
- Mack, Solomon (1811). A Narraitve [sic] of the Life of Solomon Mack. Windsor, VT: Solomon Mack. OCLC 15568282.
- Marquardt, H. Michael; Walters, Wesley P (1994). Inventing Mormonism. San Francisco, CA: Smith Research Associates. ISBN 1-56085-108-2.
- Marquardt, H. Michael (1999). The Joseph Smith Revelations: Text and Commentary. Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 978-1-56085-126-4.
- Marquardt, H. Michael (2005). The Rise of Mormonism: 1816–1844. Grand Rapids, MI: Xulon Press. ISBN 1-59781-470-9.
- McBride, Spencer W. (2021). Joseph Smith for President: The Prophet, the Assassins, and the Fight for American Religious Freedom. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190909413.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-090941-3.
- Mueller, Max Perry (2017). Race and the Making of the Mormon People. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-3375-6 – via Project MUSE.
- Newell, Linda King; Avery, Valeen Tippetts (1994). Mormon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith (2nd ed.). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06291-4.
- Oaks, Dallin H.; Hill, Marvin S. (1975). Carthage Conspiracy: The Trial of the Accused Assassins of Joseph Smith. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-00554-6.
- Ostling, Richard; Ostling, Joan K. (1999). Mormon America: The Power and the Promise. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-066371-5.
- Park, Benjamin E. (2020). Kingdom of Nauvoo: The Rise and Fall of a Religious Empire on the American Frontier. New York, NY: Liveright. ISBN 978-1-324-09110-3.
- Persuitte, David (2000). Joseph Smith and the Origins of the Book of Mormon. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-7864-0826-X.
- Phelps, W.W., ed. (1833). A Book of Commandments, for the Government of the Church of Christ. Zion: William Wines Phelps & Co. OCLC 77918630. Archived from the original on May 20, 2012. Retrieved October 11, 2005.
- Prince, Gregory A (1995). Power From On High: The Development of Mormon Priesthood. Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-071-X.
- Quinn, D. Michael (1994). The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power. Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-056-6.
- Quinn, D. Michael (1998). Early Mormonism and the Magic World View (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-089-2.
- Remini, Robert V. (2002). Joseph Smith. Penguin Lives. New York, NY: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-670-03083-X.
- Shipps, Jan (1985). Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-01417-0.
- Smith, George D. (1994). "Nauvoo Roots of Mormon Polygamy, 1841–46: A Preliminary Demographic Report" (PDF). Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 27 (1): 1–72. doi:10.2307/45228320. JSTOR 45228320. S2CID 254329894.
- Smith, George D (2008). Nauvoo Polygamy: "... But We Called It Celestial Marriage". Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 978-1-56085-201-8.
- Smith, Joseph, Jr. (1830). The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon, Upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi. Palmyra, New York, NY: E. B. Grandin. OCLC 768123849. See Book of Mormon.
- Smith, Joseph, Jr. (1832). "History of the Life of Joseph Smith". In Jessee, Dean C (ed.). Personal Writings of Joseph Smith. Salt Lake City, UT: Deseret Book (published 2002). ISBN 1-57345-787-6.
- Smith, Joseph, Jr.; Cowdery, Oliver; Rigdon, Sidney; Williams, Frederick G., eds. (1835). Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God. Kirtland, Ohio: F. G. Williams & Co. OCLC 18137804. See Doctrine and Covenants.
- Smith, Lucy Mack (1853). Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Many Generations. Liverpool: S.W. Richards. OCLC 4922747. See The History of Joseph Smith by His Mother
- Turner, John G. (2012). Brigham Young: Pioneer Prophet. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04967-3. OCLC 894538617 – via Internet Archive.
- Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher (2017). A House Full of Females: Plural Marriage and Women's Rights in Early Mormonism, 1835–1870. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-74212-4.
- Van Wagoner, Richard S.; Walker, Steven C. (1982). "Joseph Smith: The Gift of Seeing" (PDF). Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 15 (2): 48–68. doi:10.2307/45225078. JSTOR 45225078. S2CID 254395171.
- Van Wagoner, Richard S. (1992). Mormon Polygamy: A History (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 978-0-941214-79-7.
- Vogel, Dan (2004). Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet. Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-179-1.
- Webb, Stephen H. (2011). Jesus Christ, Eternal God: Heavenly Flesh and the Metaphysics of Matter. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199827954.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-982795-4.
- Widmer, Kurt (2000). Mormonism and the Nature of God: A Theological Evolution, 1830–1915. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0776-7.
External links
Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |
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Presidents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith
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