09-15-2021-0431 - Ionization Energy ionisation energy X(g) + energy ⟶ X+(g) + e−

 In physics and chemistry, ionization energy(American English spelling) or  ionisation energy (British English spelling) is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron of an isolated neutral gaseous atom or molecule.^[1] It is quantitatively expressed as 

X(g) + energy ⟶ X⁺(g) + e⁻

where X is any atom or molecule, X⁺ is the resultant ion when the original atom was stripped of a single electron, and e⁻ is the removed electron.^[2] This is generally an endothermic process. As a rule, the closer the outermost electrons are to the nucleus of the atom, the higher the atom's ionization energy.

The sciences of physics and chemistry use different units for ionization energy.^[3] In physics, the unit is the amount of energy required to remove a single electron from a single atom or molecule, expressed as electronvolts. In chemistry, the unit is the amount of energy required for all of the atoms in a mole of substance to lose one electron each: molar ionization energy or approximately enthalpy, expressed as kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) or kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol).^[4]

Comparison of ionization energies of atoms in the periodic table reveals two periodic trends which follow the rules of Coulombic attraction:^[5]

1. Ionization energy generally increases from left to right within a given period (that is, row).
2. Ionization energy generally decreases from top to bottom in a given group (that is, column).

The latter trend results from the outer electron shell being progressively farther from the nucleus, with the addition of one inner shell per row as one moves down the column.

The nth ionization energy refers to the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the species having a charge of (n-1). For example, the first three ionization energies are defined as follows:

1st ionization energy is the energy that enables the reaction X ⟶ X⁺ + e⁻

2nd ionization energy is the energy that enables the reaction X⁺ ⟶ X²⁺ + e⁻

3rd ionization energy is the energy that enables the reaction X²⁺ ⟶ X³⁺ + e⁻

The term ionization potential is an older and obsolete term^[6] for ionization energy,^[7] because the oldest method of measuring ionization energy was based on ionizing a sample and accelerating the electron removed using an electrostatic potential.

The most notable factors affecting the ionization energy include:

• Electron configuration: this accounts for most element's IE, as all of their chemical and physical characteristics can be ascertained just by determining their respective electron configuration.
• Nuclear charge: if the nuclear charge (atomic number) is greater, the electrons are held more tightly by the nucleus and hence the ionization energy will be greater.
• Number of electron shells: if the size of the atom is greater due to the presence of more shells, the electrons are held less tightly by the nucleus and the ionization energy will be lesser.
• Effective nuclear charge (Z_eff): if the magnitude of electron shielding and penetration are greater, the electrons are held less tightly by the nucleus, the Z_eff of the electron and the ionization energy is lesser.^[8]
• Type of orbital ionized: an atom having a more stable electronic configuration has less tendency to lose electrons and consequently has higher ionization energy.
• Electron occupancy: if the highest occupied orbital is doubly occupied, then it is easier to remove an electron.

Other minor factors include:

• Relativistic effects: heavier elements (especially those whose atomic number is greater than 70) are affected by these as their electrons are approaching the speed of light, and hence have a smaller atomic radius/higher IE.
• Lanthanide and actinide contraction (and scandide contraction): the unprecedented shrinking of the elements affect the ionization energy, as the net charge of the nucleus is more strongly felt.
• Electron pair energies and exchange energy: these would only account for fully filled and half-filled orbitals. A common misconception is that "symmetry" plays a part; albeit, none so far has concluded its evidence.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_energy


09-14-2021-0259 - Weak Interaction Weak Force Weak Nuclear Force