Photogeochemistry merges photochemistry and geochemistry into the study of light-induced chemical reactions that occur or may occur among natural components of Earth's surface. The first comprehensive review on the subject was published in 2017 by the chemist and soil scientist Timothy A Doane,[1] but the term photogeochemistry appeared a few years earlier as a keyword in studies that described the role of light-induced mineral transformations in shaping the biogeochemistry of Earth;[2] this indeed describes the core of photogeochemical study, although other facets may be admitted into the definition.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogeochemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties.
It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear processes. This includes the corrosion of surfaces and the behavior under conditions of both normal and abnormal operation (such as during an accident). An important area is the behavior of objects and materials after being placed into a nuclear waste storage or disposal site.
It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of radiation within living animals, plants, and other materials. The radiation chemistry controls much of radiation biology as radiation has an effect on living things at the molecular scale, to explain it another way the radiation alters the biochemicals within an organism, the alteration of the bio-molecules then changes the chemistry which occurs within the organism, this change in chemistry then can lead to a biological outcome. As a result, nuclear chemistry greatly assists the understanding of medical treatments (such as cancer radiotherapy) and has enabled these treatments to improve.
It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive sources for a range of processes. These include radiotherapy in medical applications; the use of radioactive tracers within industry, science and the environment; and the use of radiation to modify materials such as polymers.[1]
It also includes the study and use of nuclear processes in non-radioactive areas of human activity. For instance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is commonly used in synthetic organic chemistry and physical chemistry and for structural analysis in macro-molecular chemistry.
Nuclear chemistry concerned with the study of nucleus, changes occurring in the nucleus, properties of the particles present in the nucleus and the emission or absorption of radiation from the nucleus.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry
Radiochemistry is the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). Much of radiochemistry deals with the use of radioactivity to study ordinary chemical reactions. This is very different from radiation chemistry where the radiation levels are kept too low to influence the chemistry.
Radiochemistry includes the study of both natural and man-made radioisotopes.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochemistry
Radiation chemistry is a subdivision of nuclear chemistry which is the study of the chemical effects of radiation on matter; this is very different from radiochemistry as no radioactivity needs to be present in the material which is being chemically changed by the radiation. An example is the conversion of water into hydrogen gas and hydrogen peroxide.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_chemistry
Photoelectrochemistry is a subfield of study within physical chemistry concerned with the interaction of light with electrochemical systems.[1][2] It is an active domain of investigation. One of the pioneers of this field of electrochemistry was the German electrochemist Heinz Gerischer. The interest in this domain is high in the context of development of renewable energy conversion and storage technology.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry
Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400 nm), visible light (400–750 nm) or infrared radiation (750–2500 nm).[1]
In nature, photochemistry is of immense importance as it is the basis of photosynthesis, vision, and the formation of vitamin D with sunlight.[2] Photochemical reactions proceed differently than temperature-driven reactions. Photochemical paths access high energy intermediates that cannot be generated thermally, thereby overcoming large activation barriers in a short period of time, and allowing reactions otherwise inaccessible by thermal processes. Photochemistry is also destructive, as illustrated by the photodegradation of plastics.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemistry
Femtochemistry is the area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales (approximately 10−15 seconds or one femtosecond, hence the name) in order to study the very act of atoms within molecules (reactants) rearranging themselves to form new molecules (products). In a 1988 issue of the journal Science, Ahmed Hassan Zewail published an article using this term for the first time, stating "Real-time femtochemistry, that is, chemistry on the femtosecond timescale...".[1] Later in 1999, Zewail received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his pioneering work in this field showing that it is possible to see how atoms in a molecule move during a chemical reaction with flashes of laser light.[2]
Application of femtochemistry in biological studies has also helped to elucidate the conformational dynamics of stem-loop RNA structures.[3][4]
Many publications have discussed the possibility of controlling chemical reactions by this method,[clarification needed] but this remains controversial.[5] The steps in some reactions occur in the femtosecond timescale and sometimes in attosecond timescales,[6] and will sometimes form intermediate products. These reaction intermediates cannot always be deduced from observing the start and end products.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtochemistry
Nanochemistry is the combination of chemistry and nano science. Nanochemistry is associated with synthesis of building blocks which are dependent on size, surface, shape and defect properties. Nanochemistry is being used in chemical, materials and physical, science as well as engineering, biological and medical applications. Nanochemistry and other nanoscience fields have the same core concepts but the usages of those concepts are different.
The nano prefix was given to nanochemistry when scientists observed the odd changes on materials when they were in nanometer-scale size. Several chemical modification on nanometer scaled structures, approves effects of being size dependent.
Nanochemistry can be characterized by concepts of size, shape, self-assembly, defects and bio-nano; So the synthesis of any new nano-construct is associated with all these concepts. Nano-construct synthesis is dependent on how the surface, size and shape will lead to self-assembly of the building blocks into the functional structures; they probably have functional defects and might be useful for electronic, photonic, medical or bioanalytical problems.
Silica, gold, polydimethylsiloxane, cadmium selenide, iron oxide and carbon are materials that show the transformative power of nanochemistry. Nanochemistry can make the most effective contrast agent of MRI out of iron oxide (rust) which has the ability of detecting cancers and even killing them at their initial stages. Silica (glass) can be used to bend or stop light in its tracks. Developing countries also use silicone to make the circuits for the fluids to attain developed world's pathogen detection abilities. Carbon has been used in different shapes and forms and it will become a better choice for electronic materials.
Overall, nanochemistry is not related to the atomic structure of compounds. Rather, it is about different ways to transform materials into solutions to solve problems. Chemistry mainly deals with degrees of freedom of atoms in the periodic table however nanochemistry brought other degrees of freedom that controls material's behaviors.[1]
Nanochemical methods can be used to create carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene and fullereneswhich have gained attention in recent years due to their remarkable mechanical and electrical properties.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanochemistry
Supramolecular chemistry refers to the area of chemistry concerning chemical systems composed of a discrete number of molecules. The strength of the forces responsible for spatial organization of the system range from weak intermolecular forces, electrostatic charge, or hydrogen bonding to strong covalent bonding, provided that the electronic coupling strength remains small relative to the energy parameters of the component.[1][2][page needed] Whereas traditional chemistry concentrates on the covalent bond, supramolecular chemistry examines the weaker and reversible non-covalent interactions between molecules.[3] These forces include hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces, van der Waals forces, pi–pi interactions and electrostaticeffects.[4]
Important concepts advanced by supramolecular chemistry include molecular self-assembly, molecular folding, molecular recognition, host–guest chemistry, mechanically-interlocked molecular architectures, and dynamic covalent chemistry.[5] The study of non-covalent interactions is crucial to understanding many biological processes that rely on these forces for structure and function. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry
Combinatorial chemistry comprises chemical synthetic methods that make it possible to prepare a large number (tens to thousands or even millions) of compounds in a single process. These compound libraries can be made as mixtures, sets of individual compounds or chemical structures generated by computer software.[1] Combinatorial chemistry can be used for the synthesis of small molecules and for peptides.
Strategies that allow identification of useful components of the libraries are also part of combinatorial chemistry. The methods used in combinatorial chemistry are applied outside chemistry, too.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry
Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical change, with either electrical potential as an outcome of a particular chemical change, or vice versa. These reactions involve electrons moving between electrodes via an electronically-conducting phase (typically, but not necessarily, an external electrical circuit such as in electrolessplating), separated by an ionically-conducting and electronically insulating electrolyte (or ionic species in a solution).
When a chemical reaction is effected by a potential difference, as in electrolysis, or if electrical potential results from a chemical reaction as in a battery or fuel cell, it is called an electrochemical reaction. Unlike chemical reactions, in electrochemical reactions electrons (and necessarily resulting ions), are not transferred directly between molecules, but via the aforementioned electronically- and ionically-conducting circuits, respectively. This phenomenon is what distinguishes an electrochemical reaction from a chemical reaction.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry
Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. It includes the fields of surface chemistry and surface physics.[1] Some related practical applications are classed as surface engineering. The science encompasses concepts such as heterogeneous catalysis, semiconductor device fabrication, fuel cells, self-assembled monolayers, and adhesives. Surface science is closely related to interface and colloid science.[2]Interfacial chemistry and physics are common subjects for both. The methods are different. In addition, interface and colloid science studies macroscopic phenomenathat occur in heterogeneous systems due to peculiarities of interfaces.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_science
Interface and colloid science is an interdisciplinary intersection of branches of chemistry, physics, nanoscience and other fields dealing with colloids, heterogeneous systems consisting of a mechanical mixture of particles between 1 nm and 1000 nm dispersed in a continuous medium. A colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture in which the particle size of the substance is intermediate between a true solution and a suspension, i.e. between 1–1000 nm. Smoke from a fire is an example of a colloidal system in which tiny particles of solid float in air. Just like true solutions, colloidal particles are small and cannot be seen by the naked eye. They easily pass through filter paper. But colloidal particles are big enough to be blocked by parchment paper or animal membrane.
Interface and colloid science has applications and ramifications in the chemical industry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, ceramics, minerals, nanotechnology, and microfluidics, among others.
There are many books dedicated to this scientific discipline,[1][2][3][4] and there is a glossary of terms, Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology, published by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science
Solid-state chemistry, also sometimes referred as materials chemistry, is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. It therefore has a strong overlap with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics with a focus on the synthesis of novel materials and their characterisation. Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous on basis of the nature of order present in the arrangement of their constituent particles.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry
In chemistry, an atom cluster (or simply cluster) is an ensemble of bound atoms or molecules that is intermediate in size between a simple molecule and a nanoparticle; that is, up to a few nanometers (nm) in diameter. The term microcluster may be used for ensembles with up to couple dozen atoms.
Clusters with a definite number and type of atoms in a specific arrangement are often considered a specific chemical compound and are studied as such. For example, fullereneis a cluster of 60 carbon atoms arranged as the vertices of a truncated icosahedron, and decaborane is a cluster of 10 boron atoms forming an incomplete icosahedron, surrounded by 14 hydrogen atoms.
The term is most commonly used for ensembles consisting of several atoms of the same element, or of a few different elements, bonded in a three-dimensional arrangement. Transition metals and main group elements form especially robust clusters.[1] Indeed, in some contexts, the term may refer specifically to a metal cluster, whose core atoms are metals and contains at least one metallic bond.[2] In this case, the qualifier poly specifies a cluster with more than one metal atom, and heteronuclear specifies a cluster with at least two different metal elements. Naked metal clusters have only metal atoms, as opposed to clusters with outer shell of other elements. The latter may be functional groups such as cyanide or methyl, covalently bonded to the core atoms; or many be ligands attached by coordination bonds, such as carbon monoxide, halides, isocyanides, alkenes, and hydrides.
However, the terms is also used for ensembles that contain no metals (such as the boranes and carboranes) and whose core atoms are held together by covalent or ionic bonds. It is also used for ensembles of atoms or molecules held together by Van der Waals or hydrogen bonds, as in water clusters.
Clusters may play an important role in phase transitions such as precipitation from solutions, condensation and evaporation of liquids and solids, freezing and melting, and adsorbtion to other materials.[citation needed]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_cluster
Polymer science or macromolecular science is a subfield of materials scienceconcerned with polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics and elastomers. The field of polymer science includes researchers in multiple disciplines including chemistry, physics, and engineering.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_science
Fullerene chemistry is a field of organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of fullerenes.[1][2][3] Research in this field is driven by the need to functionalize fullerenes and tune their properties. For example, fullerene is notoriously insoluble and adding a suitable group can enhance solubility.[1] By adding a polymerizable group, a fullerene polymer can be obtained. Functionalized fullerenes are divided into two classes: exohedral fullereneswith substituents outside the cage and endohedral fullerenes with trapped molecules inside the cage.
This article covers the chemistry of these so-called "buckyballs," while the chemistry of carbon nanotubes is covered in carbon nanotube chemistry.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry
Magnetochemistry is concerned with the magnetic properties of chemical compounds. Magnetic properties arise from the spin and orbital angular momentum of the electrons contained in a compound. Compounds are diamagnetic when they contain no unpaired electrons. Molecular compounds that contain one or more unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. The magnitude of the paramagnetism is expressed as an effective magnetic moment, μeff. For first-row transition metals the magnitude of μeff is, to a first approximation, a simple function of the number of unpaired electrons, the spin-only formula. In general, spin-orbit coupling causes μeff to deviate from the spin-only formula. For the heavier transition metals, lanthanides and actinides, spin-orbit coupling cannot be ignored. Exchange interaction can occur in clusters and infinite lattices, resulting in ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism depending on the relative orientations of the individual spins.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetochemistry
Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical change, with either electrical potential as an outcome of a particular chemical change, or vice versa. These reactions involve electrons moving between electrodes via an electronically-conducting phase (typically, but not necessarily, an external electrical circuit such as in electrolessplating), separated by an ionically-conducting and electronically insulating electrolyte (or ionic species in a solution).
When a chemical reaction is effected by a potential difference, as in electrolysis, or if electrical potential results from a chemical reaction as in a battery or fuel cell, it is called an electrochemical reaction. Unlike chemical reactions, in electrochemical reactions electrons (and necessarily resulting ions), are not transferred directly between molecules, but via the aforementioned electronically- and ionically-conducting circuits, respectively. This phenomenon is what distinguishes an electrochemical reaction from a chemical reaction.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry
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