09-18-2021-0319 - Chronometry, Horology, Chronology, Historiography, etc.

Chronometry (from Greek χρόνος chronos, "time" and μέτρον metron, "measure") is the science of the measurement of time, or timekeeping.^[1] And with the measurement, chronometry employs the standardisation of time as well, serving as a significant reference for many and various fields of science.

The importance of the accurate and reliable measurement of time in addition to providing a standardized unit for chronometric experiments to the modern world and more specifically scientific research is immense. Despite the coincidental identicality of worldwide units of time, time produces a measure of change, and is a variable in many experiments, so time – and its standardization – is an essential part of many areas of science.

It should not to be confused with chronology, the science of locating events in time, which often relies upon it. Also, of similarity to chronometry is horology, the study of time, however it is commonly used specifically with reference to the mechanical instruments created to keep time, with examples such as stopwatches, clocks, and hourglasses. Chronometry is utilised in many areas, and its fields are often derived from aspects of other areas in science, for example geochronometry, combining geology and chronometry.

Early records of time keeping are thought to have originated in the paleolithic era, with etchings to mark the passing of moons in order to measure the year. And then progressed to written versions of calendars, before mechanisms and devices made to track time were invented. Today, the highest level of precision in timekeeping comes with atomic clocks, which are used for the international standard of the second.^[2][3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronometry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Units_of_time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration

Horology ("the study of time", related to Latin horologium from Greek ὡρολόγιον, "instrument for telling the hour", from ὥρα hṓra "hour; time" and -o- interfixand suffix -logy)^[1][2] is the study of the measurement of time. Clocks, watches, clockwork, sundials, hourglasses, clepsydras, timers, time recorders, marine chronometers, and atomic clocks are all examples of instruments used to measure time. In current usage, horology refers mainly to the study of mechanical time-keeping devices, while chronometry more broadly includes electronic devices that have largely supplanted mechanical clocks for the best accuracy and precision in time-keeping.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horology

Chronology (from Latin chronologia, from Ancient Greek χρόνος, chrónos, "time"; and -λογία, -logia)^[2] is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events".^[3]

Chronology is a part of periodization. It is also a part of the discipline of history including earth history, the earth sciences, and study of the geologic time scale.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology

Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the historiography of the United Kingdom, that of WWII, the British Empire, early Islam, and China—and different approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the development of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state—remains a debated question.^[1][2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy

A year zero does not exist in the Anno Domini (AD) calendar year system commonly used to number years in the Gregorian calendar (nor in its predecessor, the Julian calendar); in this system, the year1 BC is followed directly by year AD 1. However, there is a year zero in both the astronomical year numbering system (where it coincides with the Julian year 1 BC), and the ISO 8601:2004system, the interchange standard for all calendar numbering systems, (where year zero coincides with the Gregorian year 1 BC; see conversion table). And there is a year zero in most Buddhistand Hindu calendars.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_zero

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-standard_dates#January_0

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_clock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_in_physics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_crystal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_chronology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_standard

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time

In philosophy, events are objects in time or instantiations of properties in objects. On some views, only changes in the form of acquiring or losing a property can constitute events, like the lawn's becoming dry.^[1] According to others, there are also events that involve nothing but the retaining of a property, e.g. the lawn's staying wet.^[1][2] Events are usually defined as particulars that, unlike universals, cannot repeat at different times.^[2] Processes are complex events constituted by a sequence of events.^[3] But even simple events can be conceived as complex entities involving an object, a time and the property exemplified by the object at this time.^[4][5] Traditionally, metaphysicians tended to emphasize static being over dynamic events. This tendency has been opposed by so-called process philosophy or process ontology, which ascribes ontological primacy to events and processes.^[6][7]

Kim’s property-exemplification[edit]

Jaegwon Kim theorized that events are structured.
They are composed of three things:

1. Object(s) ,
2. a property  and
3. time or a temporal interval .

Events are defined using the operation .
A unique event is defined by two principles:

a) the existence condition and

b) the identity condition.

The existence condition states “ exists if and only if object  exemplifies the -adic  at time .” This means a unique event exists if the above is met. The identity condition states “ is  if and only if ,  and .”

Kim uses these to define events under five conditions:

1. One, they are unrepeatable, unchangeable particulars that include changes and the states and conditions of that event.
2. Two, they have a semi-temporal location.
3. Three, only their constructive property creates distinct events.
4. Four, holding a constructive property as a generic event creates a type-token relationship between events, and events are not limited to their three requirements (i.e. ). Critics of this theory such as Myles Brand have suggested that the theory be modified so that an event had a spatiotemporal region; consider the event of a flash of lightning. The idea is that an event must include both the span of time of the flash of lightning and the area in which it occurred.

Other problems exist within Kim's theory, as he never specified what properties were (e.g. universals, tropes, natural classes, etc.). In addition, it is not specified if properties are few or abundant. The following is Kim's response to the above.

. . . [T]he basic generic events may be best picked out relative to a scientific theory, whether the theory is a common-sense theory of the behavior of middle-sized objects or a highly sophisticated physical theory. They are among the important properties, relative to the theory, in terms of which lawful regularities can be discovered, described, and explained. The basic parameters in terms of which the laws of the theory are formulated would, on this view, give us our basic generic events, and the usual logical, mathematical, and perhaps other types of operations on them would yield complex, defined generic events. We commonly recognize such properties as motion, colors, temperatures, weights, pushing, and breaking, as generic events and states, but we must view this against the background of our common-sense explanatory and predictive scheme of the world around us. I think it highly likely that we cannot pick out generic events completely a priori.^[8]

There is also a major debate about the essentiality of a constitutive object. There are two major questions involved in this: If one event occurs, could it have occurred in the same manner if it were another person, and could it occur in the same manner if it would have occurred at a different time? Kim holds that neither are true and that different conditions (i.e. a different person or time) would lead to a separate event. However, some consider it natural to assume the opposite.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(philosophy)