Hydrogen-4.1 (Muonic helium)[edit]
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Hydrogen 4.1 picture
Hydrogen 4.1, made out of 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 1 muon and 1 electron
The symbol 4.1H (Hydrogen-4.1) has been used to describe the exotic atom muonic helium (4He-μ), which is like helium-4 in having 2 protons and 2 neutrons.[4] However one of its electrons is replaced by a muon, which also has charge –1. Since the orbital of the muon is very near the atomic nucleus, that muon can be considered as a part of the nucleus. The atom then has a nucleus with 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 1 muon, with total nuclear charge +1 (from 2 protons and 1 muon) and only one electron outside, so that it is effectively an isotope of hydrogen instead of an isotope of helium. A muon's weight is approximately 0.1 amu so the isotopic mass is 4.1. Since there is only one electron outside the nucleus, the hydrogen-4.1 atom can react with other atoms. Its chemical behavior is that of a hydrogen atom and not a noble helium atom.[5] The only radioactive part of the atom is the muon. Therefore, the atom decays with the muon's half-life, 1.52 microseconds (1.52×10−6 seconds).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_atom#Hydrogen-4.1_(Muonic_helium)
A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of particle accelerator that accelerates charged subatomic particles or ions to a high speed by subjecting them to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. The principles for such machines were proposed by Gustav Ising in 1924,[1]while the first machine that worked was constructed by Rolf Widerøe in 1928[2] at the RWTH Aachen University. Linacs have many applications: they generate X-rays and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for particle physics.
The design of a linac depends on the type of particle that is being accelerated: electrons, protons or ions. Linacs range in size from a cathode ray tube (which is a type of linac) to the 3.2-kilometre-long (2.0 mi) linac at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in Menlo Park, California.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator
The electric potential (also called the electric field potential, potential drop, the electrostatic potential) is the amount of work energy needed to move a unit of electric charge from a reference point to the specific point in an electric field with negligible acceleration of the test charge to avoid producing kinetic energy or radiation by test charge. Typically, the reference point is the Earth or a point at infinity, although any point can be used. More precisely it is the energy per unit charge for a small test charge that does not disturb significantly the field and the charge distribution producing the field under consideration.
In classical electrostatics, the electrostatic field is a vector quantity which is expressed as the gradient of the electrostatic potential, which is a scalar quantity denoted by V or occasionally φ,[1] equal to the electric potential energy of any charged particle at any location (measured in joules) divided by the charge of that particle (measured in coulombs). By dividing out the charge on the particle a quotient is obtained that is a property of the electric field itself. In short, electric potential is the electric potential energy per unit charge.
This value can be calculated in either a static (time-invariant) or a dynamic (varying with time) electric field at a specific time in units of joules per coulomb (J⋅C−1), or volts (V). The electric potential at infinity is assumed to be zero.
In electrodynamics, when time-varying fields are present, the electric field cannot be expressed only in terms of a scalar potential. Instead, the electric field can be expressed in terms of both the scalar electric potential and the magnetic vector potential.[2] The electric potential and the magnetic vector potential together form a four vector, so that the two kinds of potential are mixed under Lorentz transformations.
Practically, electric potential is always a continuous function in space; Otherwise, the spatial derivative of it will yield a field with infinite magnitude, which is practically impossible. Even an idealized point charge has 1 ⁄ r potential, which is continuous everywhere except the origin. The electric field is not continuous across an idealized surface charge, but it is not infinite at any point. Therefore, the electric potential is continuous across an idealized surface charge. An idealized linear charge has ln(r) potential, which is continuous everywhere except on the linear charge.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential
Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. The term vibration is precisely used to describe mechanical oscillation. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum and alternating current.
Oscillations occur not only in mechanical systems but also in dynamic systems in virtually every area of science: for example the beating of the human heart (for circulation), business cycles in economics, predator–prey population cycles in ecology, geothermal geysers in geology, vibration of strings in guitar and other string instruments, periodic firing of nerve cells in the brain, and the periodic swelling of Cepheid variable stars in astronomy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=+F1+cathode+driver+concept&go=Go&ns0=1&searchToken=43ht14ka841rdnmuh6q92bhmq
Electrostatic confinement[edit]
Electrostatic confinement fusion devices use electrostatic fields. The best known is the fusor. This device has a cathode inside an anode wire cage. Positive ions fly towards the negative inner cage, and are heated by the electric field in the process. If they miss the inner cage they can collide and fuse. Ions typically hit the cathode, however, creating prohibitory high conduction losses. Fusion rates in fusors are low because of competing physical effects, such as energy loss in the form of light radiation.[66] Designs have been proposed to avoid the problems associated with the cage, by generating the field using a non-neutral cloud. These include a plasma oscillating device,[67] a magnetically-shielded-grid,[68] a penning trap, the polywell,[69] and the F1 cathode driver concept.[70]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power#Magnetic_Mirror
In condensed matter physics, a time crystal is a quantum system of particles whose lowest-energy state is one in which the particles are in repetitive motion. The system cannot lose energy to the environment and come to rest because it is already in its quantum ground state. Because of this the motion of the particles does not really represent kinetic energy like other motion, it has "motion without energy". Time crystals were first proposed theoretically by Frank Wilczek in 2012 as a time-based analogue to common crystals, whose atoms are arranged periodically in space.[1] Several different groups have demonstrated matter with stable periodic evolution in systems that are periodically driven.[2][3][4][5] In terms of practical use, time crystals may one day be used as quantum memories.[6]
The existence of crystals in nature is a manifestation of spontaneous symmetry breaking, which occurs when the lowest-energy state of a system is less symmetrical than the equations governing the system. In the crystal ground state, the continuous translational symmetry in space is broken and replaced by the lower discrete symmetry of the periodic crystal. As the laws of physics are symmetrical under continuous translations in time as well as space, the question arose in 2012 as to whether it is possible to break symmetry temporally, and thus create a "time crystal" resistant to entropy.[1]
If a discrete time translation symmetry is broken (which may be realized in periodically driven systems), then the system is referred to as a discrete time crystal. A discrete time crystal never reaches thermal equilibrium, as it is a type (or phase) of non-equilibrium matter. Breaking of time symmetry can only occur in non-equilibrium systems.[5] Discrete time crystals have in fact been observed in physics laboratories as early as 2016 (published in 2017). One example of a time crystal, which demonstrates non-equilibrium, broken time symmetry is a constantly rotating ring of charged ions in an otherwise lowest-energy state.[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_crystal
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=translation+rotation+molecule&title=Special:Search&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&ns0=1&searchToken=6q3rwlknqv109jkntwmtkg8dh
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improper_rotation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_centre_of_rotation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_registration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_operation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_vibration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_(chemistry)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_symmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_diffusion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geometry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eckart_conditions#Overall_translation_and_rotation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium-40
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_activation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-process
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_waste
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOX_fuel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_amplifier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_partition_function
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_of_diatomic_molecules
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetric_theory_of_stochastic_dynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_replacement#Rotation_function
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrational_spectroscopy_of_linear_molecules
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrode
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve_RF_amplifier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_accelerator
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier#Common_terminal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizing_agent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_fuel_cell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocyanide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanohydrin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halohydrin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_hydride
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic_compound
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gattermann_reaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_blue
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferricyanide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoelectronicity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_ferrocyanide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_production
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis#Methane_pyrolysis_for_hydrogen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewisite
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudohalogen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium_ion#Pseudohalogen_onium_cations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphenylphosphoryl_azide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanogen_iodide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interhalogen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrosyl_chloride
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_trioxide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trihydrogen_cation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen#Hydrogen-1_(Protium)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_atom#Hydrogen-4.1_(Muonic_helium)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_atom#Onium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_muonium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muonium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positronium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen#Hydrogen-1_(protium)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exciton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)#Plastic_deformation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-integral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercivity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_flux
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_atom#Onium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_(magnetic)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_quantities
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Magnetic_ordering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium_ion#Enium_cations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphinidene
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplet_state
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_hydrogen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium_ion#Enium_cations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_mechanism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_hyperconjugation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_cluster
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal_carbene_complex
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Reactive_intermediates
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Phosphorus_compounds
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyate_ion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyonium_ion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxymercuration_reaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazinium#Hydrazinediium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrosonium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thionitrosyl
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraphenylphosphonium_chloride
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroweak_interaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe#Matter_domination
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=dipole+zero&title=Special%3ASearch&go=Go&ns0=1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_dipole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_dipole–dipole_interaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_dipole_moment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond-dissociation_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodissociation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomic_molecule
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_dimer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_affinity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_electric_dipole_moment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_dipole_moment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-point_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_between_magnets
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_acceleration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment#Two_models_of_the_cause_of_the_magnetic_moment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_between_magnets#Magnetic_dipole–dipole_interaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrupole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipole_expansion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_coordinate_system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopole_(mathematics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_field_splitting
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overtone_band
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-covalent_interaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnshaw%27s_theorem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_hydride_ion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_line
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