Classics or classical studies is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics also includes Greco-Roman philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, art, mythology and society as secondary subjects.
In Western civilization, the study of the Greek and Roman classics was traditionally considered to be the foundation of the humanities, and has, therefore, traditionally been the cornerstone of a typical elite European education.
Etymology
The word classics is derived from the Latin adjective classicus, meaning "belonging to the highest class of citizens." The word was originally used to describe the members of the Patricians, the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality.[1] For example, Aulus Gellius, in his Attic Nights, contrasts "classicus" and "proletarius" writers.[2] By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a second meaning, referring to pupils at a school.[1] Thus, the two modern meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality, and to the standard texts used as part of a curriculum, both derive from Roman use.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classics
Classical physics is a group of physics theories that predate modern, more complete, or more widely applicable theories. If a currently accepted theory is considered to be modern, and its introduction represented a major paradigm shift, then the previous theories, or new theories based on the older paradigm, will often be referred to as belonging to the area of "classical physics".
As such, the definition of a classical theory depends on context. Classical physical concepts are often used when modern theories are unnecessarily complex for a particular situation. Most often, classical physics refers to pre-1900 physics, while modern physics refers to post-1900 physics, which incorporates elements of quantum mechanics and relativity.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics
Classical logic (or standard logic[1][2] or Frege-Russell logic[3]) is the intensively studied and most widely used class of deductive logic.[4] Classical logic has had much influence on analytic philosophy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic
In classical antiquity, the seven classical planets or seven luminaries are the seven moving astronomical objects in the sky visible to the naked eye: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The word planet comes from two related Greek words, πλάνης planēs (whence πλάνητες ἀστέρες planētes asteres "wandering stars, planets") and πλανήτης planētēs, both with the original meaning of "wanderer", expressing the fact that these objects move across the celestial sphere relative to the fixed stars.[1][2] Greek astronomers such as Geminus[3] and Ptolemy[4] often divided the seven planets into the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets.
The term planet in modern terminology is only applied to natural satellites directly orbiting the Sun (or other stars), so that only five of the seven classical planets are planets in the modern sense. The same seven planets, along with the ascending and descending lunar node, are mentioned in Vedic astrology as the nine Navagraha.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_planet
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age), also simply antiquity,[1] is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea,[note 1] comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which both Greek and Roman societies flourished and wielded huge influence throughout much of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia.[2][3]
Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer (8th–7th-century BC), and continues through the emergence of Christianity (1st–4th century AD) and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th-century AD). It ends with the decline of classical culture during late antiquity (200–700), a period overlapping with the Early Middle Ages (450–1000). Such a wide span of history and territory covers many disparate cultures and periods. Classical antiquity may also refer to an idealized vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe's words, "the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome".[4]
The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with some influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of European art,[5] philosophy, society, and education, until the Roman imperial period. The Romans preserved, imitated, and spread this culture over Europe, until they themselves were able to compete with it, and the classical world began to speak Latin as well as Greek.[6][7] This Greco-Roman cultural foundation has been immensely influential on the language, politics, law, educational systems, philosophy, science, warfare, poetry, historiography, ethics, rhetoric, art and architecture of the modern world.
Surviving fragments of classical culture led to a revival beginning in the 14th century which later came to be known as the Renaissance, and various neo-classical revivals occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity
Classical conditioning (also respondent conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent physiological stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a musical triangle). The term classical conditioning also refers to the subject animal's learning from the pairing of a physiologic stimulus with a neutral stimulus, which elicits the required response (e.g. salivation) from the neutral stimulus rather than the physiological stimulus.
The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov studied classical conditioning with detailed experiments with dogs, and published the experimental results in 1897. In the study of digestion, Pavlov observed that the experimental dogs salivated when fed red meat.[1] Pavlovian conditioning is distinct from operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning), through which the strength of a voluntary behavior is modified, either by reinforcement or by punishment, however, classical conditioning can affect operant conditioning; that classically conditioned stimuli can reinforce operant responses.
Classical conditioning is a basic behavioral mechanism, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human associative memory), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs.[2]
Together with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning has been applied in other areas as well. For example, it may affect the body's response to psychoactive drugs, the regulation of hunger, research on the neural basis of learning and memory, and in certain social phenomena such as the false consensus effect.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning
In macroeconomics, the classical dichotomy is the idea, attributed to classical and pre-Keynesian economics, that real and nominal variables can be analyzed separately. To be precise, an economy exhibits the classical dichotomy if real variables such as output and real interest rates can be completely analyzed without considering what is happening to their nominal counterparts, the money value of output and the interest rate. In particular, this means that real GDP and other real variables can be determined without knowing the level of the nominal money supply or the rate of inflation. An economy exhibits the classical dichotomy if money is neutral, affecting only the price level, not real variables.[citation needed] As such, if the classical dichotomy holds, money only affects absolute rather than the relative prices between goods.
The classical dichotomy was integral to the thinking of some pre-Keynesian economists ("money as a veil") as a long-run proposition and is found today in new classical theories of macroeconomics. In new classical macroeconomics there is a short-run Phillips curve which can shift vertically according to the rational expectations being reviewed continuously. In the strict sense, money is not neutral in the short-run, that is, classical dichotomy does not hold, since agents tend to respond to changes in prices and in the quantity of money through changing their supply decisions. However, money should be neutral in the long run, and the classical dichotomy should be restored in the long-run, since there was no relationship between prices and real macroeconomic performance at the data level. This view has serious economic policy consequences. In the long-run, owing to the dichotomy, money is not assumed to be an effective instrument in controlling macroeconomic performance, while in the short-run there is a trade-off between prices and output (or unemployment), but, owing to rational expectations, government cannot exploit it in order to build a systematic countercyclical economic policy.[1]
Keynesians and monetarists reject the classical dichotomy, because they argue that prices are sticky. That is, they think prices fail to adjust in the short run, so that an increase in the money supply raises aggregate demand and thus alters real macroeconomic variables. Post-Keynesians reject the classic dichotomy as well, for different reasons, emphasizing the role of banks in creating money, as in monetary circuit theory.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_dichotomy
Classical theism is a form of theism in which God is characterized as the absolutely metaphysically ultimate being, in contrast to other conceptions such as pantheism, panentheism, polytheism, deism and process theism.[citation needed]
Classical theism is a form of monotheism. Whereas most monotheists agree that God is, at minimum, all-knowing, all-powerful, and completely good,[1] classical theism asserts that God is both immanent (encompassing or manifested in the material world) and simultaneously transcendent (independent of the material universe); simple, and having such attributes as immutability, impassibility, and timelessness.[2] A key concept in classical theism is that "created beings" (ie, material phenomena, whether sentient biological organisms or insentient matter) are dependent for their existence on the one supreme divine Being.[3] Also, although God is wholly transcendent, he not only creates the material universe but also acts upon the material universe in imposing (or organizing) a Higher Order upon that material reality.[citation needed] This order was called by the ancient Greeks logos.
Classical theism is associated with the tradition of writers like Plato, Aristotle, Philo of Alexandria, Plotinus, Proclus, Athenagoras of Athens, Clement of Alexandria, Basil of Caesarea, Augustine, Boethius, Cyril of Alexandria, John Damascene, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Anselm of Canterbury, Maimonides, Averroes, Thomas Aquinas, Leibniz.[2] Since the advent of the scientific revolution in the seventeenth century the principle of divine immanence as a central doctrine of classical theism (as traditionally held by all three of the major Abrahamic religions) began to be replaced among progressive thinkers with the notion that although God had created the universe in the beginning he subsequently left the universe to run according to fixed laws of nature. A common metaphor for this idea in the seventeenth century was that of the clockwork universe. This theological doctrine was known as deism and gradually became the default view of many of the influential thinkers of the eighteenth century enlightenment.
Among modern day theologians and philosophers of religion classical theism has appeared in a number of variants. For example, there are, today, philosophers like Alvin Plantinga (who rejects divine simplicity), Richard Swinburne (who rejects divine timelessness) and William Lane Craig (who rejects both divine simplicity and timelessness),[4][5] who can be viewed as theistic personalists. Philosophers like David Bentley Hart and Edward Feser have defended traditional classical theism in recent times.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_theism
Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was used from 75 BC to the 3rd century AD, when it developed into Late Latin. In some later periods, it was regarded as good or proper Latin, with following versions viewed as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word Latin is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin.
Cicero and his contemporaries of the late republic referred to the Latin language, in contrast to other languages such as Greek, as lingua latina or sermo latinus. They distinguished the common vernacular, however, as Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris and sermo vulgi), in contrast to the higher register that they called latinitas, sometimes translated as "Latinity".[note 1] Latinitas was also called sermo familiaris ("speech of the good families"), sermo urbanus ("speech of the city"), and in rare cases sermo nobilis ("noble speech"). Besides the noun Latinitas, it was referred to with the adverb latine ("in (good) Latin", literally "Latinly") or its comparative latinius ("in better Latin", literally "more Latinly").
Latinitas was spoken and written. It was the language taught in schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and when special subjects like poetry or rhetoric were taken into consideration, additional rules applied. Since spoken Latinitas has become extinct (in favor of subsequent registers), the rules of politus (polished) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language. However, Latinitas was a form of sermo (spoken language), and as such, retains spontaneity. No texts by Classical Latin authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, with the exception of repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases found on inscriptions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_lists_of_classical_composers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_cipher
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dado_rail
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilaster
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_order
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonic_column
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Circus,_Bath
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_republicanism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_realism_(international_relations)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Realism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-order_arithmetic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_education_movement
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_hours
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Institute_of_Classical_Architecture_and_Art
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_(classical_element)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Archives
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_group
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classicism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_battle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_connective#Order_of_precedence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_African_civilization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_order
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_compass_winds
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93verb_word_order
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet#Classical_Latin_alphabet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_involution_theorem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_equations_in_classical_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth-order_logic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_thought#The_three_traditional_laws
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_control_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Heisenberg_model
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariant_formulation_of_classical_electromagnetism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_logic#Classical_logic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_gift_sacrifice
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic#Classical_and_non-classical
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_XY_model
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_order_coherence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism#Classical_liberalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_nucleation_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional-order_control
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Mass
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric#The_History_of_Rhetoric_in_Western_Civilization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-negation_translation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_government
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_Brownian_motion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeding#Classical_plant_breeding
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_garden
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidimensional_scaling
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_script
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynesian_economics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplicity#Classical_elements
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_518
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_swine_fever
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_classical_abbreviations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogues_of_classical_compositions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_literature#Classical_Arabic_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_painting#Egypt,_Greece_and_Rome
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_dichotomy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_creation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_circuit_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregate_demand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetarism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veil_of_money
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics#Classical_optics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple#Introduction_of_stone_architecture%3A_Archaic_and_Classical
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information#Classical_information_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_functional_theory#Classical_density_functional_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_operator
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics#Classical_thermodynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Orders_of_Architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_composition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Ballet_of_Cambodia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum#Electromagnetism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-classical_editing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway_Chess#Classical_tournament
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_classical_Ottoman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuits
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfet_(Egyptian_mythology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drill_commands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_China
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annuit_c%C5%93ptis#Classical_source_of_the_motto
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga#Definitions_in_classical_texts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter#Classical_states
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Greece
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevalier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stark_effect
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_logic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_record
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots_of_American_Order
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_the_classical_Ottoman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatives_to_general_relativity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Maya_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_trichotomy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanuman_Chalisa#Classical_and_folk_music
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism#Classical_antiquity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite#Classical_period
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synteny
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_French
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Europe#Classical_art
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commitment_ordering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_function_(statistical_mechanics)#Classical_discrete_system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_theory#Classical_social_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic#Classical_Arabic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Baroque_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greek_sculpture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispositio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anarchism#Classical_anarchism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_French#Modern_French
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept#Classical_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icarus#Classical_literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_(mathematical_physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#Post-classical_worship
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonders_of_the_World
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheid_variable#Classical_Cepheids
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)#Classical_realism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_non-residential_architectural_styles#Federation_Academic_Classical
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece#Classical_Athens_%28508%E2%80%93322_BCE%29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Baroque_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin-script_alphabet#Grapheme_order
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_inference
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandava#Indian_classical_dance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first-order_theories
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata
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