Public Administration (a form of governance) or Public Policy and Administration (an academic discipline) is the implementation of public policy, administration of government establishment (public governance), management of non-profit establishment (nonprofit governance), and also a subfield of political science taught in public policy schools that studies this implementation and prepares people, especially civil servants in administrative positions for working in the public sector, voluntary sector,[1] some industries in the private sector dealing with government relations and regulatory affairs, and those working as think tank researchers, or in other positions that uses similar skills found in public administration.
Some of the various definitions that have been offered for the term are "the management of public programs";[2] the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day";[3] and "the study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies."[4] The word public administration is the combination of two words—public and administration. In every sphere of social, economic and political life there is administration which means that for the proper functioning of the organization or institution it must be properly ruled or managed and from this concept emerges the idea of administration.
In the United States in the 1880s, civil servants and academics like Woodrow Wilson worked to reform the civil service system and bring public administration into the realm of science[6]. However, "until the mid-twentieth century, when German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy prevailed," he said, "there was no great interest in the theory of public administration. The field is multidisciplinary in character, and one of the various proposals for sub-fields of public administration sets out six pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis, statistics, budgeting, and ethics.[5]
Public administration is a segment of the larger field of administration. It is simply regarded as bureaucracy, heedless to the fact that bureaucracy as a particular organizational form is not only found in the government, but also in private and third sector organizations.(Dhameja,2003, p. 2). Public Administration is a discipline which is concerned with the organization and the formulation and implementation of public policies for the welfare of the people. It functions in a political setting in order to accomplish the goals and objectives, which are formulated by the political decision makers. The focus of public administration, thus, is on public bureaucracy. The subject got its major boost after the Minnowbrook conference held at Syracuse university in the year 1968, presided over by Dwight Waldo. It was this time when the concept of New Public Administration emerged.
Thus, public administration as a course of government action in relation to public policy as an outline of what government wants to do plays an important role in our society. It can be understood as the course of action or inaction by the government with regard to a particular issue or set of issues. It can be associated with formally approved policy goals and means, as well as the regulations and practices of agencies that implement the programs.The relationship between what the government (public administration) wants to accomplish and what actually occurs is carried by public policy. Therefore, the ultimate goal of all public policies is to achieve particular objectives that the government has in mind. The nation's citizens' welfare is a major consideration in the formulation and implementation of these programs. Because of this, the public's opinion, for one, exerts considerable pressure on the course of government (public administration) policies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration
The term administration, as used in the context of government, differs according to the jurisdiction under which it operates. In general terms, administration can be described as a decision making body.[1]
United States
In American usage, the term generally refers to the executive branch under a specific president (or governor, mayor, or other local executive); or the term of a particular executive; for example: "President Y's administration" or "Secretary of Defense X during President Y's administration."[2] It can also mean an executive branch agency headed by an administrator, as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Small Business Administration or the National Archives and Records Administration.
The term "administration" has been used to denote the executive branch in presidential systems of government.
Europe
The term's usage in Europe varies by country, but most typically the word "administration" refers to managerial functions in general, which may include local governments, or the hierarchy of national and local government, that applies to a town or district. More specifically, it may refer to public administration, the business of administering public policy as determined by government. However, outside France and Romania, this usage of the word is uncommon.
For the British sense of the word, most countries use the term government, referring to the "administration" of Winston Churchill as the "Churchill government".[3] This is also true for the non-European members of the Commonwealth of Nations. An older, chiefly Commonwealth usage, is the term "ministry", as in "Churchill Ministry", which is still in official and academic use in Britain, Australia and Canada to refer the terms of prime ministers.[4]
Depending on the type of government, the word coalition may be used for a specific government. In the Netherlands, cabinet is the most-used term (as in "the fourth Balkenende cabinet"), although "coalition" or "government" are also used when one does not refer to a specific coalition (note that the two terms have slightly different meanings).
See also
References
 | This article about politics is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(government)
Central administration is the leading or presiding body or group of people, and the highest administrative department which oversees all lower departments of an organization.
Education
In most cases, a school or school district will have a leading group of people as a part of central administration. In a school district, these terms may include a Superintendent (education), chief operating officer, school headmaster, and/or other leadership roles in one or more specific department. People on central administration are usually appointed by a board, such as a Board of education. They are comparable to positions such as a Chief executive officer. They rank over all other administration, requiring leadership skills. Central administrative staff have an executive oversight and supervision on school and/or school district administration. The department exists in Universities as well again playing a key role in the organisation of the department.[1][2][3] The department is often also tasked with data protection, disaster control planning and other areas.[4]
Government
Central administration is also a key part of the civil service in many countries; in the United Kingdom, for example, the department supports the chief executive's office and other key areas.[5][6] In the United States, many arms of government have a central administration department. For instance, in correctional facilities, the office of the director is under its tutelage.[7] It plays a role in the function of various arms of state, such as in India, where it plays a pivotal role in the functioning of the civil service.[8] The department also plays a key role in making critical decisions for many countries; in Pakistan (which borders India), for example, there has been a discussion about whether the government should bring rebellious minded tribal areas under tighter control of central administration.[9]
Organizations
In many other organizations, a “central administration” department plays a key role to its function.[10] In the information technology sector, Central Administration is a key resource, along with development teams.[11] Central administration departments are often tasked with providing IT Support to various organisations, providing key technological support. The nature of the role means the professionals have very high access to PC systems (domain admins, etc.) as they need to undertake functions that include creation and amending of user accounts.[12][13]
Software
Central administration can refer both to people within a department as well as consoles, applications, and other tools that help its function.[14][15][16] Central administration is part of Windows SharePoint server; it allows system administrators or those within Central admin departments the ability to prioritise various tasks as well as allowing users to view resources and currently running services.[17]
See also
- English law
- Chief administrative officer
- Chief executive officer
- Superintendent (education)
- Chief operating officer
- Executive director
- Senior management
- Board of directors
- Trustee
- Board of education
- Board of governors
References
- "What's new in Central Administration (Windows SharePoint Server)". Technet.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_administration
As a legal concept, administration is a procedure under the insolvency laws of a number of common law jurisdictions, similar to bankruptcy in the United States. It functions as a rescue mechanism for insolvent entities and allows them to carry on running their business. The process – in the United Kingdom colloquially called being "under administration" – is an alternative to liquidation or may be a precursor to it. Administration is commenced by an administration order.
A company in administrative receivership is operated by an administrator (as interim chief executive with custodial responsibility for the company's assets and obligations) on behalf of its creditors. The administrator may recapitalize the business, sell the business to new owners, or demerge it into elements that can be sold and close the remainder.
Most countries distinguish between voluntary (board-decided) and involuntary (court-decided) receivership. In voluntary administrative receivership, the administrator is appointed by the company directors. In involuntary administrative receivership, the administrator is appointed by a judicial court. The legal terms for these processes vary from country to country, and the processes may overlap.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(law)
In accounting, insolvency is the state of being unable to pay the debts, by a person or company (debtor), at maturity; those in a state of insolvency are said to be insolvent. There are two forms: cash-flow insolvency and balance-sheet insolvency.
Cash-flow insolvency is when a person or company has enough assets to pay what is owed, but does not have the appropriate form of payment. For example, a person may own a large house and a valuable car, but not have enough liquid assets to pay a debt when it falls due. Cash-flow insolvency can usually be resolved by negotiation. For example, the bill collector may wait until the car is sold and the debtor agrees to pay a penalty.
Balance-sheet insolvency is when a person or company does not have enough assets to pay all of their debts. The person or company might enter bankruptcy, but not necessarily. Once a loss is accepted by all parties, negotiation is often able to resolve the situation without bankruptcy. A company that is balance-sheet insolvent may still have enough cash to pay its next bill on time. However, most laws will not let the company pay that bill unless it will directly help all their creditors. For example, an insolvent farmer may be allowed to hire people to help harvest the crop, because not harvesting and selling the crop would be even worse for his creditors.
It has been suggested that the speaker or writer should either say technical insolvency or actual insolvency in order to always be clear – where technical insolvency is a synonym for balance sheet insolvency, which means that its liabilities are greater than its assets, and actual insolvency is a synonym for the first definition of insolvency ("Insolvency is the inability of a debtor to pay their debt.").[1] While technical insolvency is a synonym for balance-sheet insolvency, cash-flow insolvency and actual insolvency are not synonyms. The term "cash-flow insolvent" carries a strong (but perhaps not absolute) connotation that the debtor is balance-sheet solvent, whereas the term "actually insolvent" does not.
Technical definitions
Cash-flow insolvency involves a lack of liquidity to pay debts as they fall due.
Balance sheet insolvency involves having negative net assets—where liabilities exceed assets. Insolvency is not a synonym for bankruptcy, which is a determination of insolvency made by a court of law with resulting legal orders intended to resolve the insolvency.
Accounting insolvency happens when total liabilities exceed total assets (negative net worth).[2][3][4][5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolvency
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt_restructuring
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demerger
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions
In finance and economics, divestment or divestiture is the reduction of some kind of asset for financial, ethical, or political objectives or sale of an existing business by a firm. A divestment is the opposite of an investment. Divestiture is an adaptive change and adjustment of a company's ownership and business portfolio made to confront with internal and external changes.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divestment
Decartelization is the transition of a national economy from monopoly control by groups of large businesses, known as cartels, to a free market economy. This change rarely arises naturally, and is generally the result of regulation by a governing body with monopoly of power to decide what structures it likes.[1]
A modern example of decartelization is the economic restructuring of Germany after the fall of the Third Reich in 1945.[2]
To truly understand the term "decartelization" requires familiarity with the term "cartel".[3] A cartel is a formal (explicit) agreement among firms. Cartels usually occur in an oligopolistic industry (oligopoly), where there are a small number of sellers, and usually involve homogeneous products (see Homogeneity and heterogeneity). Cartel members may agree on such matters as price fixing, total industry output, market shares, allocation of customers, allocation of territories, bid rigging, establishment of common sales agencies (sales agents), and the division of property or profits or combination of these. The aim of such collusion is to increase individual member's profits by reducing competition. Competition laws forbid cartels.[4][5] Identifying and breaking up cartels is an important part of competition policy in most countries, although proving the existence of a cartel is rarely easy, as firms are usually not so careless as to put agreements to collude on paper.[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decartelization
A compulsory cartel or forced cartel is a cartel that is established or maintained by an administrative order or by a legal directive. The interference of policies on these associations of entrepreneurs of the same trade varied. It ranged from a mere decision to establish a cartel or to maintain an existing one, to a strict state control.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_cartel
The Grand Allies, or Grand Alliance, was a cartel of English coal-owning families formed in 1726. It was based on the Northumberland and Durham Coalfield, and played a major role in the economics of mining coal from the field for about a century. Over time, other families joined the original main three.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Allies
A successor company takes the business (products and services) of the previous companies with the goal to maintain the continuity of the business. To this end the employees, board of directors, location, equipment and even product name may remain the same or change only slightly at the moment of succession.[1]
The major advantage is saving the money for the initial ramp-up (employee training, equipment purchase, marketing, etc). If the previous company was failing, this is a disadvantage for its successors in various respects. If the successor succeeds where the predecessor failed, the company may be called a "Phoenix company" ("rising from the ashes"). In general, the successor is not responsible for the liabilities of the predecessor, unless the consent was given to this, or a court decided that the succession was not "clean hands"; e.g., the successor was de facto the same company, of the succession transfer was an instrument to avoid liabilities.[2]
In the corporate world, successor corporations are typically created by mergers and acquisitions or liquidation of existing businesses. In order to conclude whether a corporation is a legal successor of previous businesses, connections between them must be analyzed. A rather evident case is when the corporations keep nearly the same senior management or there is a close connection between the old and new management. Other contributing indicators include same trade, same workforce, similar company and product names, and substantial asset transfer between successors and predecessors [2]
The term successor in business has similar meanings. Various legal documents typically include formal definitions of the terms used in them, including the ones discussed here. A typical example would be: "Successor in Business means (a) an entity which acquires all or substantially all of the undertaking and/or assets of either Issuer or of a successor in business of either Issuer; or (b) any entity into which any of the previously referred to entity is amalgamated, merged or reconstructed and is itself not the continuing company".[3]
In the case of liquidation or dissolution, there may or may not be a legal successor created.[4]
See also
References
- VOSZKA, É. "COMPANY LIQUIDATION WITHOUT A LEGAL SUCCESSOR." Acta Oeconomica, vol. 37, no. 1/2, Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986, pp. 59–71JSTOR 40729255
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Successor_company
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2022) |
In law, dissolution is any of several legal events that terminate a legal entity or agreement such as a marriage, adoption, corporation, or union.
Dissolution is the last stage of liquidation, the process by which a company (or part of a company) is brought to an end, and the assets and property of the company are gone forever.
Dissolution of a partnership is the first of two stages in the termination of a partnership.[1] "Winding up" is the second stage.[1][2]
Dissolution may also refer to the termination of a contract or other legal relationship; for example, a divorce is the dissolution of a marriage only if the husband or wife does not agree. If the husband and wife agree then it is a dissolution.[dubious ]
Dissolution is also the term for the legal process by which an adoption is reversed. While this applies to the vast majority of adoptions which are terminated, they are more commonly referred to as disruptions, even though that term technically applies only to those that are not legally complete at the time of termination.
In international law, dissolution (Latin: dismembratio) is when a state has broken up into several entities, and no longer has power over those entities, as it used to have previously; this type of dissolution is identical to dissolution in the political sense [Dissolution (politics)]. An example of this is the case of the former USSR dissolving into different republics.
References
- Slides 11–17 of Powerpoint Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine for Chapter 21 from McGraw-Hill from 2nd Ed. of Kusabek
 | This legal term article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
 | This business term article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_(law)
Provisional liquidation is a process which exists as part of the corporate insolvency laws of a number of common law jurisdictions whereby after the lodging of a petition for the winding-up of a company by the court, but before the court hears and determines the petition, the court may appoint a liquidator on a "provisional" basis.[1] (The provisional liquidator is appointed to safeguard the assets of the company and maintain the status quo pending the hearing of the petition.) Unlike a conventional liquidator, a provisional liquidator does not assess claims against the company or try to distribute the company's assets to creditors, as the power to realise the assets comes after the court orders a liquidation.[2]
In practice most instances of applications for a provisional liquidator involve some type of allegation of fraud or other misconduct relating to the company.[3]
Application
Typically, an application for the appointment of a provisional liquidator is made by either:[2]
- a creditor, where they are concerned that the assets of the company are at risk or might be dissipated or put beyond the reach of creditors during the period before the winding up application is heard;
- the shareholders, where they are concerned that the directors of the company are acting improperly; or
- the company itself. This may arise due to a dispute between directors and other officers, or because the company is insolvent and the directors do not want to risk insolvent trading claims in the period before an official liquidator is appointed. In some jurisdictions (but not all) the company may apply to put itself into provisional liquidation to shield itself from creditor claims whilst it tries to implement a restructuring.
The remedy is an exceptional one, and most instances of applications for a provisional liquidator are made because of concerns about some type of material impropriety.[3] In exceptional cases it is also possible for public authorities to apply for the appointment of a provisional liquidator to protect the public interest from fraud or other similar conduct, although this is much less common.[4]
The court invariably has a discretion whether to appoint a provisional liquidator. A court will not normally approve the application unless it is satisfied that there is a strong likelihood that a liquidator will be appointed on the substantive application. But even if the company is likely to go into liquidation, provisional liquidation is still an exceptional interim or "emergency remedy".[5] There need to be special reasons for the appointment of a provisional liquidator in the interim period. Normally this is because the assets must face a high risk of dissipation or there must be some other urgent reason why a liquidator is required for the interim period.[6]
Applications are most likely to be granted in situations where:[6]
- it is necessary to have an independent person investigate the company and its affairs;
- there was an urgent need to act to preserve assets of the company;
- there was a material conflict of interest between a director and the company; or
- there had been an impropriety in the conduct of the company’s affairs.
Conversely, because there needs to be some urgency or risk of dissipation of assets, applications are likely to be refused if:[6]
- the only reason relied on by a creditor was that the company was insolvent (without more);
- an administrative receiver or administrator had already been appointed, negating the risk of dissipation of assets;
- the application was made for an improper purpose, such as to maximise the applicant’s own position;
- the application was made simply to try and permit the company to continue to trade where the company is insolvency and clearly should be wound up; or
- there was a genuine dispute as to the creditor’s debt.
Given their nature, applications for provisional liquidation are often made urgently and without giving notice to the company or its directors. Where the application is made without notice:[1]
- the applicant is under a duty to give "full and frank disclosure" to the court of all material facts (including any facts which are adverse to the applicant); and
- the applicant will normally have to give an undertaking in damages to compensate the company for any loss caused if it subsequently transpires after a full hearing that the order should not have been.[7]
Effect
If the court makes the order then a provisional liquidator is appointed over the company, and the control of all assets of the company, and the conduct of any business and other affairs of the company are transferred to the provisional liquidator. The directors cease to have any authority.[2] In almost all jurisdictions, the provisional liquidator will normally have to be a licensed insolvency practitioner.
The provisional liquidator will generally only have the powers and functions conferred upon him or her by the order of the court. It is not normally part of the role of a provisional liquidator to collect and sell the assets of the company or otherwise take steps in relation to the actual winding up the company. The principal reason for the appointment is the preservation of the company's property.[8]
One of the common functions of a provisional liquidator is to investigate whether the company's property has been misappropriated or its business has been wrongfully conducted. But generally speaking a provisional liquidator will not have power to bring proceedings on behalf of the company for wrongful trading, or to challenge transactions as undervalue transactions or unfair preferences.[9]
Termination
Provisional liquidation will normally come to an end in one of three ways:[1]
- a full winding up order is made;
- an order of the court is made discharging the provisional liquidation (normally at an inter partes hearing to challenge the original appointment); or
- the winding up petition itself is dismissed.
Specific jurisdictions
The effect of provisional liquidation varies from jurisdiction to the jurisdiction.
Australia
In Australia provisional liquidation is regulated by section 472(2) of Corporations Act 2001.[10] In Australia provisional liquidators must be licensed insolvency practitioners.[2]
British Virgin Islands
Under British Virgin Islands law provisional liquidation is regulated by section 170(4) of the Insolvency Act 2003.[11] In Akai Holdings Limited v Brinlow Investments Limited[12] it was held that an applicant would need to show four things:
- a petition before the court for the appointment of a liquidator;
- a good arguable case that a ground for the appointment of a liquidator exists;
- a good arguable case that the applicant has the necessary standing; and
- that the court should exercise its discretion to maintain the status quo in relation to the company’s assets.
Canada
In Canada provision liquidation is regulated under section 28 of the Winding-up and Restructuring Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. W-11).[13]
Cayman Islands
In the Cayman Islands, provisional liquidation is principally regulated by section 104(3) of the Companies Law (2013) Revision. One unusual feature of provisional liquidation in Cayman is that it is possible to appoint a provisional liquidator and still allow the directors to retain their powers of management.[14] This in part facilitates a slightly unusual use of provisional liquidation in the Cayman Islands as part of a debtor in possession corporate rehabilitation process. The company itself will apply for an order for provisional liquidation, and provisional liquidators are appointed which effectively creates a stay on the claims of unsecured creditors. The board of directors can then use that "breathing space" to try and implement a restructuring of the company's debts pursuant to a scheme of arrangement, or pursuant to an international restructuring process in the courts of another jurisdictions.[15] This approach has not been rejected in the courts of other jurisdictions (such as Hong Kong),[16] but accepted in others.[17]
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, there are three types of provisional liquidators.[18] There are "traditional" provisional liquidators, appointed under section 193 of the Hong Kong Companies (Winding Up and Miscellaneous Provisions) Ordinance (Cap 32); there are also provisional liquidators appointed pursuant to a members' voluntary liquidation under section 228A of the Ordinance, and there are "Panel T" appointments under section 194(1A) of the Ordinance whereby the Official Receiver is appointed as provisional liquidator.
Since the decision in the Legend case in 2006[19] provisional liquidation may not be used as a means of shielding the company from creditor's claims to facilitate a restructuring in Hong Kong,[16] although prior to that date the practice was relatively common.[18]
South Africa
In South Africa, "provisional liquidation" has a very different meaning. When a creditor or other person applies to the court for the liquidation of a business, then the order is first made a provisional basis, and then subsequent confirmed (or not) at a full hearing, much like a decree nisi and a decree absolut in other jurisdictions.[20]
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the power to appoint a provisional liquidator is found in section 135(1), of the Insolvency Act 1986, and it is regarded as an "emergency procedure".[1] The categories of persons who may apply for the appointment are set out at rule 4.25(1) of the Insolvency Rules 1986.[21] Under English law, all provisional liquidators are required to be licensed insolvency practitioners.[22] If upon the application for the appointment of a liquidator, there are concerns about potential dissipation of assets or misconduct on the part of the directors, then the court may order the appointment of a provisional liquidator.[1] Provisional liquidation is essentially an "emergency procedure". A provisional liquidator may only be appointed by the court only after a winding-up petition has been presented[23] The main reason for appointing a provisional liquidator is normally to preserve the company's assets. In practice most instances of applications for a provisional liquidator involve some kind of fraud or other misconduct.[3] The applicant will normally need to show that (a) it is likely that a winding-up order will be made at the hearing of the petition; and (b) the company's assets are at risk prior to the hearing of the petition (which includes either dissipation of the company's assets, or the potential loss or destruction of the company's books and records.[24] Accordingly, it will normally be necessary to establish either (or both) that: (a) the company is clearly insolvent, and it is likely that a winding-up order will be made at the hearing of the petition; and/or (b) there has been the type of misconduct that would justify a just and equitable winding-up. An appointment of a provisional liquidator may also be made where it is in the public interest.[25]
Because of the emergency nature of the remedy applications for provisional liquidation are very often made urgently and without giving notice to the company. In such cases, the applicant is under a legal obligation to give full and frank disclosure to the court of all material facts, including facts which are adverse to the applicant's own case. The applicant will also normally be required to give an undertaking in damages in the event the court subsequently determines that the order should not have been made to compensate the company for any damage caused to it by the appointment.[7]
If a provisional liquidator is appointed then the powers of the company's directors are effectively terminated, and the board will retain only a residual power to apply to dismiss or resist the winding-up petition.[26] The appointment of a provisional liquidator comes to an end when:[1]
- a liquidator is appointed at a full hearing;
- the provisional liquidator is discharged by order of the court; or
- the underlying winding up petition is dismissed.
References
- Ashborder BV v Green Gas Power Ltd [2005] EWHC 1031 (Ch)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_liquidation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Defunct_companies
[2]Accretion/dilution analysis is a type of M&A financial modelling performed in the pre-deal phase to evaluate the effect of the transaction on shareholder value and to check whether EPS for buying shareholders will increase or decrease post-deal.[2] Generally, shareholders do not prefer dilutive transactions; however, if the deal may generate enough value to become accretive in a reasonable time, a proposed combination is justified.
Aside is a simplified example. A real-life accretion/dilution analysis may be much more complex if the deal is structured as cash-and-stock-for-stock, if preferred shares and dilutive instruments are involved, if debt and transaction fees are substantial, and so on. Generally, if the buying company has a higher P/E multiple than that of the target, the deal is likely to be accretive. The reverse is true for a dilutive transaction.
See also
References
External links
- THE IMPACT OF EPS ACCRETION AND DILUTION ON STOCK PRICES
- Valuation of a P&C Company
- Example of A/D Analysis[permanent dead link]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion/dilution_analysis
Category:Valuation (finance)
- This Category relates to (equity) valuation, in the context of investment banking and corporate finance.
- Articles discussing the valuation of derivatives and interest rate- / fixed income instruments are at Category:Mathematical finance; those related to asset pricing theory are at Category:Financial economics.
Subcategories
This category has the following 9 subcategories, out of 9 total.
B
- Bond valuation (2 C, 53 P)
F
- Fundamental analysis (2 C, 38 P)
L
- Land value taxation (19 P)
P
- Valuation professionals (1 C, 13 P)
R
- Real options (22 P)
T
- Technical analysis (8 C, 52 P)
Pages in category "Valuation (finance)"
The following 113 pages are in this category, out of 113 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Valuation_(finance)
In common-law jurisdictions, administration of an estate on death arises if the deceased is legally intestate, meaning they did not leave a will, or some assets are not disposed of by their will.
Where a person dies leaving a will appointing an executor, and that executor validly disposes of the property of the deceased within England and Wales, then the estate will go to probate. However, if no will is left, or the will is invalid or incomplete in some way, then administrators must be appointed. They perform a similar role to the executor of a will but, where there are no instructions in a will, the administrators must distribute the estate of the deceased according to the rules laid down by statute and the common trust.
Certain property falls outside the estate for administration purposes, the most common example probably being houses jointly owned that pass by survivorship on the first death of a couple into the sole name of the survivor. Other examples include discretionary death benefits from pension funds, accounts with certain financial institutions subject to a nomination and the proceeds of life insurance policies which have been written into trust. Trust property will also frequently fall outside the estate but will depend on the terms of the trust.
Letter of administration
English law
Upon the death of a person intestate, or of one who left a will without appointing executors, or when the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the Probate Division of the High Court of Justice or the local District Probate Registry will appoint an administrator who performs similar duties to an executor. The court does this by granting letters of administration to the person so entitled. Grants of administration may be either general (where the deceased has died intestate) or limited.[1] The order in which the court will make general grants of letters follows the sequence:
- The surviving spouse, or civil partner, as the case may be;
- The next of kin;
- The Crown;
- A creditor;
- A stranger.
Under the rules for distribution of estates without a will (the Intestacy Rules), where a child under 18 would inherit or a life interest would arise, the Court or District Probate Registry would normally appoint a minimum of two administrators. On some estates, even under an intestate, it is not clear who are the next-of-kin, and probate research may be required to find the entitled beneficiaries.
An administrator (sometimes known as the administratrix, if female) acts as the personal representative of the deceased in relation to land and other property in the UK. Consequently, when the estate under administration consists wholly or mainly of land, the court will grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of kin. In the absence of any heir or next of kin, the Crown has the right to property (other than land) as bona vacantia, and to the land by virtue of the historic land rights of the Crown (and the Duchy of Cornwall and Duchy of Lancaster in their respective areas). If a creditor claims and obtains a Grant of Administration, the court compels him or her to enter into a bond with two sureties that he or she will not prefer his or her own debt to those of other creditors.[1]
Other types of letters of administration
The more important cases of grants of special letters of administration include the following:
- Administration cum testamento annexo, where the deceased has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court will make the grant to the person, usually the residuary legatee, with the largest beneficial interest in the estate.
- Administration de bonis non administratis occurs in two cases:
- Where the executor dies intestate after probate without having completely administered the estate
- Where an administrator dies.
In the first case the principle of administration cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted.
- Administration durante minore aetate, when the executor or the person entitled to the general grant is under age.
- Administration durante absentia, when the executor or administrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year.
- Administration pendente lite, where there is a dispute as to the person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court appoints an administrator till the question has been decided.[1]
See also
- Probate (administration, as to both testate and intestate estates, in the United States and England and Wales)
- Administration of Estates Act 1925
- Calendars of the Grants of Probate and Letters of Administration (CGPLA)
- Estate planning
References
- One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Administration". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 194.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)
An artificial brain (or artificial mind) is software and hardware with cognitive abilities similar to those of the animal or human brain.[1]
Research investigating "artificial brains" and brain emulation plays three important roles in science:
- An ongoing attempt by neuroscientists to understand how the human brain works, known as cognitive neuroscience.
- A thought experiment in the philosophy of artificial intelligence, demonstrating that it is possible, at least in theory, to create a machine that has all the capabilities of a human being.
- A long-term project to create machines exhibiting behavior comparable to those of animals with complex central nervous system such as mammals and most particularly humans. The ultimate goal of creating a machine exhibiting human-like behavior or intelligence is sometimes called strong AI.
An example of the first objective is the project reported by Aston University in Birmingham, England[2] where researchers are using biological cells to create "neurospheres" (small clusters of neurons) in order to develop new treatments for diseases including Alzheimer's, motor neurone and Parkinson's disease.
The second objective is a reply to arguments such as John Searle's Chinese room argument, Hubert Dreyfus's critique of AI or Roger Penrose's argument in The Emperor's New Mind. These critics argued that there are aspects of human consciousness or expertise that can not be simulated by machines. One reply to their arguments is that the biological processes inside the brain can be simulated to any degree of accuracy. This reply was made as early as 1950, by Alan Turing in his classic paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence".[note 1]
The third objective is generally called artificial general intelligence by researchers.[3] However, Ray Kurzweil prefers the term "strong AI". In his book The Singularity is Near, he focuses on whole brain emulation using conventional computing machines as an approach to implementing artificial brains, and claims (on grounds of computer power continuing an exponential growth trend) that this could be done by 2025. Henry Markram, director of the Blue Brain project (which is attempting brain emulation), made a similar claim (2020) at the Oxford TED conference in 2009.[1]
Approaches to brain simulation
Although direct human brain emulation using artificial neural networks on a high-performance computing engine is a commonly discussed approach,[4] there are other approaches. An alternative artificial brain implementation could be based on Holographic Neural Technology (HNeT) non linear phase coherence/decoherence principles. The analogy has been made to quantum processes through the core synaptic algorithm which has strong similarities to the quantum mechanical wave equation.
EvBrain[5] is a form of evolutionary software that can evolve "brainlike" neural networks, such as the network immediately behind the retina.
In November 2008, IBM received a US$4.9 million grant from the Pentagon for research into creating intelligent computers. The Blue Brain project is being conducted with the assistance of IBM in Lausanne.[6] The project is based on the premise that it is possible to artificially link the neurons "in the computer" by placing thirty million synapses in their proper three-dimensional position.
Some proponents of strong AI speculated in 2009 that computers in connection with Blue Brain and Soul Catcher may exceed human intellectual capacity by around 2015, and that it is likely that we will be able to download the human brain at some time around 2050.[7]
While Blue Brain is able to represent complex neural connections on the large scale, the project does not achieve the link between brain activity and behaviors executed by the brain. In 2012, project Spaun (Semantic Pointer Architecture Unified Network) attempted to model multiple parts of the human brain through large-scale representations of neural connections that generate complex behaviors in addition to mapping.[8]
Spaun's design recreates elements of human brain anatomy. The model, consisting of approximately 2.5 million neurons, includes features of the visual and motor cortices, GABAergic and dopaminergic connections, the ventral tegmental area (VTA), substantia nigra, and others. The design allows for several functions in response to eight tasks, using visual inputs of typed or handwritten characters and outputs carried out by a mechanical arm. Spaun's functions include copying a drawing, recognizing images, and counting.[8]
There are good reasons to believe that, regardless of implementation strategy, the predictions of realising artificial brains in the near future are optimistic.[citation needed] In particular brains (including the human brain) and cognition are not currently well understood, and the scale of computation required is unknown. Another near term limitation is that all current approaches for brain simulation require orders of magnitude larger power consumption compared with a human brain. The human brain consumes about 20 W of power, whereas current supercomputers may use as much as 1 MW—i.e., an order of 100,000 more.[citation needed]
Artificial brain thought experiment
Some critics of brain simulation[9] believe that it is simpler to create general intelligent action directly without imitating nature. Some commentators[10] have used the analogy that early attempts to construct flying machines modeled them after birds, but that modern aircraft do not look like birds.
See also
- AI takeover
- Animat
- Artificial consciousness
- Artificial intelligence
- Artificial Intelligence System
- Artificial life
- Artificial philosophy
- Biological neural networks
- Blue Brain
- CoDi
- Cognitive architecture
- Effective altruism
- Existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence
- Future of Humanity Institute
- Human Brain Project
- Multi-agent system
- Neuromorphic computing
- Never-Ending Language Learning
- Nick Bostrom
- Outline of artificial intelligence
- OpenWorm
- Robotics
- Simulated reality
- Superintelligence
- Turing's Wager
Notes
- The critics:
- Searle, John (1980), "Minds, Brains and Programs", Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3 (3): 417–457, doi:10.1017/S0140525X00005756, archived from the original on December 10, 2007, retrieved May 13, 2009
- Dreyfus, Hubert (1972), What Computers Can't Do, New York: MIT Press, ISBN 0-06-090613-8
- Penrose, Roger (1989), The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and The Laws of Physics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-14-014534-6
- Turing, Alan (October 1950), "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", Mind, LIX (236): 433–460, doi:10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433, ISSN 0026-4423
- Moravec, Hans (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press
- Kurzweil, Ray (2005), The Singularity is Near, New York: Viking Press, ISBN 0-670-03384-7.
References
- Fox and Hayes quoted in Nilsson, Nils (1998), Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis, p581 Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55860-467-4
External links
- Neukart, Florian (23 November 2016). Reverse Engineering the Mind - Consciously Acting Machines and Accelerated Evolution. Wolfsburg, Germany: Springer. ISBN 978-3-658-16176-7. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
- Bandyopadhyay, Anirban (4 April 2020). Nanobrain : The Making of an Artificial Brain from a Time Crystal. Bosa Roca, USA: Taylor & Francis, CRC Press. ISBN 9781439875490. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
- Artificial Brains – the quest to build sentient machines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_brain
Human longevity" redirects here. For the company, see Human Longevity.
Longevity may refer to especially long-lived members of a population, whereas life expectancy is defined statistically as the average number of years remaining at a given age. For example, a population's life expectancy at birth is the same as the average age at death for all people born in the same year (in the case of cohorts).
Longevity studies may involve putative methods to extend life. Longevity has been a topic not only for the scientific community but also for writers of travel, science fiction, and utopian novels. The legendary fountain of youth appeared in the work of the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus.
There are difficulties in authenticating the longest human life span, owing to inaccurate or incomplete birth statistics. Fiction, legend, and folklore have proposed or claimed life spans in the past or future vastly longer than those verified by modern standards, and longevity narratives and unverified longevity claims frequently speak of their existence in the present.
A life annuity is a form of longevity insurance.
Life expectancy, as of 2010
Various factors contribute to an individual's longevity. Significant factors in life expectancy include gender, genetics, access to health care, hygiene, diet and nutrition, exercise, lifestyle, and crime rates. Below is a list of life expectancies in different types of countries:[1]
- Developed countries: 77–90 years (e.g. Canada: 81.29 years, 2010 est.)
- Developing countries: 32–80 years (e.g. Mozambique: 41.37 years, 2010 est.)
Population longevities are increasing as life expectancies around the world grow:[2][3]
- Australia: 80 years in 2002, 81.72 years in 2010
- France: 79.05 years in 2002, 81.09 years in 2010
- Germany: 77.78 years in 2002, 79.41 years in 2010
- Italy: 79.25 years in 2002, 80.33 years in 2010
- Japan: 81.56 years in 2002, 82.84 years in 2010
- Monaco: 79.12 years in 2002, 79.73 years in 2011
- Spain: 79.06 years in 2002, 81.07 years in 2010
- United Kingdom: 80 years in 2002, 81.73 years in 2010
- United States: 77.4 years in 2002, 78.24 years in 2010
Long-lived individuals
The Gerontology Research Group validates current longevity records by modern standards, and maintains a list of supercentenarians; many other unvalidated longevity claims exist. Record-holding individuals include:[4][5][6]
- Eilif Philipsen (1682–1785, 102 years, 333 days): first person to reach the age of 100 (on July 21, 1782) and whose age could be validated.
- Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (1788–1899, 110 years, 135 days): first person to reach the age of 110 (on September 21, 1898) and whose age could be validated.
- Margaret Ann Neve, (18 May 1792 – 4 April 1903, 110 years, 346 days) the first validated female supercentenarian (on 18 May 1902).
- Jeanne Calment (1875–1997, 122 years, 164 days): the oldest person in history whose age has been verified by modern documentation.[note 1] This defines the modern human life span, which is set by the oldest documented individual who ever lived.
- Sarah Knauss (1880–1999, 119 years, 97 days): the third oldest documented person in modern times and the oldest American.
- Jiroemon Kimura (1897–2013, 116 years, 54 days): the oldest man in history whose age has been verified by modern documentation.
- Kane Tanaka (1903–2022, 119 years, 107 days): the second oldest documented person in modern times and the oldest Japanese.
Major factors
Evidence-based studies indicate that longevity is based on two major factors: genetics and lifestyle.[8]
Genetics
Twin studies have estimated that approximately 20-30% of the variation in human lifespan can be related to genetics, with the rest due to individual behaviors and environmental factors which can be modified.[9] Although over 200 gene variants have been associated with longevity according to a US-Belgian-UK research database of human genetic variants[10] these explain only a small fraction of the heritability.[11]
Lymphoblastoid cell lines established from blood samples of centenarians have significantly higher activity of the DNA repair protein PARP (Poly ADP ribose polymerase) than cell lines from younger (20 to 70 year old) individuals.[12] The lymphocytic cells of centenarians have characteristics typical of cells from young people, both in their capability of priming the mechanism of repair after H2O2 sublethal oxidative DNA damage and in their PARP gene expression.[13] These findings suggest that elevated PARP gene expression contributes to the longevity of centenarians, consistent with the DNA damage theory of aging.[14]
In July 2020 scientists, using public biological data on 1.75 m people with known lifespans overall, identify 10 genomic loci which appear to intrinsically influence healthspan, lifespan, and longevity – of which half have not been reported previously at genome-wide significance and most being associated with cardiovascular disease – and identify haem metabolism as a promising candidate for further research within the field. Their study suggests that high levels of iron in the blood likely reduce, and genes involved in metabolising iron likely increase healthy years of life in humans.[16][15]
Lifestyle
Longevity is a highly plastic trait, and traits that influence its components respond to physical (static) environments and to wide-ranging life-style changes: physical exercise, dietary habits, living conditions, and pharmaceutical as well as nutritional interventions.[17][18][19] A 2012 study found that even modest amounts of leisure time physical exercise can extend life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years.[20]
Diet
As of 2021, there is no clinical evidence that any dietary practice contributes to human longevity.[21]
Biological pathways
Four well-studied biological pathways that are known to regulate aging, and whose modulation has been shown to influence longevity are Insulin/IGF-1, mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMP-activating protein kinase (AMPK), and Sirtuin pathways.[22][23]
Autophagy
Autophagy plays a pivotal role in healthspan and lifespan extension.[23][24]
Change over time
In preindustrial times, deaths at young and middle age were more common than they are today. This is not due to genetics, but because of environmental factors such as disease, accidents, and malnutrition, especially since the former were not generally treatable with pre-20th-century medicine. Deaths from childbirth were common for women, and many children did not live past infancy. In addition, most people who did attain old age were likely to die quickly from the above-mentioned untreatable health problems. Despite this, there are many examples of pre-20th-century individuals attaining lifespans of 85 years or greater, including John Adams, Cato the Elder, Thomas Hobbes, Eric of Pomerania,[citation needed] Christopher Polhem, and Michelangelo. This was also true for poorer people like peasants or laborers. Genealogists will almost certainly find ancestors living to their 70s, 80s and even 90s several hundred years ago.
For example, an 1871 census in the UK (the first of its kind, but personal data from other censuses dates back to 1841 and numerical data back to 1801) found the average male life expectancy as being 44, but if infant mortality is subtracted, males who lived to adulthood averaged 75 years. The present life expectancy in the UK is 77 years for males and 81 for females, while the United States averages 74 for males and 80 for females.
Studies have shown that black American males have the shortest lifespans of any group of people in the US, averaging only 69 years (Asian-American females average the longest).[25] This reflects overall poorer health and greater prevalence of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and cancer among black American men.
Women normally outlive men. Theories for this include smaller bodies that place lesser strain on the heart (women have lower rates of cardiovascular disease) and a reduced tendency to engage in physically dangerous activities.[26] Conversely, women are more likely to participate in health-promoting activities.[27] The X chromosome also contains more genes related to the immune system, and women tend to mount a stronger immune response to pathogens than men.[28] However, the idea that men have weaker immune systems due to the supposed immuno-suppressive actions of testosterone is unfounded.[29]
There is debate as to whether the pursuit of longevity is a worthwhile health care goal. Bioethicist Ezekiel Emanuel, who is also one of the architects of ObamaCare, has argued that the pursuit of longevity via the compression of morbidity explanation is a "fantasy" and that longevity past age 75 should not be considered an end in itself.[30] This has been challenged by neurosurgeon Miguel Faria, who states that life can be worthwhile in healthy old age, that the compression of morbidity is a real phenomenon, and that longevity should be pursued in association with quality of life.[31] Faria has discussed how longevity in association with leading healthy lifestyles can lead to the postponement of senescence as well as happiness and wisdom in old age.[32]
Naturally limited longevity
Most biological organisms have a naturally limited longevity due to aging, unlike a rare few that are considered biologically immortal.
Given that different species of animals and plants have different potentials for longevity, the disrepair accumulation theory of aging tries to explain how the potential for longevity of an organism is sometimes positively correlated to its structural complexity. It suggests that while biological complexity increases individual lifespan, it is counteracted in nature since the survivability of the overall species may be hindered when it results in a prolonged development process, which is an evolutionarily vulnerable state.[33]
According to the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis, one of the reasons biological immortality is so rare is that certain categories of gene expression that are beneficial in youth become deleterious at an older age.
Myths and claims
Longevity myths are traditions about long-lived people (generally supercentenarians), either as individuals or groups of people, and practices that have been believed to confer longevity, but for which scientific evidence does not support the ages claimed or the reasons for the claims.[34][35] A comparison and contrast of "longevity in antiquity" (such as the Sumerian King List, the genealogies of Genesis, and the Persian Shahnameh) with "longevity in historical times" (common-era cases through twentieth-century news reports) is elaborated in detail in Lucian Boia's 2004 book Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present and other sources.[36]
After the death of Juan Ponce de León, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés wrote in Historia General y Natural de las Indias (1535) that Ponce de León was looking for the waters of Bimini to cure his aging.[37] Traditions that have been believed to confer greater human longevity also include alchemy,[38] such as that attributed to Nicolas Flamel. In the modern era, the Okinawa diet has some reputation of linkage to exceptionally high ages.[39]
Longevity claims may be subcategorized into four groups: "In late life, very old people often tend to advance their ages at the rate of about 17 years per decade .... Several celebrated super-centenarians (over 110 years) are believed to have been double lives (father and son, relations with the same names or successive bearers of a title) .... A number of instances have been commercially sponsored, while a fourth category of recent claims are those made for political ends ...."[40] The estimate of 17 years per decade was corroborated by the 1901 and 1911 British censuses.[40] Time magazine considered that, by the Soviet Union, longevity had been elevated to a state-supported "Methuselah cult".[41] Robert Ripley regularly reported supercentenarian claims in Ripley's Believe It or Not!, usually citing his own reputation as a fact-checker to claim reliability.[42]
Non-human biological longevity
Longevity in animals can shed light on the determinants of life expectancy in humans, especially when found in related mammals. However, important contributions to longevity research have been made by research in other species, ranging from yeast to flies to worms. In fact, some closely related species of vertebrates can have dramatically different life expectancies, demonstrating that relatively small genetic changes can have a dramatic impact on aging. For instance, Pacific Ocean rockfishes have widely varying lifespans. The species Sebastes minor lives a mere 11 years while its cousin Sebastes aleutianus can live for more than 2 centuries.[43] Similarly, a chameleon, Furcifer labordi, is the current record holder for shortest lifespan among tetrapods, with only 4–5 months to live.[44] By contrast, some of its relatives, such as Furcifer pardalis, have been found to live up to 6 years.[45]
There are studies about aging-related characteristics of and aging in long-lived animals like various turtles[46][47] and plants like Ginkgo biloba trees.[48] They have identified potentially causal protective traits and suggest many of the species have "slow or [times of][clarification needed] negligible[clarification needed] senescence" (or aging).[49][46][47] The jellyfish T. dohrnii is biologically immortal and has been studied by comparative genomics.[50][51]
Examples of long lived plants and animals
Currently living
- A 5,072-year-old member of the species Pinus longaeva: Oldest known currently living non-clonal tree.[52]
- Methuselah: 4,800-year-old bristlecone pine in the White Mountains of California, the second oldest currently living non-clonal tree.[52]
Dead
- The quahog clam (Arctica islandica) is exceptionally long-lived, with a maximum recorded age of 507 years, the longest of any animal.[53] Other clams of the species have been recorded as living up to 374 years.[54]
- Lamellibrachia luymesi, a deep-sea cold-seep tubeworm, is estimated to reach ages of over 250 years based on a model of its growth rates.[55]
- A bowhead whale killed in a hunt was found to be approximately 211 years old (possibly up to 245 years old), the longest-lived mammal known.[56]
- Possibly 250-million year-old bacteria, Bacillus permians, were revived from stasis after being found in sodium chloride crystals in a cavern in New Mexico.[57][58]
Artificial animal longevity extension
Gene editing via CRISPR-Cas9 and other methods has significantly altered lifespans in animals.[59][60][61]
See also
- Actuarial science
- Aging
- Centenarian
- Genetics of aging
- Life extension
- Longevity claims
- Longevity myths
- Longevity quotient
- Maximum life span
- Senescence
Notes
References
Citations
Text and images are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Chuan xiong ... has long been a key herb in the longevity tradition of China, prized for its powers to boost the immune system, activate blood circulation, and relieve pain.
Taoist devotion to immortality is important to us for two reasons. The techniques may be of considerable value to our goal of a healthy old age, if we can understand and adapt them. Secondly, the Taoist longevity tradition has brought us many interesting remedies.
The Old Man of the Sea / Yaupa / a native of Futuna, one of the New Hebrides Islands / regularly worked his own farm at the age of 130 / He died in 1899 of measles — a children's disease ... Horoz Ali, the last Turkish gatekeeper of Nicosia, Cyprus, lived to the age of 120 ... Francisco Huppazoli (1587–1702) of Casale, Italy, lived 114 years without a day's illness and had 4 children by his 5th wife — whom he married at the age of 98
- Haston S, Pozzi S, Gonzalez-Meljem JM (2020), Gomez-Verjan JC, Rivero-Segura NA (eds.), "Applications of CRISPR-Cas in Ageing Research", Clinical Genetics and Genomics of Aging, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 213–230, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-40955-5_11, ISBN 978-3-030-40955-5, S2CID 218805944
Sources
- Boia L (2005). Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present Door. Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-86189-154-7.
- Carey JR, Judge DS (2000). "Longevity records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, reptiles, and Fish.". Odense Monographs on Population Aging. Vol. 8. ISBN 87-7838-539-3.
- Carey JR (2003). Longevity. The biology and Demography of Life Span. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08848-9.
- Gavrilova NS, Gavrilov LA (2010). "Search for mechanisms of exceptional human longevity". Rejuvenation Research. 13 (2–3): 262–4. doi:10.1089/rej.2009.0968. PMC 2946054. PMID 20370503.
- Gavrilova N, Gavrilov LA (2008). "Can exceptional longevity be predicted". Contingencies (Journal of the American Academy of Actuaries): 82–8.
- Gavrilova NS, Gavrilov LA (January 2007). "Search for predictors of exceptional human longevity: using computerized genealogies and internet resources for human longevity studies". North American Actuarial Journal. 11 (1): 49–67. doi:10.1080/10920277.2007.10597437. S2CID 10996768.
- Gavrilov LA, Gavrilova NS (2006). "Reliability Theory of Aging and Longevity.". In Masoro EJ, Austad SN (eds.). Handbook of the Biology of Aging (Sixth ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 3–42.
- Gavrilova NS, Gavrilov LA (2005). "Human longevity and reproduction: An evolutionary perspective.". In Voland E, Chasiotis A, Schiefenhoevel W (eds.). Grandmotherhood - The Evolutionary Significance of the Second Half of Female Life. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 59–80.
- Gavrilov LA, Gavrilov NS (1991). The Biology of Life Span: A Quantitative Approach. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher.
- Robbins J (2007). Healthy at 100. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345490117.
- Walford R (2000). Beyond The 120-Year Diet. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-157-2.
External links
Media related to Longevity at Wikimedia Commons
- Global Agewatch's country report cards have the most up-to-date, internationally comparable statistics on population ageing and life expectancy from 195 countries.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longevity
Retreat or re-treat may refer to:
Common uses
- Retreat (bugle call), a military signal for the end of day, known as "Sunset" in some countries
- Retreat (military), a withdrawal of military forces
- Retreat (spiritual), a time taken to reflect or meditate
- Retreat (survivalism), a place of refuge for survivalists
Film and television
- Retreat (film), a 2011 film starring Cillian Murphy, Jamie Bell, and Thandiwe Newton
- Retreat (2013 film), a short film featuring Sophie Stone
- Retreat (miniseries), an upcoming 2023 American murder-mystery series
Music
- "Retreat (Cries My Heart)", a 1952 song written by Nancy Farnsworth, Tommy Furtado, and Anita Boyer
- Retreat, a 2009 album by Vessels
- "Retreat", a 2003 song by Hell Is for Heroes from The Neon Handshake
- "Retreat", a 2005 song by the Rakes from Capture/Release
Places and structures
Antarctica
- Retreat Hills, Victoria Land
Australia
- Retreat, Tasmania
- Retreat River, New South Wales
Ireland
South Africa
United States
- Retreat, Indiana
- Retreat, Louisiana
- Retreat (Port Tobacco, Maryland), a historic building
- Retreat, New Jersey
- Retreat, Texas
- Retreat, Wisconsin
Other uses
- Retreat (1801 ship), a West Indiaman
- "Retreat" (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), a 2009 comics story arc
See also
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat
Seclusion is the act of secluding (i.e. isolating from society), the state of being secluded, or a place that facilitates it (a secluded place). A person, couple, or larger group may go to a secluded place for privacy or peace and quiet. The seclusion of an individual is called solitude.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seclusion
A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets, and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many[1] or all[2] 17 Sustainable Development Goals.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_food_system
Self-sustainability and self-sufficiency are overlapping states of being in which a person or an organization needs little or no help from, or interaction with, others. Self-sufficiency entails the self being enough (to fulfill needs), and a self-sustaining entity can maintain self-sufficiency indefinitely. These states represent types of personal or collective autonomy.[1] A self-sufficient economy is one that requires little or no trade with the outside world and is called an autarky.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-sustainability
An autonomous building is a building designed to be operated independently from infrastructural support services such as the electric power grid, gas grid, municipal water systems, sewage treatment systems, storm drains, communication services, and in some cases, public roads.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_building
In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy[note 1] is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be defined from a human resources perspective, where it denotes a (relatively high) level of discretion granted to an employee in his or her work.[1] In such cases, autonomy is known to generally increase job satisfaction. Self-actualized individuals are thought to operate autonomously of external expectations.[2] In a medical context, respect for a patient's personal autonomy is considered one of many fundamental ethical principles in medicine.
Sociology
In the sociology of knowledge, a controversy over the boundaries of autonomy inhibited analysis of any concept beyond relative autonomy,[3] until a typology of autonomy was created and developed within science and technology studies. According to it, the institution of science's existing autonomy is "reflexive autonomy": actors and structures within the scientific field are able to translate or to reflect diverse themes presented by social and political fields, as well as influence them regarding the thematic choices on research projects.
Institutional autonomy
Institutional autonomy is having the capacity as a legislator to be able to implant and pursue official goals. Autonomous institutions are responsible for finding sufficient resources or modifying their plans, programs, courses, responsibilities, and services accordingly.[4] But in doing so, they must contend with any obstacles that can occur, such as social pressure against cut-backs or socioeconomic difficulties. From a legislator's point of view, to increase institutional autonomy, conditions of self-management and institutional self-governance must be put in place. An increase in leadership and a redistribution of decision-making responsibilities would be beneficial to the research of resources.[5]
Institutional autonomy was often seen as a synonym for self-determination, and many governments feared that it would lead institutions to an irredentist or secessionist region. But autonomy should be seen as a solution to self-determination struggles. Self-determination is a movement toward independence, whereas autonomy is a way to accommodate the distinct regions/groups within a country. Institutional autonomy can diffuse conflicts regarding minorities and ethnic groups in a society. Allowing more autonomy to groups and institutions helps create diplomatic relationships between them and the central government.[6]
Politics
In governmental parlance, autonomy refers to self-governance. An example of an autonomous jurisdiction was the former United States governance of the Philippine Islands. The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 provided the framework for the creation of an autonomous government under which the Filipino people had broader domestic autonomy than previously, although it reserved certain privileges to the United States to protect its sovereign rights and interests.[7] Other examples include Kosovo (as the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo) under the former Yugoslav government of Marshal Tito[8] and Puntland Autonomous Region within Federal Republic of Somalia.
Although often being territorially defined as self-governments, autonomous self-governing institutions may take a non-territorial form. Such non-territorial solutions are, for example, cultural autonomy in Estonia and Hungary, national minority councils in Serbia or Sámi parliaments in Nordic countries.[9][10]
Philosophy
Autonomy is a key concept that has a broad impact on different fields of philosophy. In metaphysical philosophy, the concept of autonomy is referenced in discussions about free will, fatalism, determinism, and agency. In moral philosophy, autonomy refers to subjecting oneself to objective moral law.[11]
According to Kant
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) defined autonomy by three themes regarding contemporary ethics. Firstly, autonomy as the right for one to make their own decisions excluding any interference from others. Secondly, autonomy as the capacity to make such decisions through one's own independence of mind and after personal reflection. Thirdly, as an ideal way of living life autonomously. In summary, autonomy is the moral right one possesses, or the capacity we have in order to think and make decisions for oneself providing some degree of control or power over the events that unfold within one's everyday life.[12]
The context in which Kant addresses autonomy is in regards to moral theory, asking both foundational and abstract questions. He believed that in order for there to be morality, there must be autonomy. "Autonomous" is derived from the Greek word autonomos [13] where 'auto' means self and 'nomos' means to govern (nomos: as can be seen in its usage in nomárchēs which means chief of the province). Kantian autonomy also provides a sense of rational autonomy, simply meaning one rationally possesses the motivation to govern their own life. Rational autonomy entails making your own decisions but it cannot be done solely in isolation. Cooperative rational interactions are required to both develop and exercise our ability to live in a world with others.
Kant argued that morality presupposes this autonomy (German: Autonomie) in moral agents, since moral requirements are expressed in categorical imperatives. An imperative is categorical if it issues a valid command independent of personal desires or interests that would provide a reason for obeying the command. It is hypothetical if the validity of its command, if the reason why one can be expected to obey it, is the fact that one desires or is interested in something further that obedience to the command would entail. "Don't speed on the freeway if you don't want to be stopped by the police" is a hypothetical imperative. "It is wrong to break the law, so don't speed on the freeway" is a categorical imperative. The hypothetical command not to speed on the freeway is not valid for you if you do not care whether you are stopped by the police. The categorical command is valid for you either way. Autonomous moral agents can be expected to obey the command of a categorical imperative even if they lack a personal desire or interest in doing so. It remains an open question whether they will, however.
The Kantian concept of autonomy is often misconstrued, leaving out the important point about the autonomous agent's self-subjection to the moral law. It is thought that autonomy is fully explained as the ability to obey a categorical command independently of a personal desire or interest in doing so—or worse, that autonomy is "obeying" a categorical command independently of a natural desire or interest; and that heteronomy, its opposite, is acting instead on personal motives of the kind referenced in hypothetical imperatives.
In his Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant applied the concept of autonomy also to define the concept of personhood and human dignity. Autonomy, along with rationality, are seen by Kant as the two criteria for a meaningful life. Kant would consider a life lived without these not worth living; it would be a life of value equal to that of a plant or insect.[14] According to Kant autonomy is part of the reason that we hold others morally accountable for their actions. Human actions are morally praise- or blame-worthy in virtue of our autonomy. Non- autonomous beings such as plants or animals are not blameworthy due to their actions being non-autonomous.[14] Kant's position on crime and punishment is influenced by his views on autonomy. Brainwashing or drugging criminals into being law-abiding citizens would be immoral as it would not be respecting their autonomy. Rehabilitation must be sought in a way that respects their autonomy and dignity as human beings.[15]
According to Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote about autonomy and the moral fight.[16] Autonomy in this sense is referred to as the free self and entails several aspects of the self, including self-respect and even self-love. This can be interpreted as influenced by Kant (self-respect) and Aristotle (self-love). For Nietzsche, valuing ethical autonomy can dissolve the conflict between love (self-love) and law (self-respect) which can then translate into reality through experiences of being self-responsible. Because Nietzsche defines having a sense of freedom with being responsible for one's own life, freedom and self-responsibility can be very much linked to autonomy.[17]
According to Piaget
The Swiss philosopher Jean Piaget (1896-1980) believed that autonomy comes from within and results from a "free decision". It is of intrinsic value and the morality of autonomy is not only accepted but obligatory. When an attempt at social interchange occurs, it is reciprocal, ideal and natural for there to be autonomy regardless of why the collaboration with others has taken place. For Piaget, the term autonomous can be used to explain the idea that rules are self-chosen. By choosing which rules to follow or not, we are in turn determining our own behaviour.[18]
Piaget studied the cognitive development of children by analyzing them during their games and through interviews, establishing (among other principles) that the children's moral maturation process occurred in two phases, the first of heteronomy and the second of autonomy:
- Heteronomous reasoning: Rules are objective and unchanging. They must be literal because the authority are ordering it and do not fit exceptions or discussions. The base of the rule is the superior authority (parents, adults, the State), that it should not give reason for the rules imposed or fulfilled them in any case. Duties provided are conceived as given from oneself. Any moral motivation and sentiments are possible through what one believes to be right.
- Autonomous reasoning: Rules are the product of an agreement and, therefore, are modifiable. They can be subject to interpretation and fit exceptions and objections. The base of the rule is its own acceptance, and its meaning has to be explained. Sanctions must be proportionate to the absence, assuming that sometimes offenses can go unpunished, so that collective punishment is unacceptable if it is not the guilty. The circumstances may not punish a guilty. Duties provided are conceived as given from the outside. One follows rules mechanically as it is simply a rule, or as a way to avoid a form of punishment.
According to Kohlberg
The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) continues the studies of Piaget. His studies collected information from different latitudes to eliminate the cultural variability, and focused on the moral reasoning, and not so much in the behavior or its consequences. Through interviews with adolescent and teenage boys, who were to try and solve "moral dilemmas," Kohlberg went on to further develop the stages of moral development. The answers they provided could be one of two things. Either they choose to obey a given law, authority figure or rule of some sort or they chose to take actions that would serve a human need but in turn break this given rule or command.
The most popular moral dilemma asked involved the wife of a man approaching death due to a special type of cancer. Because the drug was too expensive to obtain on his own, and because the pharmacist who discovered and sold the drug had no compassion for him and only wanted profits, he stole it. Kohlberg asks these adolescent and teenage boys (10-, 13- and 16-year-olds) if they think that is what the husband should have done or not. Therefore, depending on their decisions, they provided answers to Kohlberg about deeper rationales and thoughts and determined what they value as important. This value then determined the "structure" of their moral reasoning.[19]
Kohlberg established three stages of morality, each of which is subdivided into two levels. They are read in progressive sense, that is, higher levels indicate greater autonomy.
- Level 1: Premoral/Preconventional Morality: Standards are met (or not met) depending on the hedonistic or physical consequences.
- [Stage 0: Egocentric Judgment: There is no moral concept independent of individual wishes, including a lack of concept of rules or obligations.]
- Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation: The rule is obeyed only to avoid punishment. Physical consequences determine goodness or badness and power is deferred to unquestioningly with no respect for the human or moral value, or the meaning of these consequences. Concern is for the self.
- Stage 2: Instrumental-Relativist Orientation: Morals are individualistic and egocentric. There is an exchange of interests but always under the point of view of satisfying personal needs. Elements of fairness and reciprocity are present but these are interpreted in a pragmatic way, instead of an experience of gratitude or justice. Egocentric in nature but beginning to incorporate the ability to see things from the perspective of others.
- Level 2: Conventional Morality/Role Conformity: Rules are obeyed according to the established conventions of a society.
- Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation: Morals are conceived in accordance with the stereotypical social role. Rules are obeyed to obtain the approval of the immediate group and the right actions are judged based on what would please others or give the impression that one is a good person. Actions are evaluated according to intentions.
- Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation: Morals are judged in accordance with the authority of the system, or the needs of the social order. Laws and order are prioritized.
- Level 3: Postconventional Morality/Self-Accepted Moral
Principles: Standards of moral behavior are internalized. Morals are
governed by rational judgment, derived from a conscious reflection on
the recognition of the value of the individual inside a conventionally
established society.
- Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: There are individual rights and standards that have been lawfully established as basic universal values. Rules are agreed upon by through procedure and society comes to consensus through critical examination in order to benefit the greater good.
- Stage 6: Universal Principle Orientation: Abstract ethical principles are obeyed on a personal level in addition to societal rules and conventions. Universal principles of justice, reciprocity, equality and human dignity are internalized and if one fails to live up to these ideals, guilt or self-condemnation results.
According to Audi
Robert Audi characterizes autonomy as the self-governing power to bring reasons to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional attitudes.[20]: 211–2 [21] Traditionally, autonomy is only concerned with practical matters. But, as Audi's definition suggests, autonomy may be applied to responding to reasons at large, not just to practical reasons. Autonomy is closely related to freedom but the two can come apart. An example would be a political prisoner who is forced to make a statement in favor of his opponents in order to ensure that his loved ones are not harmed. As Audi points out, the prisoner lacks freedom but still has autonomy since his statement, though not reflecting his political ideals, is still an expression of his commitment to his loved ones.[22]: 249
Autonomy is often equated with self-legislation in the Kantian tradition.[23][24] Self-legislation may be interpreted as laying down laws or principles that are to be followed. Audi agrees with this school in the sense that we should bring reasons to bear in a principled way. Responding to reasons by mere whim may still be considered free but not autonomous.[22]: 249, 257 A commitment to principles and projects, on the other hand, provides autonomous agents with an identity over time and gives them a sense of the kind of persons they want to be. But autonomy is neutral as to which principles or projects the agent endorses. So different autonomous agents may follow very different principles.[22]: 258 But, as Audi points out, self-legislation is not sufficient for autonomy since laws that do not have any practical impact do not constitute autonomy.[22]: 247–8 Some form of motivational force or executive power is necessary in order to get from mere self-legislation to self-government.[25] This motivation may be inherent in the corresponding practical judgment itself, a position known as motivational internalism, or may come to the practical judgment externally in the form of some desire independent of the judgment, as motivational externalism holds.[22]: 251–2
In the Humean tradition, intrinsic desires are the reasons the autonomous agent should respond to. This theory is called instrumentalism.[26][27] Audi rejects instrumentalism and suggests that we should adopt a position known as axiological objectivism. The central idea of this outlook is that objective values, and not subjective desires, are the sources of normativity and therefore determine what autonomous agents should do.[22]: 261ff
Child development
Autonomy in childhood and adolescence is when one strives to gain a sense of oneself as a separate, self-governing individual.[28] Between ages 1–3, during the second stage of Erikson's and Freud's stages of development, the psychosocial crisis that occurs is autonomy versus shame and doubt.[29] The significant event that occurs during this stage is that children must learn to be autonomous, and failure to do so may lead to the child doubting their own abilities and feel ashamed.[29] When a child becomes autonomous it allows them to explore and acquire new skills. Autonomy has two vital aspects wherein there is an emotional component where one relies more on themselves rather than their parents and a behavioural component where one makes decisions independently by using their judgement.[28] The styles of child rearing affect the development of a child's autonomy. Autonomy in adolescence is closely related to their quest for identity.[28] In adolescence parents and peers act as agents of influence. Peer influence in early adolescence may help the process of an adolescent to gradually become more autonomous by being less susceptible to parental or peer influence as they get older.[29] In adolescence the most important developmental task is to develop a healthy sense of autonomy.[29]
Religion
In Christianity, autonomy is manifested as a partial self-governance on various levels of church administration. During the history of Christianity, there were two basic types of autonomy. Some important parishes and monasteries have been given special autonomous rights and privileges, and the best known example of monastic autonomy is the famous Eastern Orthodox monastic community on Mount Athos in Greece. On the other hand, administrative autonomy of entire ecclesiastical provinces has throughout history included various degrees of internal self-governance.
In ecclesiology of Eastern Orthodox Churches, there is a clear distinction between autonomy and autocephaly, since autocephalous churches have full self-governance and independence, while every autonomous church is subject to some autocephalous church, having a certain degree of internal self-governance. Since every autonomous church had its own historical path to ecclesiastical autonomy, there are significant differences between various autonomous churches in respect of their particular degrees of self-governance. For example, churches that are autonomous can have their highest-ranking bishops, such as an archbishop or metropolitan, appointed or confirmed by the patriarch of the mother church from which it was granted its autonomy, but generally they remain self-governing in many other respects.
In the history of Western Christianity the question of ecclesiastical autonomy was also one of the most important questions, especially during the first centuries of Christianity, since various archbishops and metropolitans in Western Europe have often opposed centralizing tendencies of the Church of Rome.[30] As of 2019, the Catholic Church comprises 24 autonomous (sui iuris) Churches in communion with the Holy See. Various denominations of Protestant churches usually have more decentralized power, and churches may be autonomous, thus having their own rules or laws of government, at the national, local, or even individual level.
Sartre brings the concept of the Cartesian god being totally free and autonomous. He states that existence precedes essence with god being the creator of the essences, eternal truths and divine will. This pure freedom of god relates to human freedom and autonomy; where a human is not subjected to pre-existing ideas and values.[31]
According to the first amendment, In the United States of America, the federal government is restricted in building a national church. This is due to the first amendment's recognizing people's freedom's to worship their faith according to their own belief's. For example, the American government has removed the church from their "sphere of authority"[32] due to the churches' historical impact on politics and their authority on the public. This was the beginning of the disestablishment process. The Protestant churches in the United States had a significant impact on American culture in the nineteenth century, when they organized the establishment of schools, hospitals, orphanages, colleges, magazines, and so forth.[33] This has brought up the famous, however, misinterpreted term of the separation of church and state. These churches lost the legislative and financial support from the state.
The disestablishment process
The first disestablishment began with the introduction of the bill of rights.[34] In the twentieth century, due to the great depression of the 1930s and the completion of the second world war, the American churches were revived. Specifically the Protestant churches. This was the beginning of the second disestablishment[34] when churches had become popular again but held no legislative power. One of the reasons why the churches gained attendance and popularity was due to the baby boom, when soldiers came back from the second world war and started their families. The large influx of newborns gave the churches a new wave of followers. However, these followers did not hold the same beliefs as their parents and brought about the political, and religious revolutions of the 1960s.
During the 1960s, the collapse of religious and cultural middle brought upon the third disestablishment.[34] Religion became more important to the individual and less so to the community. The changes brought from these revolutions significantly increased the personal autonomy of individuals due to the lack of structural restraints giving them added freedom of choice. This concept is known as "new voluntarism"[34] where individuals have free choice on how to be religious and the free choice whether to be religious or not.
Medicine
In a medical context, respect for a patient's personal autonomy is considered one of many fundamental ethical principles in medicine.[35] Autonomy can be defined as the ability of the person to make his or her own decisions. This faith in autonomy is the central premise of the concept of informed consent and shared decision making. This idea, while considered essential to today's practice of medicine, was developed in the last 50 years. According to Tom Beauchamp and James Childress (in Principles of Biomedical Ethics), the Nuremberg trials detailed accounts of horrifyingly exploitative medical "experiments" which violated the subjects' physical integrity and personal autonomy.[36] These incidences prompted calls for safeguards in medical research, such as the Nuremberg Code which stressed the importance of voluntary participation in medical research. It is believed that the Nuremberg Code served as the premise for many current documents regarding research ethics.[37]
Respect for autonomy became incorporated in health care and patients could be allowed to make personal decisions about the health care services that they receive.[38] Notably, autonomy has several aspects as well as challenges that affect health care operations. The manner in which a patient is handled may undermine or support the autonomy of a patient and for this reason, the way a patient is communicated to becomes very crucial. A good relationship between a patient and a health care practitioner needs to be well defined to ensure that autonomy of a patient is respected.[39] Just like in any other life situation, a patient would not like to be under the control of another person. The move to emphasize respect for patient's autonomy rose from the vulnerabilities that were pointed out in regards to autonomy.
However, autonomy does not only apply in a research context. Users of the health care system have the right to be treated with respect for their autonomy, instead of being dominated by the physician. This is referred to as paternalism. While paternalism is meant to be overall good for the patient, this can very easily interfere with autonomy.[40] Through the therapeutic relationship, a thoughtful dialogue between the client and the physician may lead to better outcomes for the client, as he or she is more of a participant in decision-making.
There are many different definitions of autonomy, many of which place the individual in a social context. Relational autonomy, which suggests that a person is defined through their relationships with others, is increasingly considered in medicine and particularly in critical[41] and end-of-life care.[42] Supported autonomy[43] suggests instead that in specific circumstances it may be necessary to temporarily compromise the autonomy of the person in the short term in order to preserve their autonomy in the long-term. Other definitions of the autonomy imagine the person as a contained and self-sufficient being whose rights should not be compromised under any circumstance.[44]
There are also differing views with regard to whether modern health care systems should be shifting to greater patient autonomy or a more paternalistic approach. For example, there are such arguments that suggest the current patient autonomy practiced is plagued by flaws such as misconceptions of treatment and cultural differences, and that health care systems should be shifting to greater paternalism on the part of the physician given their expertise.[45] On the other hand, other approaches suggest that there simply needs to be an increase in relational understanding between patients and health practitioners to improve patient autonomy.[46]
One argument in favor of greater patient autonomy and its benefits is by Dave deBronkart, who believes that in the technological advancement age, patients are capable of doing a lot of their research on medical issues from their home. According to deBronkart, this helps to promote better discussions between patients and physicians during hospital visits, ultimately easing up the workload of physicians.[47] deBronkart argues that this leads to greater patient empowerment and a more educative health care system.[47] In opposition to this view, technological advancements can sometimes be viewed as an unfavorable way of promoting patient autonomy. For example, self-testing medical procedures which have become increasingly common are argued by Greaney et al. to increase patient autonomy, however, may not be promoting what is best for the patient. In this argument, contrary to deBronkart, the current perceptions of patient autonomy are excessively over-selling the benefits of individual autonomy, and is not the most suitable way to go about treating patients.[48] Instead, a more inclusive form of autonomy should be implemented, relational autonomy, which factors into consideration those close to the patient as well as the physician.[48] These different concepts of autonomy can be troublesome as the acting physician is faced with deciding which concept he/she will implement into their clinical practice.[49] It is often references as one of the four pillars of medicine, alongside beneficence, justice and nonmaleficence[50]
Autonomy varies and some patients find it overwhelming especially the minors when faced with emergency situations. Issues arise in emergency room situations where there may not be time to consider the principle of patient autonomy. Various ethical challenges are faced in these situations when time is critical, and patient consciousness may be limited. However, in such settings where informed consent may be compromised, the working physician evaluates each individual case to make the most professional and ethically sound decision.[51] For example, it is believed that neurosurgeons in such situations, should generally do everything they can to respect patient autonomy. In the situation in which a patient is unable to make an autonomous decision, the neurosurgeon should discuss with the surrogate decision maker in order to aid in the decision-making process.[51] Performing surgery on a patient without informed consent is in general thought to only be ethically justified when the neurosurgeon and his/her team render the patient to not have the capacity to make autonomous decisions. If the patient is capable of making an autonomous decision, these situations are generally less ethically strenuous as the decision is typically respected.[51]
Not every patient is capable of making an autonomous decision. For example, a commonly proposed question is at what age children should be partaking in treatment decisions.[52] This question arises as children develop differently, therefore making it difficult to establish a standard age at which children should become more autonomous.[52] Those who are unable to make the decisions prompt a challenge to medical practitioners since it becomes difficult to determine the ability of a patient to make a decision.[53] To some extent, it has been said that emphasis of autonomy in health care has undermined the practice of health care practitioners to improve the health of their patient as necessary. The scenario has led to tension in the relationship between a patient and a health care practitioner. This is because as much as a physician wants to prevent a patient from suffering, they still have to respect autonomy. Beneficence is a principle allowing physicians to act responsibly in their practice and in the best interests of their patients, which may involve overlooking autonomy.[54] However, the gap between a patient and a physician has led to problems because in other cases, the patients have complained of not being adequately informed.
The seven elements of informed consent (as defined by Beauchamp and Childress) include threshold elements (competence and voluntariness), information elements (disclosure, recommendation, and understanding) and consent elements (decision and authorization).[55] Some philosophers such as Harry Frankfurt consider Beauchamp and Childress criteria insufficient. They claim that an action can only be considered autonomous if it involves the exercise of the capacity to form higher-order values about desires when acting intentionally.[56] What this means is that patients may understand their situation and choices but would not be autonomous unless the patient is able to form value judgements about their reasons for choosing treatment options they would not be acting autonomously.
In certain unique circumstances, government may have the right to temporarily override the right to bodily integrity in order to preserve the life and well-being of the person. Such action can be described using the principle of "supported autonomy",[43] a concept that was developed to describe unique situations in mental health (examples include the forced feeding of a person dying from the eating disorder anorexia nervosa, or the temporary treatment of a person living with a psychotic disorder with antipsychotic medication). While controversial, the principle of supported autonomy aligns with the role of government to protect the life and liberty of its citizens. Terrence F. Ackerman has highlighted problems with these situations, he claims that by undertaking this course of action physician or governments run the risk of misinterpreting a conflict of values as a constraining effect of illness on a patient's autonomy.[57]
Since the 1960s, there have been attempts to increase patient autonomy including the requirement that physician's take bioethics courses during their time in medical school.[58] Despite large-scale commitment to promoting patient autonomy, public mistrust of medicine in developed countries has remained.[59] Onora O'Neill has ascribed this lack of trust to medical institutions and professionals introducing measures that benefit themselves, not the patient. O'Neill claims that this focus on autonomy promotion has been at the expense of issues like distribution of healthcare resources and public health.
One proposal to increase patient autonomy is through the use of support staff. The use of support staff including medical assistants, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, nurses, and other staff that can promote patient interests and better patient care.[60] Nurses especially can learn about patient beliefs and values in order to increase informed consent and possibly persuade the patient through logic and reason to entertain a certain treatment plan.[61][62] This would promote both autonomy and beneficence, while keeping the physician's integrity intact. Furthermore, Humphreys asserts that nurses should have professional autonomy within their scope of practice (35-37). Humphreys argues that if nurses exercise their professional autonomy more, then there will be an increase in patient autonomy (35-37).
International human rights law
After the Second World War, there was a push for international human rights that came in many waves. Autonomy as a basic human right started the building block in the beginning of these layers alongside liberty.[63] The Universal declarations of Human rights of 1948 has made mention of autonomy or the legal protected right to individual self-determination in article 22.[64]
Documents such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples reconfirm international law in the aspect of human rights because those laws were already there, but it is also responsible for making sure that the laws highlighted when it comes to autonomy, cultural and integrity; and land rights are made within an indigenous context by taking special attention to their historical and contemporary events[65]
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples article 3 also through international law provides Human rights for Indigenous individuals by giving them a right to self-determination ,meaning they have all the liberties to choose their political status, and are capable to go and improve their economic, social, and cultural statuses in society, by developing it. Another example of this, is article 4 of the same document which gives them autonomous rights when it comes to their internal or local affairs and how they can fund themselves in order to be able to self govern themselves.[66]
Minorities in countries are also protected as well by international law; the 27th article of the United Nations International covenant on Civil and Political rights or the ICCPR does so by allowing these individuals to be able to enjoy their own culture or use their language. Minorities in that manner are people from ethnic religious or linguistic groups according to the document.[67]
The European Court of Human rights, is an international court that has been created on behalf of the European Conventions of Human rights. However, when it comes to autonomy they did not explicitly state it when it comes to the rights that individuals have. The current article 8 has remedied to that when the case of Pretty v the United Kingdom, a case in 2002 involving assisted suicide, where autonomy was used as a legal right in law. It was where Autonomy was distinguished and its reach into law was marked as well making it the foundations for legal precedent in making case law originating from the European Court of Human rights[68]
The Yogyakarta Principles, a document with no binding effect in international human rights law, contend that "self-determination" used as meaning of autonomy on one's own matters including informed consent or sexual and reproductive rights, is integral for one's self-defined or gender identity and refused any medical procedures as a requirement for legal recognition of the gender identity of transgender.[69] If eventually accepted by the international community in a treaty, this would make these ideas human rights in the law. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines autonomy as principles of rights of a person with disability including "the freedom to make one's own choices, and independence of persons".[70]
Celebrity culture on teenage autonomy
A study conducted by David C. Giles and John Maltby conveyed that after age-affecting factors were removed, a high emotional autonomy was a significant predictor of celebrity interest, as well as high attachment to peers with a low attachment to parents. Patterns of intense personal interest in celebrities was found to be conjunction with low levels of closeness and security. Furthermore, the results suggested that adults with a secondary group of pseudo-friends during development from parental attachment, usually focus solely on one particular celebrity, which could be due to difficulties in making this transition.[71]
Various uses
- In computing, an autonomous peripheral is one that can be used with the computer turned off.
- Within self-determination theory in psychology, autonomy refers to 'autonomy support versus control', "hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive social contexts tend to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthy development, and optimal functioning."
- In mathematical analysis, an ordinary differential equation is said to be autonomous if it is time-independent.
- In linguistics, an autonomous language is one which is independent of other languages, for example, has a standard variety, grammar books, dictionaries or literature, etc.
- In robotics, "autonomy means independence of control. This characterization implies that autonomy is a property of the relation between two agents, in the case of robotics, of the relations between the designer and the autonomous robot. Self-sufficiency, situatedness, learning or development, and evolution increase an agent's degree of autonomy.", according to Rolf Pfeifer.
- In spaceflight, autonomy can also refer to crewed missions that are operating without control by ground controllers.
- In economics, autonomous consumption is consumption expenditure when income levels are zero, making spending autonomous to income.
- In politics, autonomous territories are States wishing to retain territorial integrity in opposition to ethnic or indigenous demands for self-determination or independence (sovereignty).
- In anti-establishment activism, an autonomous space is another name for a non-governmental social center or free space (for community interaction).
- In social psychology, autonomy is a personality trait characterized by a focus on personal achievement, independence, and a preference for solitude, often labeled as an opposite of sociotropy.[72]
Limits to autonomy
Autonomy can be limited. For instance, by disabilities, civil society organizations may achieve a degree of autonomy albeit nested within––and relative to––formal bureaucratic and administrative regimes. Community partners can therefore assume a hybridity of capture and autonomy––or a mutuality––that is rather nuanced.[73]
Semi-autonomy
The term semi-autonomy (coined with prefix semi- / "half") designates partial or limited autonomy. As a relative term, it is usually applied to various semi-autonomous entities or processes that are substantially or functionally limited, in comparison to other fully autonomous entities or processes.
Quasi-autonomy
The term quasi-autonomy (coined with prefix quasi- / "resembling" or "appearing") designates formally acquired or proclaimed, but functionally limited or constrained autonomy. As a descriptive term, it is usually applied to various quasi-autonomous entities or processes that are formally designated or labeled as autonomous, but in reality remain functionally dependent or influenced by some other entity or process. An example for such use of the term can be seen in common designation for quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations.
See also
- Autonomism
- List of autonomous areas by country
- Autonomy Day
- Bodily integrity
- Cornelius Castoriadis
- Direct democracy
- Equality of autonomy
- Flat organization
- Takis Fotopoulos
- Home rule
- Independence
- Personal boundaries
- Self-determination theory
- Self-governing colony
- Sui iuris
- Teaching for social justice
- Viable system model
- Workplace democracy
- Job autonomy
Notes
- Ancient Greek: αὐτονομία, romanized: autonomia, from αὐτόνομος, autonomos, from αὐτο- auto- "self" and νόμος nomos, "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's own law"
References
Citations
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- O'Hare, Paul (March 2018). "Resisting the 'Long-Arm' of the State? Spheres of Capture and Opportunities for Autonomy in Community Governance: RESISTING THE 'LONG-ARM' OF THE STATE?" (PDF). International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 42 (2): 210–225. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.12606.
Sources
- Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88-141056-3.
External links
- Kastner, Jens. "Autonomy" (2015). University Bielefeld - Center for InterAmerican Studies.
- "Development initiatives strategies for self-sustainability"
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy
A man is an adult male human.[1][2] Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
Resource refers to all the materials available in our environment which are technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and help us to satisfy our needs and wants. Resources can broadly be classified upon their availability — they are classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. They can also be classified as actual and potential on the basis of the level of development and use, on the basis of origin they can be classified as biotic and abiotic, and on the basis of their distribution, as ubiquitous and localised (private, community-owned, national and international resources). An item becomes a resource with time and developing technology. The benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth, proper functioning of a system, or enhanced well-being. From a human perspective, a natural resource is anything obtained from the environment to satisfy human needs and wants.[1] From a broader biological or ecological perspective, a resource satisfies the needs of a living organism (see biological resource).[2]
The concept of resources has been developed across many established areas of work, in economics, biology and ecology, computer science, management, and human resources for example - linked to the concepts of competition, sustainability, conservation, and stewardship. In application within human society, commercial or non-commercial factors require resource allocation through resource management.
The concept of a resource can also be tied to the direction of leadership over resources, this can include the things leaders have responsibility for over the human resources, with management, help, support or direction such as in charge of a professional group, technical experts, innovative leaders, archiving expertise, academic management, association management, business management, healthcare management, military management, public administration, spiritual leadership and social networking administrator.
individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources. The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities.
Economic versus biological
There are three fundamental differences between economic versus ecological views: 1) the economic resource definition is human-centered (anthropocentric) and the biological or ecological resource definition is nature-centered (biocentric or ecocentric); 2) the economic view includes desire along with necessity, whereas the biological view is about basic biological needs; and 3) economic systems are based on markets of currency exchanged for goods and services, whereas biological systems are based on natural processes of growth, maintenance, and reproduction.[1]
Computer resources
A computer resource is any physical or virtual component of limited availability within a computer or information management system. Computer resources include means for input, processing, output, communication, and storage.[3]
Natural
Natural resources are derived from the environment. Many natural resources are essential for human survival, while others are used for satisfying human desire. Conservation is management of natural resources with the goal of sustainability. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.[1]
Resources can be categorized on the basis of origin:
- Abiotic resources comprise non-living things (e.g., land, water, air and minerals such as gold, iron, copper, silver).
- Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere. Forests and their products, animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms are important examples. Minerals such as coal and petroleum are sometimes included in this category because they were formed from fossilized organic matter, though over long periods of time.
Natural resources are also categorized based on the stage of development:
- Potential resources are known to exist and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India and Kuwait that have sedimentary rocks, but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
- Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined, and are being used in present times. For example, petroleum and natural gas is actively being obtained from the Mumbai High Fields. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual resource that can be developed profitably with available technology is known as a reserve resource, while that part that can not be developed profitably because of lack of technology is known as a stock resource.
Natural resources can be categorized on the basis of renewability:
- Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological periods. Minerals and fossils are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be replenished, once they are depleted. Even though metals can be recycled and reused, whereas petroleum and gas cannot, they are still considered non-renewable resources.
- Renewable resources, such as forests and fisheries, can be replenished or reproduced relatively quickly. The highest rate at which a resource can be used sustainably is the sustainable yield. Some resources, such as sunlight, air, and wind, are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. Their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, such as agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, such as water, take a comparatively longer time, while still others, such as forests, take even longer.
Dependent upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or total and everlasting destruction of a resource. Important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. Such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource, or as a subtype of renewable resources. Conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long term use of such resources is within the so-called zero ecological footprint, where in human use less than the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate.
Natural resources are also categorized based on distribution:
- Ubiquitous resources are found everywhere (for example air, light, and water).
- Localized resources are found only in certain parts of the world (for example metal ores and geothermal power).
Actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows:
- Actual resources are those resources whose location and quantity are known and we have the technology to exploit and use them.
- Potential resources are the ones of which we have insufficient knowledge or we do not have the technology to exploit them at present.
On the basis of ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international.
Labour or human resources
In economics, labor or human resources refers to the human effort in the production of goods and rendering of services. Human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge.[4]
In a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan.[5]
Capital or infrastructure
In social studies, capital refers to already-produced durable goods used in production of goods or services. In essence, capital refers to human-made resources created using knowledge and expertise based on utility or perceived value. Common examples of capital include buildings, machinery, railways, roads, and ships. As resources, capital goods may or may not be significantly consumed, though they may depreciate in the production process and they are typically of limited capacity or unavailable for use by others.
Tangible versus intangible
Whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have an actual physical existence, intangible resources such as corporate images, brands and patents, and other intellectual properties exist in abstraction.[6]
Use and sustainable development
Typically resources cannot be consumed in their original form, but rather through resource development they must be processed into more usable commodities and usable things. The demand for resources is increasing as economies develop. There are marked differences in resource distribution and associated economic inequality between regions or countries, with developed countries using more natural resources than developing countries. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment.[1] Sustainable development means that we should exploit our resources carefully to meet our present requirement without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The practice of the three R's – reduce, reuse and recycle must be followed in order to save and extend the availability of resources.
Various problems relate to the usage of resources:
- Environmental degradation
- Over-consumption
- Resource curse
- Resource depletion
- Tragedy of the commons
- Myth of superabundance
Various benefits can result from the wise usage of resources:
See also
References
- Berry, John. 2004. Tangible Strategies for Intangible Assets. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0071412865.
External links
The dictionary definition of resource at Wiktionary
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource
Privacy (UK: /ˈprɪvəsiː/, US: /ˈpraɪ-/)[1][2] is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy
Secrecy is the practice of hiding information from certain individuals or groups who do not have the "need to know", perhaps while sharing it with other individuals. That which is kept hidden is known as the secret.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrecy
Obfuscation is the obscuring of the intended meaning of communication by making the message difficult to understand, usually with confusing and ambiguous language. The obfuscation might be either unintentional or intentional (although intent usually is connoted), and is accomplished with circumlocution (talking around the subject), the use of jargon (technical language of a profession), and the use of an argot (ingroup language) of limited communicative value to outsiders.[1]
In expository writing, unintentional obfuscation usually occurs in draft documents, at the beginning of composition; such obfuscation is illuminated with critical thinking and editorial revision, either by the writer or by an editor. Etymologically, the word obfuscation derives from the Latin obfuscatio, from obfuscāre (to darken); synonyms include the words beclouding and abstrusity.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obfuscation
In the fields of philosophy, the terms obscurantism and obscurationism identify and describe the anti-intellectual practices of deliberately presenting information in an abstruse and imprecise manner that limits further inquiry and understanding of a subject.[1] The two historical and intellectual denotations of obscurantism are: (1) the deliberate restriction of knowledge — opposition to the dissemination of knowledge; and (2) deliberate obscurity — a recondite style of writing characterized by deliberate vagueness.[2][3]
In the 18th century, Enlightenment philosophers applied the term obscurantist to any enemy of intellectual enlightenment and the liberal diffusion of knowledge.[4] In the 19th century, in distinguishing the varieties of obscurantism found in metaphysics and theology, from the "more subtle" obscurantism of the critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant and of modern philosophical skepticism, Friedrich Nietzsche said that: "The essential element in the black art of obscurantism is not that it wants to darken individual understanding, but that it wants to blacken our picture of the world, and darken our idea of existence."[5][a]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obscurantism
Plain English (layman's terms) are groups of words that are easy to understand and easy to know. It usually avoids the use of rare words and uncommon euphemisms to explain the subject. Plain English wording is intended to be suitable for almost anyone, and it allows for good understanding to help readers know a topic.[1] It is considered as a part of Plain Language.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_English
Verbosity, or verboseness, is speech or writing that uses more words than necessary.[1] The opposite of verbosity is plain language.
Some teachers, including the author of The Elements of Style, warn against verbosity. Similarly Mark Twain and Ernest Hemingway, among others, famously avoid it.
Synonyms of "verbosity" include wordiness, verbiage, prolixity, grandiloquence, garrulousness, expatiation, logorrhea, sesquipedalianism, and overwriting.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbosity
Clandestinity is a diriment impediment in the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church. It invalidates a marriage performed without the presence of three witnesses, one of whom must be a priest or a deacon.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestinity_(Catholic_canon_law)
Animals conceal the location of their den or nest from predators. Squirrels bury nuts, hiding them, and they try to remember their locations later.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrecy
"Born secret" and "born classified" are both terms which refer to a policy of information being classified from the moment of its inception, usually regardless of where it was created, and usually in reference to specific laws in the United States that are related to information that describes the operation of nuclear weapons.
It has been extensively used in reference to a clause in the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, which specified that all information about nuclear weapons and nuclear energy was to be considered "Restricted Data" (RD) until it had been officially declassified.
In the 1954 revision of the Act, the United States Atomic Energy Commission was given the power to declassify entire categories of information.
The "born secret" policy was created under the assumption that nuclear information could be so important to national security that it would need classification before it could be formally evaluated. The wording of the 1954 act specified as secret:
All data concerning (1) design, manufacture, or utilization of atomic weapons; (2) the production of special nuclear material; or (3) the use of special nuclear material in the production of energy, but shall not include data declassified or removed from the Restricted Data category pursuant to section 2162 of this title.[1]
The constitutionality of declaring entire categories of information preemptively classified has not been definitively tested in the courts.
The legality of the "born secret" doctrine was directly challenged in a freedom of the press case in 1979 (United States v. The Progressive). In that case, a magazine attempted to publish an account of the so-called "secret of the hydrogen bomb" (the Teller–Ulam design), which was apparently created without recourse to classified information. Many analysts predicted that the US Supreme Court would, if it heard the case, reject the "born secret" clause as being an unconstitutional restraint on speech. However, the government dropped the case as moot before it was resolved.[2]
See also
- Classified information in the United States
- Invention Secrecy Act
- John Aristotle Phillips, a student who designed an A-bomb which was then classified as a "born secret".
References
- Alexander De Volpi; Jerry Marsh; Ted Postol & George Stanford (1981). Born secret: the H-bomb, the Progressive case and national security. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-025995-2.
- Howard Morland (March 2005). "Born Secret" (PDF). Cardozo Law Review: 1401–1408.
External links
- Interview with George Stanford from 1994 on his experiences in the Progressive trial.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_secret
See also
- Ambiguity
- Banking secrecy
- Classified information
- Concealment device
- Confidentiality
- Conspiracy theory
- Covert operation
- Cover-up
- Deception
- Don't ask, don't tell
- Espionage
- Freedom of information legislation
- Media transparency
- Need to know
- Open secret
- Secrecy (sociology)
- Secret passage
- Secret sharing
- Self-concealment
- Somebody Else's Problem
- Smuggling
- State Secrets Privilege
- Sub rosa
- WikiLeaks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrecy
An open secret is a concept or idea that is "officially" (de jure) secret or restricted in knowledge, but in practice (de facto) is widely known; or it refers to something that is widely known to be true but which none of the people most intimately concerned are willing to categorically acknowledge in public.[citation needed]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_secret
A military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or for the military or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations.[1] A military base always provides accommodations for one or more units, but it may also be used as a command center, training ground or proving ground. In most cases, military bases rely on outside help to operate. However, certain complex bases are able to endure on their own for long periods because they are able to provide food, water and other necessities for their inhabitants while under siege. Bases for military aviation are called military air bases, or simply "air bases". Bases for military ships are called naval bases.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_base
Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient".[2][3][4] Censorship can be conducted by governments,[5] private institutions and other controlling bodies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship
Whitewashing is the act of glossing over or covering up vices, crimes or scandals or exonerating by means of a perfunctory investigation or biased presentation of data with the intention to improve one's reputation.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewashing_(censorship)
Thomas Sawyer (/ˈsɔːjər/) is the title character of the Mark Twain novel The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876). He appears in three other novels by Twain: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Tom Sawyer Abroad (1894), and Tom Sawyer, Detective (1896).
Sawyer also appears in at least three unfinished Twain works, Huck and Tom Among the Indians, Schoolhouse Hill, and Tom Sawyer's Conspiracy. While all three uncompleted works were posthumously published, only Tom Sawyer's Conspiracy has a complete plot, as Twain abandoned the other two works after finishing only a few chapters. It is set in the 1840s in the Mississippi.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Sawyer
Impact of surveillance
Surveillance and censorship are different. Surveillance can be performed without censorship, but it is harder to engage in censorship without some form of surveillance.[77] Even when surveillance does not lead directly to censorship, the widespread knowledge or belief that a person, their computer, or their use of the Internet is under surveillance can have a "chilling effect" and lead to self-censorship.[78]
Implementation
The former Soviet Union maintained a particularly extensive program of state-imposed censorship. The main organ for official censorship in the Soviet Union was the Chief Agency for Protection of Military and State Secrets generally known as the Glavlit, its Russian acronym. The Glavlit handled censorship matters arising from domestic writings of just about any kind – even beer and vodka labels. Glavlit censorship personnel were present in every large Soviet publishing house or newspaper; the agency employed some 70,000 censors to review information before it was disseminated by publishing houses, editorial offices, and broadcasting studios. No mass medium escaped Glavlit's control. All press agencies and radio and television stations had Glavlit representatives on their editorial staffs.[79]
Sometimes, public knowledge of the existence of a specific document is subtly suppressed, a situation resembling censorship. The authorities taking such action will justify it by declaring the work to be "subversive" or "inconvenient". An example is Michel Foucault's 1978 text Sexual Morality and the Law (later republished as The Danger of Child Sexuality), originally published as La loi de la pudeur [literally, "the law of decency"]. This work defends the decriminalization of statutory rape and the abolition of age of consent laws.[citation needed]
When a publisher comes under pressure to suppress a book, but has
already entered into a contract with the author, they will sometimes
effectively censor the book by deliberately ordering a small print run
and making minimal, if any, attempts to publicize it. This practice
became known in the early 2000s as privishing (private publishing).[80] an OpenNet Initiative (ONI) classifications:[81]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_court_principle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_on_Censorship
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expurgation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Historical_negationism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holodomor_denial
The Lost Cause of the Confederacy (or simply Lost Cause) is an American pseudohistorical[2][3] negationist myth[4][5][6] that claims the cause of the Confederate States during the American Civil War was just, heroic, and not centered on slavery.[7][8] First enunciated in 1866, it has continued to influence racism, gender roles, and religious attitudes in the Southern United States to the present day.[9][10]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy
An anonymizer or an anonymous proxy is a tool that attempts to make activity on the Internet untraceable. It is a proxy server computer that acts as an intermediary and privacy shield between a client computer and the rest of the Internet. It accesses the Internet on the user's behalf, protecting personal information of the user by hiding the client computer's identifying information.[1][2][3] Anonymous proxy is the opposite of transparent proxy, which sends user information in the connection request header.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_proxy
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that regulates communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable across the United States. The FCC maintains jurisdiction over the areas of broadband access, fair competition, radio frequency use, media responsibility, public safety, and homeland security.[4]
The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the Federal Radio Commission.[5] The FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCC's mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the territories of the United States. The FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries in North America. The FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees. It has an estimated fiscal-2022 budget of US $388 million.[2] It has 1,482 federal employees as of July 2020.[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission
Mass surveillance is the intricate surveillance of an entire or a substantial fraction of a population in order to monitor that group of citizens.[1] The surveillance is often carried out by local and federal governments or governmental organizations, such as organizations like the NSA, but it may also be carried out by corporations (either on behalf of governments or at their own initiative). Depending on each nation's laws and judicial systems, the legality of and the permission required to engage in mass surveillance varies. It is the single most indicative distinguishing trait of totalitarian regimes. It is also often distinguished from targeted surveillance.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_surveillance
Global mass surveillance can be defined as the mass surveillance of entire populations across national borders.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_surveillance
Stalking is unwanted and/or repeated surveillance by an individual or group toward another person.[1] Stalking behaviors are interrelated to harassment and intimidation and may include following the victim in person or monitoring them. The term stalking is used with some differing definitions in psychiatry and psychology, as well as in some legal jurisdictions as a term for a criminal offense.[2][3]
According to a 2002 report by the U.S. National Center for Victims of Crime, "virtually any unwanted contact between two people that directly or indirectly communicates a threat or places the victim in fear can be considered stalking",[4] although in practice the legal standard is usually somewhat stricter.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalking
A satellite or artificial satellite[a] is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Satellites have a variety of uses, including communication relay, weather forecasting, navigation (GPS), broadcasting, scientific research, and Earth observation. Additional military uses are reconnaissance, early warning, signals intelligence and, potentially, weapon delivery. Other satellites include the final rocket stages that placed satellites in orbit and formerly useful satellites that are now defunct.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite
PRISM is a code name for a program under which the United States National Security Agency (NSA) collects internet communications from various U.S. internet companies.[1][2][3] The program is also known by the SIGAD US-984XN.[4][5] PRISM collects stored internet communications based on demands made to internet companies such as Google LLC under Section 702 of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 to turn over any data that match court-approved search terms.[6] Among other things, the NSA can use these PRISM requests to target communications that were encrypted when they traveled across the internet backbone, to focus on stored data that telecommunication filtering systems discarded earlier,[7][8] and to get data that is easier to handle.[9]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRISM
Age of consent reform is an effort to change age of consent laws. Proposed reforms typically include raising, lowering, or abolishing the age of consent, applying (or not applying) close-in-age exemptions, changing penalties, or changing how cases are examined in court. A related issue is whether or not to enforce ages of consent on homosexual relationships that are different from those enforced on heterosexual relationships. Organized efforts have ranged from academic discussions to political petitions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_consent_reform
Arranged marriage is a type of marital union where the bride and groom are primarily selected by individuals other than the couple themselves, particularly by family members such as the parents. In some cultures a professional matchmaker may be used to find a spouse for a young person.
Arranged marriages have historically been prominent in many cultures. The practice remains common in many regions, notably South Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Caucasus. In many other parts of the world, the practice has declined substantially during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Forced marriages, practiced in some families, are condemned by the United Nations. The specific sub-category of forced child marriage is especially condemned.[1] In other cultures, people mostly choose their own partner.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriage
An honor killing (American English), honour killing (Commonwealth English), or shame killing[1] is the murder of an individual, either an outsider or a member of a family, by someone seeking to protect what they see as the dignity and honor of themselves or their family. Honor killings are often connected to religion, caste, and other forms of hierarchical social stratification, or to sexuality. Most often, it involves the murder of a woman or girl by male family members, due to the perpetrators' belief that the victim has brought dishonor or shame upon the family name, reputation or prestige.[2][3][4][5] Honor killings are believed to have originated from tribal customs.[6] They are prevalent in various parts of the world, as well as in immigrant communities in countries which do not otherwise have societal norms that encourage honor killings.[7][8] Honor killings are often associated with rural and tribal areas, but they occur in urban areas as well.[9][10]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor_killing
Social rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or social interaction. The topic includes interpersonal rejection (or peer rejection), romantic rejection and familial estrangement. A person can be rejected or shunned by individuals or an entire group of people. Furthermore, rejection can be either active, by bullying, teasing, or ridiculing, or passive, by ignoring a person, or giving the "silent treatment". The experience of being rejected is subjective for the recipient, and it can be perceived when it is not actually present. The word "ostracism" is also commonly used to denote a process of social exclusion (in Ancient Greece, ostracism was a form of temporary banishment following a people's vote).[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection
Social exclusion or social marginalisation is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. It is a term that has been used widely in Europe and was first used in France in the late 20th century.[1] It is used across disciplines including education, sociology, psychology, politics and economics.[2]
Alienation or disenfranchisement resulting from social exclusion can be connected to a person's social class, race, skin color, religious affiliation, ethnic origin, educational status, childhood relationships,[4] living standards, and or political opinions, and appearance. Such exclusionary forms of discrimination may also apply to disabled people, minorities, LGBTQ+ people, drug users,[5] institutional care leavers,[6] the elderly and the young. Anyone who appears to deviate in any way from perceived norms of a population may thereby become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exclusion
White privilege, or white skin privilege, is the societal privilege that benefits white people over non-white people in some societies, particularly if they are otherwise under the same social, political, or economic circumstances.[1][2] With roots in European colonialism and imperialism,[3] and the Atlantic slave trade, white privilege has developed[4] in circumstances that have broadly sought to protect white racial privileges,[5] various national citizenships, and other rights or special benefits.[6][7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_privilege
Child marriage is a marriage or similar union, formal or informal, between a child under a certain age – typically 18 years – and an adult or another child.[1] The vast majority of child marriages are between a female child and a male adult,[2][3] and are rooted in gender inequality.[2][4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_marriage
Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant, to inform them of the charges against them. In response to arraignment, in some jurisdictions, the accused is expected to enter a plea; in other jurisdictions, no plea is required. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include guilty, not guilty, and the peremptory pleas, or pleas in bar, setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of nolo contendere ('no contest') and the Alford plea are allowed in some circumstances.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arraignment
In parliamentary procedure, unanimous consent, also known as general consent, or in the case of the parliaments under the Westminster system, leave of the house (or leave of the senate), is a situation in which no member present objects to a proposal.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unanimous_consent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_assembly
In parliamentary law, a mass meeting is a type of deliberative assembly or popular assembly, which in a publicized or selectively distributed notice known as the call of the meeting - has been announced:[1]
- as called to take appropriate action on a particular problem or toward a particular purpose stated by the meeting's sponsors, and
- as open to everyone interested in the stated problem or purpose (or to everyone within a specified sector of the population thus interested).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_meeting
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union
A deliberative assembly is a meeting of members who use parliamentary procedure.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_assembly
Deliberation is a process of thoughtfully weighing options, usually prior to voting. Deliberation emphasizes the use of logic and reason as opposed to power-struggle, creativity, or dialogue. Group decisions are generally made after deliberation through a vote or consensus of those involved.
In legal settings a jury famously uses deliberation because it is given specific options, like guilty or not guilty, along with information and arguments to evaluate. In "deliberative democracy", the aim is for both elected officials and the general public to use deliberation rather than power-struggle as the basis for their vote.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_miser#Low-information_rationality
In Australian rules football, deliberate out of bounds is the common name for a rule which results in a free kick against a team who puts the ball out of bounds with insufficient intent to keep the ball in bounds.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberate_out_of_bounds
Plausible deniability is the ability of people, typically senior officials in a formal or informal chain of command, to deny knowledge of or responsibility for actions committed by members of their organizational hierarchy. They may do so because of a lack or absence of evidence that can confirm their participation, even if they were personally involved in or at least willfully ignorant of the actions. If illegal or otherwise disreputable and unpopular activities become public, high-ranking officials may deny any awareness of such acts to insulate themselves and shift the blame onto the agents who carried out the acts, as they are confident that their doubters will be unable to prove otherwise. The lack of evidence to the contrary ostensibly makes the denial plausible (credible), but sometimes, it makes any accusations only unactionable.
The term typically implies forethought, such as intentionally setting up the conditions for the plausible avoidance of responsibility for one's future actions or knowledge. In some organizations, legal doctrines such as command responsibility exist to hold major parties responsible for the actions of subordinates who are involved in actions and nullify any legal protection that their denial of involvement would carry.
In politics and espionage, deniability refers to the ability of a powerful player or intelligence agency to pass the buck and to avoid blowback by secretly arranging for an action to be taken on its behalf by a third party that is ostensibly unconnected with the major player. In political campaigns, plausible deniability enables candidates to stay clean and denounce third-party advertisements that use unethical approaches or potentially libelous innuendo.
Although plausible deniability has existed throughout history, the term was coined by the CIA in the early 1960s to describe the withholding of information from senior officials to protect them from repercussions if illegal or unpopular activities became public knowledge.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plausible_deniability
Implied consent is consent which is not expressly granted by a person, but rather implicitly granted by a person's actions and the facts and circumstances of a particular situation (or in some cases, by a person's silence or inaction). For example, if a person is unconscious as a result of injuries sustained during a traffic collision, medical treatment may be provided to that person, despite the unconscious person being unable to expressly grant consent for that treatment.
The term is most commonly[citation needed] encountered in the context of United States drunk driving laws.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implied_consent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_hole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expurgation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_bowdlerization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewashing_(censorship)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Commissar_Vanishes
Reputation laundering occurs when a person or an organization conceals unethical, corrupt, or criminal behavior or other forms of controversy by performing highly-visible positive actions with the intent to improve their reputation and obscure their history.
Reputation laundering can include gestures such as donating to charities, sponsoring sports teams, or joining prominent associations.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_laundering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_International
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Corruption_Barometer
g.[26]
Russian Oligarchs
The United Kingdom government generated a report in 2020, analyzing the activities of Russian oligarchs in the United Kingdom.[27] The report states that the oligarchs had been “extending patronage and building influence across a wide sphere of the British establishment” and had employed public relations firms that were “willing beneficiaries, contributing to a ‘reputation laundering’ process”.[28]
A notable example of Russian oligarchs participating in reputation laundering is Viatcheslav Moshe Kantor, who donated £9 million to King Edward VII's Hospital, a facility used by the UK royal family and patronized by the queen. The donation came under scrutiny after Kantor was placed under sanctions during the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, and the hospital removed Kantor's name from a wing of the hospital.[29]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_laundering
Tainted donors
Funds derived from, and donors engaged in, unethical, immoral, or criminal activities pose a problem for the recipient, as accepting a donation or continuing to benefit from it may be interpreted as benefiting from or ignoring the disreputable activity.[4] Such donations have been characterized as "toxic philanthropy".[3]
This is an issue for the donor's behavior both before and after the donation. Institutions may react by returning the money, removing the acknowledgement, or by keeping the money.[5]
The Sackler family has been a major donor to many cultural and educational institutions, and has had many buildings and programs named for it. Their association with the opioid epidemic has caused many activists to urge the recipients to remove the Sackler name from their buildings and programs,[6] and some institutions have announced that they will remove the name or accept no further donations from the family.[7][8] Harvard has said that it will not remove the name from the Arthur M. Sackler Museum because "Dr. Arthur Sackler died before Oxycontin was developed. His family sold their interest in the company before the drug was developed.... he had absolutely no relationship to it".[9]
Similarly, the sex offender Jeffrey Epstein was a major donor to many university programs, even after his conviction for sex crimes. After it emerged that the director of the MIT Media Lab, Joi Ito, was aware of Epstein's misdeeds and took steps to solicit donations while hiding their source, Ito resigned.[10][11] MIT and Harvard have both initiated reviews of donations by Epstein.[12][13] The MIT review concluded that:
Since MIT had no policy or processes for handling controversial donors in place at the time, the decision to accept Epstein's post-conviction donations cannot be judged to be a policy violation. But it is clear that the decision was the result of collective and significant errors in judgment that resulted in serious damage to the MIT community.[14]
Quid pro quo
Donors are generally acknowledged publicly for their donations, which benefits their reputation. It has been argued that this should be treated as a business transaction.[15] Many philosophers have argued that donations should be anonymous for this reason.[16] Receiving something of value in return for a donation is also considered both legally and ethically a quid pro quo.[17]
Additional reading
- Peter Singer, "Dirty money and tainted philanthropy", New Europe, February 7, 2019
- Ernie Smith, "Amid Epstein Scandal, Fundraising Group puts focus on Ethics in Philanthropy", Associations Now September 19, 2019
- Jim Rendon, "How to Protect Your Nonprofit From Controversial Donors", The Chronicle of Philanthropy, September 19, 2019
See also
- Charity fraud
- Charity scandals
- List of Philanthropists
- Philanthropy in the United States
- Effective altruism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_philanthropy#Tainted_donors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_laundering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_relations_techniques
The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin's Russia is a 1997 book by David King about the censoring of photographs and fraudulent creation of "photographs" in Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union through silent alteration via airbrushing and other techniques. It has an introduction by Stephen F. Cohen.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Commissar_Vanishes
The moralistic fallacy is the informal fallacy of assuming that an aspect of nature which has socially unpleasant consequences cannot exist. Its typical form is "if X were true, then Z would happen! Thus, X is false", where Z is a morally, socially or politically undesirable thing. What should be moral is assumed a priori to also be naturally occurring. The moralistic fallacy is sometimes presented as the inverse of the naturalistic fallacy. However, it could be seen as a variation of the very same naturalistic fallacy; the difference between them could be considered pragmatical, depending on the intentions of the person who uses it: naturalistic fallacy if the user wants to justify existing social practices with the argument that they are natural; moralistic fallacy if the user wants to combat existing social practices with the argument of denying that they are natural.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy
Systemic bias is the inherent tendency of a process to support particular outcomes.[citation needed] The term generally refers to human systems such as institutions. Systemic bias is related to and overlaps conceptually with institutional bias and structural bias, and the terms are often used interchangeably.
According to Oxford Reference, institutional bias is "a tendency for the procedures and practices of particular institutions to operate in ways which result in certain social groups being advantaged or favoured and others being disadvantaged or devalued."[1]
In some contexts, institutional, systemic, and structural bias can lead to institutional racism, which is a type of racism that is integrated into the laws, norms, and regulations of a society or establishment. Structural bias, in turn, has been defined more specifically in reference to racial inequities as "the normalized and legitimized range of policies, practices, and attitudes that routinely produce cumulative and chronic adverse outcomes for minority populations".[2] The issues of systemic bias are dealt with extensively in the field of industrial organization economics.
In human institutions
Cognitive bias is inherent in the experiences, loyalties, and relationships of people in their daily lives, and new biases are constantly being discovered and addressed on both an ethical and political level. For example, the goal of affirmative action in the United States is to counter biases concerning gender, race, and ethnicity, by opening up institutional participation to people with a wider range of backgrounds, and hence a wider range of points of view. In India, the system of Scheduled Castes and Tribes intends to address systemic bias caused by the controversial caste system, a system centered on organized discrimination based upon one's ancestry, not unlike the system that affirmative action aims to counter. Both the scheduling system and affirmative action mandate the hiring of citizens from within designated groups. However, without sufficient restrictions based upon the actual socio-economic standing of the recipients of the aid provided, these types of systems can allegedly result in the unintentional institutionalization of a reversed form of the same systemic bias,[3] which works against the goal of rendering institutional participation open to people with a wider range of backgrounds.
Unconscious bias training has become common in many organizations, which may address both systemic and structural bias. Structural bias may be inherent in the practices and policies of the organization, such as hiring practices that favor social networking, or a grooming policy that disadvantages people with Afro-textured hair.[4]
Major causes
The study of systemic bias as part of the field titled organizational behavior in industrial organization economics is studied in several principle modalities in both non-profit and for-profit institutions. The issue of concern is that patterns of behavior may develop within large institutions which become harmful to the productivity and viability of the larger institutions from which they develop, as well as the community they occupy. The three major categories of study for maladaptive organizational behavior and systemic bias are counterproductive work behavior, human resource mistreatment, and the amelioration of stress-inducing behavior.
Racism
Racism is prejudice, discrimination or hostility towards other people because they are of a different racial or ethnic origin. Medical students conducted studies to investigate systemic biases associated with race. The result of the study showed that due to systemic bias, certain groups of people are marginalized due to race and differences, their professional careers are threatened, and more homework/responsibility is given to those in the minority group.[5]
Counterproductive work behavior
Counterproductive work behavior consists of behavior by employees that harms or intends to harm organizations and people in organizations.[6]
Mistreatment of human resources
There are several types of mistreatment that employees endure in organizations.
- Abusive supervision: the extent to which a supervisor engages in a pattern of behavior that harms subordinates.[7]
- Bullying: although definitions of bullying vary, it involves a repeated pattern of harmful behaviors directed towards an individual.[8]
- Incivility: low-intensity discourteous and rude behavior with ambiguous intent to harm that violates norms for appropriate behavior in the workplace.[9]
- Sexual harassment: behavior that denigrates or mistreats an individual due to their gender, creates an offensive workplace, and interferes with an individual being able to do their job.[10]
- Occupational stress: the imbalance between the demands (aspects of the job that require mental or physical effort) and resources that help cope with these demands.[11]
Examples
Financial Week reported in May 2008:
But we travel in a world with a systemic bias to optimism that typically chooses to avoid the topic of the impending bursting of investment bubbles. Collectively, this is done for career or business reasons. As discussed many times in the investment business, pessimism or realism in the face of probable trouble is just plain bad for business and bad for careers. What I am only slowly realizing, though, is how similar the career risk appears to be for the Fed. It doesn't want to move against bubbles because Congress and business do not like it and show their dislike in unmistakable terms. Even Federal reserve chairmen get bullied and have their faces slapped if they stick to their guns, which will, not surprisingly, be rare since everyone values his career or does not want to be replaced à la Volcker. So, be as optimistic as possible, be nice to everyone, bail everyone out, and hope for the best. If all goes well, after all, you will have a lot of grateful bailees who will happily hire you for $300,000 a pop.[12]
Versus systematic bias
In engineering and computational mechanics, the word bias is sometimes used as a synonym of systematic error. In this case, the bias is referred to the result of a measurement or computation, rather than to the measurement instrument or computational method.[13]
Some authors try to draw a distinction between systemic and systematic corresponding to that between unplanned and planned, or to that between arising from the characteristics of a system and from an individual flaw. In a less formal sense, systemic biases are sometimes said to arise from the nature of the interworkings of the system, whereas systematic biases stem from a concerted effort to favor certain outcomes. Consider the difference between affirmative action (systematic) compared to racism and caste (systemic).[14][citation needed]
See also
- Bandwagon effect
- Disinformation
- Echo chamber (media)
- Ethnocentrism
- Framing (social sciences)
- Funding bias
- Gatekeeping (communication)
- Gender bias on Wikipedia
- Inherent bias
- Institutional racism
- Managing the news
- Media bias
- Media manipulation
- Observational error
- Prejudice
- Propaganda
- Racial bias on Wikipedia
- Spin (public relations)
- Underrepresented groups
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_bias
Dissent is an opinion, philosophy or sentiment of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea or policy enforced under the authority of a government, political party or other entity or individual. A dissenting person may be referred to as a dissenter.
The term's antonyms include agreement, consensus (when all or nearly all parties agree on something) and consent (when one party agrees to a proposition made by another).
In philosophical skepticism, particularly that of Pyrrhonism, the existence of dissent is a rationale for suspending judgment regarding the issue associated with the dissent. Dissent in this respect appears as one of the tropes in the Five Modes of Agrippa, pointing to the uncertainty demonstrated by the differences of opinions among philosophers and people in general.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissent_by_military_officers_and_enlisted_personnel
A dissenting opinion (or dissent) is an opinion in a legal case in certain legal systems written by one or more judges expressing disagreement with the majority opinion of the court which gives rise to its judgment. When not necessarily referring to a legal decision, this can also be referred to as a minority report.[13][14]
Dissenting opinions are normally written at the same time as the majority opinion and any concurring opinions, and are also delivered and published at the same time. A dissenting opinion does not create binding precedent nor does it become a part of case law. Even though they can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive authority in subsequent cases when arguing that the court's holding should be limited or overturned. In some cases, a previous dissent is used to spur a change in the law, and a later case may result in a majority opinion adopting a particular understanding of the law formerly advocated in dissent. As with concurring opinions, the difference in opinion between dissents and majority opinions can often illuminate the precise holding of the majority opinion.
Scientific dissent is dissent from scientific consensus. Disagreements can be useful for finding problems in underlying assumptions, methodologies, and reasoning, as well as for generating and testing new ways of tackling the unknown.[15] In modern times, with the increased role of science on the society and the politicization of science, a new aspect gained prominence: effects of scientific dissent on public policies.[15]
Scientific dissent is distinct from denialism, which is a deliberate rejection of scientific consensus usually for commercial or ideological reasons.[16]
Organizational dissent is the "expression of disagreement or contradictory opinions about organizational practices and policies".[17] Since dissent involves disagreement it can lead to conflict, which if not resolved, can lead to violence and struggle. As a result, many organizations send the message – verbally or nonverbally – that dissent is discouraged. However, recent studies have shown that dissent serves as an important monitoring force within organizations. Dissent can be a warning sign for employee dissatisfaction or organizational decline. Redding (1985) found that receptiveness to dissent allows for corrective feedback to monitor unethical and immoral behavior, impractical and ineffectual organizational practices and policies, poor and unfavorable decision making, and insensitivity to employees' workplace needs and desires. Furthermore, Eilerman[18] argues that the hidden costs of silencing dissent include: wasted and lost time, reduced decision quality, emotional and relationship costs, and decreased job motivation. Perlow (2003) found that employee resentment can lead to a decrease in productivity and creativity which can result in the organization losing money, time, and resources.
See also
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissent
Radio jamming is the deliberate jamming, blocking or interference with wireless communications.[1] In some cases, jammers work by the transmission of radio signals that disrupt communications by decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio.[2]
The concept can be used in wireless data networks to disrupt information flow.[3] It is a common form of censorship in totalitarian countries, in order to prevent foreign radio stations in border areas from reaching the country.[2]
Jamming is usually distinguished from interference that can occur due to device malfunctions or other accidental circumstances. Devices that simply cause interference are regulated differently. Unintentional "jamming" occurs when an operator transmits on a busy frequency without first checking whether it is in use, or without being able to hear stations using the frequency. Another form of unintentional jamming occurs when equipment accidentally radiates a signal, such as a cable television plant that accidentally emits on an aircraft emergency frequency.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_jamming
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirt
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