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Tuesday, May 16, 2023

05-16-2023-1654 - Gamma (unit of mass), Gamma, etc. (draft)

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Gamma /ˈɡæmə/[1] (uppercase Γ, lowercase γ; Greek: γάμμα gámma) is the third letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 3. In Ancient Greek, the letter gamma represented a voiced velar stop IPA: [ɡ]. In Modern Greek, this letter represents either a voiced velar fricative IPA: [ɣ] or a voiced palatal fricative IPA: [ʝ] (while /g/ in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as γκ).

In the International Phonetic Alphabet and other modern Latin-alphabet based phonetic notations, it represents the voiced velar fricative.

History

The Greek letter Gamma Γ is a grapheme derived from the Phoenician letter 𐤂‎ (gīml) which was rotated from the right-to-left script of Canaanite to accommodate the Greek language's writing system of left-to-right. The Canaanite grapheme represented the /g/ phoneme in the Canaanite language, and as such is cognate with gimel ג of the Hebrew alphabet.

Based on its name, the letter has been interpreted as an abstract representation of a camel's neck,[2] but this has been criticized as contrived,[3] and it is more likely that the letter is derived from an Egyptian hieroglyph representing a club or throwing stick.[4]

The alphabet on black-figure pottery with a lambda-shaped gamma

In Archaic Greece, the shape of gamma was closer to a classical lambda (Λ), while lambda retained the Phoenician L-shape (𐌋‎).

Letters that arose from the Greek gamma include Etruscan (Old Italic) 𐌂, Roman C and G, Runic kaunan , Gothic geuua 𐌲, the Coptic Ⲅ, and the Cyrillic letters Г and Ґ.[5]

Greek phoneme

The Ancient Greek /g/ phoneme was the voiced velar stop, continuing the reconstructed proto-Indo-European *g, .

The modern Greek phoneme represented by gamma is realized either as a voiced palatal fricative (/ʝ/) before a front vowel (/e/, /i/), or as a voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ in all other environments. Both in Ancient and in Modern Greek, before other velar consonants (κ, χ, ξ – that is, k, kh, ks), gamma represents a velar nasal /ŋ/. A double gamma γγ (e.g., άγγελος, "angel") represents the sequence /ŋɡ/ (phonetically varying [ŋɡ~ɡ]) or /ŋɣ/.

Phonetic transcription

Lowercase Greek gamma is used in the Americanist phonetic notation and Uralic Phonetic Alphabet to indicate voiced consonants.

The gamma was also added to the Latin alphabet, as Latin gamma, in the following forms: majuscule Ɣ, minuscule ɣ, and superscript modifier letter ˠ.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet the minuscule letter is used to represent a voiced velar fricative and the superscript modifier letter is used to represent velarization. It is not to be confused with the character ɤ, which looks like a lowercase Latin gamma that lies above the baseline rather than crossing, and which represents the close-mid back unrounded vowel. In certain nonstandard variations of the IPA, the uppercase form is used.[citation needed]

It is as a full-fledged majuscule and minuscule letter in the alphabets of some of languages of Africa such as Dagbani, Dinka, Kabye, and Ewe,[6] and Berber languages using the Berber Latin alphabet.

It is sometimes also used in the romanization of Pashto.

Mathematics and science

Lowercase

The lowercase letter is used as a symbol for:

The lowercase Latin gamma ɣ can also be used in contexts (such as chemical or molecule nomenclature) where gamma must not be confused with the letter y, which can occur in some computer typefaces.

Uppercase

The uppercase letter is used as a symbol for:

Meteorology

Tropical cyclones

The name Gamma has been used twice for tropical cyclones:

Tropical Storm Gamma (2005) - deadly tropical storm that impacted Honduras

Hurricane Gamma (2020) - hurricane that affected the Yucatan Peninsula

Encoding

HTML

The HTML entities for uppercase and lowercase gamma are Γ and γ.

Unicode

  • Greek Gamma


Character information
Preview Γ γ
Unicode name GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA GREEK LETTER SMALL CAPITAL GAMMA MODIFIER LETTER SMALL GREEK GAMMA GREEK SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER GAMMA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 915 U+0393 947 U+03B3 7462 U+1D26 7518 U+1D5E 7527 U+1D67
UTF-8 206 147 CE 93 206 179 CE B3 225 180 166 E1 B4 A6 225 181 158 E1 B5 9E 225 181 167 E1 B5 A7
Numeric character reference Γ Γ γ γ ᴦ ᴦ ᵞ ᵞ ᵧ ᵧ
Named character reference Γ γ


  • Coptic Gamma


Character information
Preview
Unicode name COPTIC CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA COPTIC SMALL LETTER GAMMA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex
Unicode 11396 U+2C84 11397 U+2C85
UTF-8 226 178 132 E2 B2 84 226 178 133 E2 B2 85
Numeric character reference Ⲅ Ⲅ ⲅ ⲅ


Character information
Preview Ɣ ɣ ˠ ɤ
Unicode name LATIN CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA LATIN SMALL LETTER GAMMA MODIFIER LETTER SMALL GAMMA LATIN SMALL LETTER RAMS HORN
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 404 U+0194 611 U+0263 736 U+02E0 612 U+0264
UTF-8 198 148 C6 94 201 163 C9 A3 203 160 CB A0 201 164 C9 A4
Numeric character reference Ɣ Ɣ ɣ ɣ ˠ ˠ ɤ ɤ
  • CJK Square Gamma


Character information
Preview
Unicode name SQUARE GAMMA
Encodings decimal hex
Unicode 13071 U+330F
UTF-8 227 140 143 E3 8C 8F
Numeric character reference ㌏ ㌏
  • Technical / Mathematical Gamma


Character information
Preview 𝚪 𝛄 𝛤 𝛾
Unicode name DOUBLE-STRUCK
CAPITAL GAMMA
DOUBLE-STRUCK
SMALL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL BOLD
CAPITAL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL BOLD
SMALL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL ITALIC
CAPITAL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL ITALIC
SMALL GAMMA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 8510 U+213E 8509 U+213D 120490 U+1D6AA 120516 U+1D6C4 120548 U+1D6E4 120574 U+1D6FE
UTF-8 226 132 190 E2 84 BE 226 132 189 E2 84 BD 240 157 154 170 F0 9D 9A AA 240 157 155 132 F0 9D 9B 84 240 157 155 164 F0 9D 9B A4 240 157 155 190 F0 9D 9B BE
UTF-16 8510 213E 8509 213D 55349 57002 D835 DEAA 55349 57028 D835 DEC4 55349 57060 D835 DEE4 55349 57086 D835 DEFE
Numeric character reference ℾ ℾ ℽ ℽ 𝚪 𝚪 𝛄 𝛄 𝛤 𝛤 𝛾 𝛾


Character information
Preview 𝜞 𝜸 𝝘 𝝲 𝞒 𝞬
Unicode name MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC
CAPITAL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC
SMALL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF
BOLD CAPITAL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF
BOLD SMALL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF
BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA
MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF
BOLD ITALIC SMALL GAMMA
Encodings decimal hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex dec hex
Unicode 120606 U+1D71E 120632 U+1D738 120664 U+1D758 120690 U+1D772 120722 U+1D792 120748 U+1D7AC
UTF-8 240 157 156 158 F0 9D 9C 9E 240 157 156 184 F0 9D 9C B8 240 157 157 152 F0 9D 9D 98 240 157 157 178 F0 9D 9D B2 240 157 158 146 F0 9D 9E 92 240 157 158 172 F0 9D 9E AC
UTF-16 55349 57118 D835 DF1E 55349 57144 D835 DF38 55349 57176 D835 DF58 55349 57202 D835 DF72 55349 57234 D835 DF92 55349 57260 D835 DFAC
Numeric character reference 𝜞 𝜞 𝜸 𝜸 𝝘 𝝘 𝝲 𝝲 𝞒 𝞒 𝞬 𝞬

These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style.

See also

References


  • "gamma". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

  • Russell, Bertrand (1972). A history of western philosophy (60th print. ed.). New York: Touchstone book. ISBN 9780671314002.

  • Powell, Barry B. (2012). Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. John Wiley & Sons. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-118-29349-2.

  • Hamilton, Gordon James (2006). The Origins of the West Semitic Alphabet in Egyptian Scripts. Catholic Biblical Association of America. pp. 53–6. ISBN 978-0-915170-40-1.

  • "Greek Alphabet Symbols". Rapid Tables. Retrieved 25 August 2014.

  • Practical Orthography of African Languages

  • François Cardarelli (2003). Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures. London: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4471-1122-1.

  • Betty Grover Eisner, Ph.D. (August 7, 2002). Remembrances of LSD therapy past (PDF). p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-12-05. that fateful 100 gamma, the same dosage I had had at my first LSD session

    1. Weisstein, Eric W. (30 April 2023). "Gamma -- from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics". scienceworld.wolfram.com.


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma

    Hairy cell leukemia
    Hairy cell leukemia.jpg
    SpecialtyHematology and oncology

    Hairy cell leukemia is an uncommon hematological malignancy characterized by an accumulation of abnormal B lymphocytes.[1] It is usually classified as a subtype of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Hairy cell leukemia makes up about 2% of all leukemias, with fewer than 2,000 new cases diagnosed annually in North America and Western Europe combined.

    Hairy cell leukemia (HCL) was originally described as histiocytic leukemia, malignant reticulosis, or lymphoid myelofibrosis in publications dating back to the 1920s. The disease was formally named leukemic reticuloendotheliosis, and its characterization was significantly advanced by Bertha Bouroncle and colleagues at the Ohio State University College of Medicine in 1958. Its common name, which was coined in 1966,[2] is derived from the "hairy" appearance of the malignant B cells under a microscope.[3]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairy_cell_leukemia

     

    Hair cells are the sensory receptors of both the auditory system and the vestibular system in the ears of all vertebrates, and in the lateral line organ of fishes. Through mechanotransduction, hair cells detect movement in their environment.[1]

    In mammals, the auditory hair cells are located within the spiral organ of Corti on the thin basilar membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear. They derive their name from the tufts of stereocilia called hair bundles that protrude from the apical surface of the cell into the fluid-filled cochlear duct. The stereocilia number from fifty to a hundred in each cell while being tightly packed together[2] and decrease in size the further away they are located from the kinocilium.[3] The hair bundles are arranged as stiff columns that move at their base in response to stimuli applied to the tips.[4]

    Mammalian cochlear hair cells are of two anatomically and functionally distinct types, known as outer, and inner hair cells. Damage to these hair cells results in decreased hearing sensitivity, and because the inner ear hair cells cannot regenerate, this damage is permanent.[5] Damage to hair cells can cause damage to the vestibular system and therefore causing difficulties in balancing. However, other organisms, such as the frequently studied zebrafish, and birds have hair cells that can regenerate.[6][7] The human cochlea contains on the order of 3,500 inner hair cells and 12,000 outer hair cells at birth.[8]

    The outer hair cells mechanically amplify low-level sound that enters the cochlea.[9][10] The amplification may be powered by the movement of their hair bundles, or by an electrically driven motility of their cell bodies. This so-called somatic electromotility amplifies sound in all land vertebrates. It is affected by the closing mechanism of the mechanical sensory ion channels at the tips of the hair bundles.[citation needed]

    The inner hair cells transform the sound vibrations in the fluids of the cochlea into electrical signals that are then relayed via the auditory nerve to the auditory brainstem and to the auditory cortex

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_cell

     

    Inner hair cells – from sound to nerve signal

    Section through the organ of Corti, showing inner and outer hair cells

    The deflection of the hair-cell stereocilia opens mechanically gated ion channels that allow any small, positively charged ions (primarily potassium and calcium) to enter the cell.[11] Unlike many other electrically active cells, the hair cell itself does not fire an action potential. Instead, the influx of positive ions from the endolymph in the scala media depolarizes the cell, resulting in a receptor potential. This receptor potential opens voltage gated calcium channels; calcium ions then enter the cell and trigger the release of neurotransmitters at the basal end of the cell. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the narrow space between the hair cell and a nerve terminal, where they then bind to receptors and thus trigger action potentials in the nerve. In this way, the mechanical sound signal is converted into an electrical nerve signal. Repolarization of hair cells is done in a special manner. The perilymph in the scala tympani has a very low concentration of positive ions. The electrochemical gradient makes the positive ions flow through channels to the perilymph.

    Hair cells chronically leak Ca2+. This leakage causes a tonic release of neurotransmitter to the synapses. It is thought that this tonic release is what allows the hair cells to respond so quickly in response to mechanical stimuli. The quickness of the hair cell response may also be due to the fact that it can increase the amount of neurotransmitter release in response to a change of as little as 100 μV in membrane potential.[12]

    Hair cells are also able to distinguish tone frequencies through one of two methods. The first method, found only in non-mammals, uses electrical resonance in the basolateral membrane of the hair cell. The electrical resonance for this method appears as a damped oscillation of membrane potential responding to an applied current pulse. The second method uses tonotopic differences of the basilar membrane. This difference comes from the different locations of the hair cells. Hair cells that have high-frequency resonance are located at the basal end while hair cells that have significantly lower frequency resonance are found at the apical end of the epithelium.[13]

    Outer hair cells – acoustical pre-amplifiers

    In mammalian outer hair cells, the varying receptor potential is converted to active vibrations of the cell body. This mechanical response to electrical signals is termed somatic electromotility;[14] it drives variations in the cell's length, synchronized to the incoming sound signal, and provides mechanical amplification by feedback to the traveling wave.[15]

    Outer hair cells are found only in mammals. While hearing sensitivity of mammals is similar to that of other classes of vertebrates, without functioning outer hair cells, the sensitivity decreases by approximately 50 dB.[16] Outer hair cells extend the hearing range to about 200 kHz in some marine mammals.[17] They have also improved frequency selectivity (frequency discrimination), which is of particular benefit for humans, because it enabled sophisticated speech and music. Outer hair cells are functional even after cellular stores of ATP are depleted.[14]

    The effect of this system is to nonlinearly amplify quiet sounds more than large ones so that a wide range of sound pressures can be reduced to a much smaller range of hair displacements.[18] This property of amplification is called the cochlear amplifier.

    The molecular biology of hair cells has seen considerable progress in recent years, with the identification of the motor protein (prestin) that underlies somatic electromotility in the outer hair cells. Prestin's function has been shown to be dependent on chloride channel signaling and that it is compromised by the common marine pesticide tributyltin. Because this class of pollutant bioconcentrates up the food chain, the effect is pronounced in top marine predators such as orcas and toothed whales.[19]

    Hair cell signal adaption

    Calcium ion influx plays an important role for the hair cells to adapt to the amplification of the signal. This allows humans to ignore constant sounds that are no longer new and allow us to be acute to other changes in our surrounding. The key adaptation mechanism comes from a motor protein myosin-1c that allows slow adaptation, provides tension to sensitize transduction channels, and also participate in signal transduction apparatus.[20][21] More recent research now shows that the calcium-sensitive binding of calmodulin to myosin-1c could actually modulate the interaction of the adaptation motor with other components of the transduction apparatus as well.[22][23]

    Fast Adaptation: During fast adaptation, Ca2+ ions that enter a stereocilium through an open MET channel bind rapidly to a site on or near the channel and induce channel closure. When channels close, tension increases in the tip link, pulling the bundle in the opposite direction.[20] Fast adaptation is more prominent in sound and auditory detecting hair cells, rather in vestibular cells.

    Slow Adaption: The dominating model suggests that slow adaptation occurs when myosin-1c slides down the stereocilium in response to elevated tension during bundle displacement.[20] The resultant decreased tension in the tip link permits the bundle to move farther in the opposite direction. As tension decreases, channels close, producing the decline in transduction current.[20] Slow adaptation is most prominent in vestibular hair cells that sense spatial movement and less in cochlear hair cells that detect auditory signals.[21]

    Neural connection

    Neurons of the auditory or vestibulocochlear nerve (the eighth cranial nerve) innervate cochlear and vestibular hair cells.[24] The neurotransmitter released by hair cells that stimulates the terminal neurites of peripheral axons of the afferent (towards the brain) neurons is thought to be glutamate. At the presynaptic juncture, there is a distinct presynaptic dense body or ribbon. This dense body is surrounded by synaptic vesicles and is thought to aid in the fast release of neurotransmitter.

    Nerve fiber innervation is much denser for inner hair cells than for outer hair cells. A single inner hair cell is innervated by numerous nerve fibers, whereas a single nerve fiber innervates many outer hair cells. Inner hair cell nerve fibers are also very heavily myelinated, which is in contrast to the unmyelinated outer hair cell nerve fibers. The region of the basilar membrane supplying the inputs to a particular afferent nerve fibre can be considered to be its receptive field.

    Efferent projections from the brain to the cochlea also play a role in the perception of sound. Efferent synapses occur on outer hair cells and on afferent axons under inner hair cells. The presynaptic terminal bouton is filled with vesicles containing acetylcholine and a neuropeptide called calcitonin gene-related peptide. The effects of these compounds vary; in some hair cells the acetylcholine hyperpolarizes the cell, which reduces the sensitivity of the cochlea locally.

    Regrowth

    Research on the regrowth of cochlear cells may lead to medical treatments that restore hearing. Unlike birds and fish, humans and other mammals are generally incapable of regrowing the cells of the inner ear that convert sound into neural signals when those cells are damaged by age or disease.[7][25] Researchers are making progress in gene therapy and stem-cell therapy that may allow the damaged cells to be regenerated. Because hair cells of auditory and vestibular systems in birds and fish have been found to regenerate, their ability has been studied at length.[7][26] In addition, lateral line hair cells, which have a mechanotransduction function, have been shown to regrow in organisms, such as the zebrafish.[27]

    Researchers have identified a mammalian gene that normally acts as a molecular switch to block the regrowth of cochlear hair cells in adults.[28] The Rb1 gene encodes the retinoblastoma protein, which is a tumor suppressor. Rb stops cells from dividing by encouraging their exit from the cell cycle.[29][30] Not only do hair cells in a culture dish regenerate when the Rb1 gene is deleted, but mice bred to be missing the gene grow more hair cells than control mice that have the gene. Additionally, the sonic hedgehog protein has been shown to block activity of the retinoblastoma protein, thereby inducing cell cycle re-entry and the regrowth of new cells.[31]

    Several Notch signaling pathway inhibitors, including the gamma secretase inhibitor LY3056480, are being studied for their potential ability to regenerate hair cells in the cochlea.[32][33]

    TBX2 (T-box transcription factor 2) has been shown to be a master regulator in the differentiation of inner and outer hair cells.[34] This discovery has allowed researchers to direct hair cells to develop into either inner or outer hair cells, which could help in replacing hair cells that have died and prevent or reverse hearing loss.[35][36]

    The cell cycle inhibitor p27kip1 (CDKN1B) has also been found to encourage regrowth of cochlear hair cells in mice following genetic deletion or knock down with siRNA targeting p27.[37][38] Research on hair cell regeneration may bring us closer to clinical treatment for human hearing loss caused by hair cell damage or death.

    Additional images

    References


  • Lumpkin, Ellen A.; Marshall, Kara L.; Nelson, Aislyn M. (2010). "The cell biology of touch". The Journal of Cell Biology. 191 (2): 237–248. doi:10.1083/jcb.201006074. PMC 2958478. PMID 20956378.

  • McPherson, Duane (June 18, 2018). "Sensory Hair Cells: An Introduction to Structure and Physiology". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 58 (2): 282–300. doi:10.1093/icb/icy064. PMC 6104712. PMID 29917041.

  • Schlosser, Gerhard (June 1, 2018). "A Short History of Nearly Every Sense—The Evolutionary History of Vertebrate Sensory Cell Types". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 58 (2): 301–316. doi:10.1093/icb/icy024. PMID 29741623.

  • Swalla, Billie (June 20, 2018). "High Time for Hair Cells: An Introduction to the Symposium on Sensory Hair Cells". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 58 (2): 276–281. doi:10.1093/icb/icy070. PMC 6104703. PMID 30137315.

  • Nadol, Joseph B. (1993). "Hearing loss". New England Journal of Medicine. 329 (15): 1092–1102. doi:10.1056/nejm199310073291507. PMID 8371732.

  • Lush, Mark E.; Piotrowski, Tatjana (2013). "Sensory hair cell regeneration in the zebrafish lateral line". Developmental Dynamics. 243 (10): 1187–1202. doi:10.1002/dvdy.24167. PMC 4177345. PMID 25045019.

  • Cotanche, Douglas A. (1994). "Hair cell regeneration in the bird cochlea following noise damage or ototoxic drug damage". Anatomy and Embryology. 189 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1007/bf00193125. PMID 8192233. S2CID 25619337.

  • Rémy Pujol, Régis Nouvian, Marc Lenoir, "Hair cells (cochlea.eu)

  • Ashmore, Jonathan Felix (1987). "A fast motile response in guinea-pig outer hair cells: the cellular basis of the cochlear amplifier". The Journal of Physiology. 388 (1): 323–347. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1987.sp016617. ISSN 1469-7793. PMC 1192551. PMID 3656195.

  • Ashmore, Jonathan (2008). "Cochlear Outer Hair Cell Motility". Physiological Reviews. 88 (1): 173–210. doi:10.1152/physrev.00044.2006. ISSN 0031-9333. PMID 18195086. S2CID 17722638.

  • Müller, U (October 2008). "Cadherins and mechanotransduction by hair cells". Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 20 (5): 557–566. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2008.06.004. PMC 2692626. PMID 18619539.

  • Chan DK, Hudspeth AJ (February 2005). "Ca2+ current-driven nonlinear amplification by the mammalian cochlea in vitro". Nature Neuroscience. 8 (2): 149–155. doi:10.1038/nn1385. PMC 2151387. PMID 15643426.

  • McPherson, Duane R (2018-08-01). "Sensory Hair Cells: An Introduction to Structure and Physiology". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 58 (2): 282–300. doi:10.1093/icb/icy064. ISSN 1540-7063. PMC 6104712. PMID 29917041.

  • Brownell WE, Bader CR, Bertrand D, de Ribaupierre Y (1985-01-11). "Evoked mechanical responses of isolated cochlear outer hair cells". Science. 227 (4683): 194–196. Bibcode:1985Sci...227..194B. doi:10.1126/science.3966153. PMID 3966153.

  • A movie clip showing an isolated outer hair cell moving in response to electrical stimulation can be seen here (physiol.ox.ac.uk). Archived 2012-03-07 at the Wayback Machine

  • Géléoc GS, Holt JR (2003). "Auditory amplification: outer hair cells pres the issue". Trends Neurosci. 26 (3): 115–7. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00030-4. PMC 2724262. PMID 12591210.

  • Wartzog D, Ketten DR (1999). "Marine Mammal Sensory Systems" (PDF). In Reynolds J, Rommel S (eds.). Biology of Marine Mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 132. S2CID 48867300. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-09-19.

  • Hudspeth AJ (2008-08-28). "Making an effort to listen: mechanical amplification in the ear". Neuron. 59 (4): 530–45. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.07.012. PMC 2724262. PMID 18760690.

  • Santos-Sacchi Joseph; Song Lei; Zheng Jiefu; Nuttall Alfred L (2006-04-12). "Control of mammalian cochlear amplification by chloride anions". Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (15): 3992–8. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4548-05.2006. PMC 6673883. PMID 16611815.

  • Gillespie, P. G.; Cyr, J. L. (2004). "Myosin-1c, the hair cell's adaptation motor". Annual Review of Physiology. 66: 521–45. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.66.032102.112842. PMID 14977412.

  • Stauffer, E. A.; Holt, J. R. (2007). "Sensory transduction and adaptation in inner and outer hair cells of the mouse auditory system". Journal of Neurophysiology. 98 (6): 3360–9. doi:10.1152/jn.00914.2007. PMC 2647849. PMID 17942617.

  • Cyr, J. L.; Dumont, R. A.; Gillespie, P. G. (2002). "Myosin-1c interacts with hair-cell receptors through its calmodulin-binding IQ domains". The Journal of Neuroscience. 22 (7): 2487–95. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-07-02487.2002. PMC 6758312. PMID 11923413.

  • Housley, G D; Ashmore, J F (1992). "Ionic currents of outer hair cells isolated from the guinea-pig cochlea". The Journal of Physiology. 448 (1): 73–98. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019030. ISSN 1469-7793. PMC 1176188. PMID 1593487.

  • "Cranial Nerve VIII. Vestibulocochlear Nerve". Meddean. Loyola University Chicago. Retrieved 2008-06-04.

  • Edge AS, Chen ZY (2008). "Hair cell regeneration". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 18 (4): 377–82. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2008.10.001. PMC 5653255. PMID 18929656.

  • Lombarte A, Yan HY, Popper AN, Chang JS, Platt C (January 1993). "Damage and regeneration of hair cell ciliary bundles in a fish ear following treatment with gentamicin". Hear. Res. 64 (2): 166–74. doi:10.1016/0378-5955(93)90002-i. PMID 8432687. S2CID 4766481.

  • Whitfield, T.T (2002). "Zebrafish as a model for hearing and deafness". Journal of Neurobiology. 53 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1002/neu.10123. PMID 12382273.

  • Henderson M (2005-01-15). "Gene that may no longer turn a deaf ear to old age". Times Online.

  • Sage, Cyrille; Huang, Mingqian; Vollrath, Melissa A.; Brown, M. Christian; Hinds, Philip W.; Corey, David P.; Vetter, Douglas E.; Zheng-Yi, Chen (2005). "Essential role of retinoblastoma protein in mammalian hair cell development and hearing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (19): 7345–7350. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.7345S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510631103. PMC 1450112. PMID 16648263.

  • Raphael Y, Martin DM (July 2005). "Deafness: lack of regulation encourages hair cell growth". Gene Ther. 12 (13): 1021–2. doi:10.1038/sj.gt.3302523. PMID 19202631. S2CID 28974038.

  • Lu, Na; Chen, Yan; Wang, Zhengmin; Chen, Guoling; Lin, Qin; Chen, Zheng-Yi; Li, Huawei (2013). "Sonic hedgehog initiates cochlear hair cell regeneration through downregulation of retinoblastoma protein". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. Elsevier. 430 (2): 700–705. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.11.088. PMC 3579567. PMID 23211596.

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  • Samarajeewa, Anshula; Jacques, Bonnie E.; Dabdoub, Alain (8 May 2019). "Therapeutic Potential of Wnt and Notch Signaling and Epigenetic Regulation in Mammalian Sensory Hair Cell Regeneration". Molecular Therapy. Elsevier BV. 27 (5): 904–911. doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.03.017. ISSN 1525-0016. PMC 6520458. PMID 30982678.

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    Digitalis ciliata, commonly called hairy foxglove is a member of the genus Digitalis.[1] It has thimble-shaped, yellow to cream colored flowers produced on perennial plants with evergreen foliage. It is native to the Caucasus and is grown as an ornamental in other parts of the world. The species name is derived from the fine hairs that cover the plants stems and flowers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalis_ciliata https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_English_origin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Performance_Knowledge_Bases https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lendians https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_minimalism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_American_Encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialized_translation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_epistemic_logic#Knowledge_versus_Belief https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Or_Adonai https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English-language_20th-century_general_encyclopedias https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Knowledge_Now https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestation_of_conscience https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_intellect 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnobiology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_sense_impression https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommended_precaution https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertwingularity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_algorithm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Skalich https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilia_State_University https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum-based_measurement https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Electrical_Oscillation_Signature_Profiling https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harriman_Institute https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practitioner%E2%80%93scholar_model https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclo https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenter%27s_regress https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_from_a_proper_basis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typical_intellectual_engagement https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_for_Economic_Education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wound,_ostomy,_and_continence_nursing Sophia Brahe Sophie Brahe portrait.jpg Portrait from 1602 Born 24 August 1559 (or 22 September 1556) Knutstorp, Denmark Died 1643 (aged 83–84) Helsingør, Denmark Known for Working with her brother Tycho Brahe on making astronomical observations, creating exceptional gardens at Trolleholm Castle, genealogist of Danish noble families Spouses Otto Thott Erik Lange Children Tage Thott Scientific career Influences Tycho Brahe Sophia or Sophie Brahe or after marriage Sophie Thott Lange (24 August 1559 or 22 September 1556[1] – 1643), was a Danish noblewoman and horticulturalist with knowledge of astronomy, chemistry, and medicine. She worked alongside her brother Tycho Brahe in making astronomical observations. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Brahe https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Input_Method https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_analysis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligible_form https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems-oriented_design https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Some_Answered_Questions https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JumpStart_SpyMasters:_Unmask_the_Prankster https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_adaptive_resonance_theory https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Chemist https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriation_(sociology) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Wonder_World https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poems_in_Prose_(Wilde_collection) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_inductive_learner https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_modeling_fields https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_Publishing https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Center_for_Arts_%26_Heritage#As_hub_for_knowledge-sharing https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_outcome_pathway https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_licensure https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_reasoner https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_position https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinderbox_(application_software) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_education https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Intelligent_Systems https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson_doctrine_(economics)

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