05-16-2023-1322 - Industrial engineering, Multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) , minimum spanning tree (MST) , Gentrification Inclusionary zoning (IZ), inclusion, clause, gentrification, deliberation, council, clusivity, logic, inference, substitution error, mutlilingual, boolean logic, mineral, body, cell, taxonomy, directive, programming, variety methods, americans, machine, use, possible worlds, civilian, civilian level one, surface earth, planet earth, solar system, universe, sun, moon, etc. (draft)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up inclusion or include in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Inclusion or Include may refer to:

Sociology

• Social inclusion, action taken to support people of different backgrounds sharing life together.
  • Inclusion (disability rights), promotion of people with disabilities sharing various aspects of life and life as a whole with those without disabilities.
  • Inclusion (education), to do with students with special educational needs spending most or all of their time with non-disabled students

Science and technology

• Inclusion (mineral), any material that is trapped inside a mineral during its formation
• Inclusion bodies, aggregates of stainable substances in biological cells
• Inclusion (cell), insoluble non-living substance suspended in a cell's cytoplasm
• Inclusion (taxonomy), combining of biological species
• Include directive, in computer programming

Mathematics

• Inclusion (set theory), or subset
• Inclusion (Boolean algebra), the Boolean analogue to the subset relation
• Inclusion map, or inclusion function, or canonical injection
• Inclusion (logic), the concept that all the contents of one object are also contained within a second object

Other uses

• Clusivity, a linguistic concept
• Include (horse), a racehorse
• Inclusion by reference, legal documentation process
• Centre for Economic and Social Inclusion, a former British think-tank known as Inclusion

See also

• Inclusive (disambiguation)
• Transclusion, the inclusion of part or all of an electronic document into one or more other documents by hypertext reference
• Inclusion–exclusion principle, in combinatorics
• All pages with titles beginning with Inclusion
• All pages with titles beginning with Include

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Inclusion.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusion

Academic tenure in the United States and Canada is a contractual right that grants a teacher or professor a permanent position of employment at an academic institution such as a university or school.^[1] Tenure is intended to protect teachers from dismissal without just cause, and to allow development of thoughts or ideas considered unpopular or controversial among the community. In North America, tenure is granted only to educators whose work is considered to be exceptionally productive and beneficial in their careers.^[2][3]

Academic tenure became a standard for education institutions in North America with the introduction of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP)'s 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure. In this statement, the AAUP provides a definition of academic tenure: "a means to certain ends, specifically: (1) freedom of teaching and research and of extramural activities, and (2) a sufficient degree of economic security to make the profession attractive to men and women of ability."^[4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_tenure_in_North_America

Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.^[1] It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighborhood, but the resulting demographic displacement may itself become a major social issue. Gentrification often sees a shift in a neighborhood's racial or ethnic composition and average household income as housing and businesses become more expensive and resources that had not been previously accessible are extended and improved.^[2][3][4]

The gentrification process is typically the result of increasing attraction to an area by people with higher incomes spilling over from neighboring cities, towns, or neighborhoods. Further steps are increased investments in a community and the related infrastructure by real estate development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic development, increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. In addition to these potential benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration and displacement. In extreme cases, gentrification can be brought on by a prosperity bomb.^[5] However, some view the fear of displacement, which dominates the debate about gentrification, as hindering discussion about genuine progressive approaches to distribute the benefits of urban redevelopment strategies.^[6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentrification

Inclusionary zoning (IZ), also known as inclusionary housing, refers to municipal and county planning ordinances that require a given share of new construction to be affordable by people with low to moderate incomes. The term inclusionary zoning indicates that these ordinances seek to counter exclusionary zoning practices, which aim to exclude low-cost housing from a municipality through the zoning code. There are variations among different inclusionary zoning programs. Firstly, they can be mandatory or voluntary.^[1] Though voluntary programs exist, the great majority has been built as a result of local mandatory programmes requiring developers to include the affordable units in their developments.^[2] There are also variations among the set-aside requirements, affordability levels coupled with the period of control.^[1] In order to encourage engagements in these zoning programs, developers are awarded with incentives for engaging in these programs, such as density bonus, expedited approval and fee waivers.^[1]

In practice, these policies involve placing deed restrictions on 10–30% of new houses or apartments in order to make the cost of the housing affordable to lower-income households. The mix of "affordable housing" and "market-rate" housing in the same neighborhood is seen as beneficial by city planners and sociologists.^[3] Inclusionary zoning is a tool for local municipalities in the United States to allegedly help provide a wider range of housing options than a free market provides on its own. Many economists consider the program as a price control on a percentage of units, which negatively impacts the supply of housing.^[4]

Most inclusionary zoning is enacted at the municipal or county level; when imposed by the state, as in Massachusetts, it has been argued that such laws usurp local control. In such cases, developers can use inclusionary zoning to avoid certain aspects of local zoning laws. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusionary_zoning

A minimum spanning tree (MST) or minimum weight spanning tree is a subset of the edges of a connected, edge-weighted undirected graph that connects all the vertices together, without any cycles and with the minimum possible total edge weight.^[1] That is, it is a spanning tree whose sum of edge weights is as small as possible.^[2] More generally, any edge-weighted undirected graph (not necessarily connected) has a minimum spanning forest, which is a union of the minimum spanning trees for its connected components.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_spanning_tree

In the theory of decision making, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), also analytical hierarchy process,^[1] is a structured technique for organizing and analyzing complex decisions, based on mathematics and psychology. It was developed by Thomas L. Saaty in the 1970s; Saaty partnered with Ernest Forman to develop Expert Choice software in 1983, and AHP has been extensively studied and refined since then. It represents an accurate approach to quantifying the weights of decision criteria. Individual experts’ experiences are utilized to estimate the relative magnitudes of factors through pair-wise comparisons. Each of the respondents compares the relative importance of each pair of items using a specially designed questionnaire. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_hierarchy_process

"MCDM" redirects here. For the use in cosmology, see Meta-cold dark matter.

"MCDA" redirects here. For the technology consortium, see Micro Channel Developers Association.

See also: Multi-objective optimization

Plot of two criteria when maximizing return and minimizing risk in financial portfolios (Pareto-optimal points in red dots)

Multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) or multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is a sub-discipline of operations research that explicitly evaluates multiple conflicting criteria in decision making (both in daily life and in settings such as business, government and medicine). Conflicting criteria are typical in evaluating options: cost or price is usually one of the main criteria, and some measure of quality is typically another criterion, easily in conflict with the cost. In purchasing a car, cost, comfort, safety, and fuel economy may be some of the main criteria we consider – it is unusual that the cheapest car is the most comfortable and the safest one. In portfolio management, managers are interested in getting high returns while simultaneously reducing risks; however, the stocks that have the potential of bringing high returns typically carry high risk of losing money. In a service industry, customer satisfaction and the cost of providing service are fundamental conflicting criteria.

In their daily lives, people usually weigh multiple criteria implicitly and may be comfortable with the consequences of such decisions that are made based on only intuition.^[1] On the other hand, when stakes are high, it is important to properly structure the problem and explicitly evaluate multiple criteria.^[2] In making the decision of whether to build a nuclear power plant or not, and where to build it, there are not only very complex issues involving multiple criteria, but there are also multiple parties who are deeply affected by the consequences.

Structuring complex problems well and considering multiple criteria explicitly leads to more informed and better decisions. There have been important advances in this field since the start of the modern multiple-criteria decision-making discipline in the early 1960s. A variety of approaches and methods, many implemented by specialized decision-making software,^[3][4] have been developed for their application in an array of disciplines, ranging from politics and business to the environment and energy.^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-criteria_decision_analysis

 

Industrial engineering is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information and equipment. Industrial engineering is central to manufacturing operations.^[1]

Industrial engineers use specialized knowledge and skills in the mathematical, physical and social sciences, together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results obtained from systems and processes.^[2] There are several industrial engineering principles followed in the manufacturing industry to ensure the effective flow of the systems, processes and operations.^[1] This includes Lean Manufacturing, Six Sigma, Information Systems, Process Capability and Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control (DMAIC). These principles allow the creation of new systems, processes or situations for the useful coordination of labor, materials and machines and also improve the quality and productivity of systems, physical or social.^[3][4] Depending on the subspecialties involved, industrial engineering may also overlap with, operations research, systems engineering, manufacturing engineering, production engineering, supply chain engineering, management science, management engineering, financial engineering, ergonomics or human factors engineering, safety engineering, logistics engineering or others, depending on the viewpoint or motives of the user. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Machines)

This article is about devices designed to perform tasks. For other uses, see Machine (disambiguation).

"Machinery" redirects here. For other uses, see Machinery (disambiguation).

A Honda F1 racecar engine

A machine is a physical system using power to apply forces and control movement to perform an action. The term is commonly applied to artificial devices, such as those employing engines or motors, but also to natural biological macromolecules, such as molecular machines. Machines can be driven by animals and people, by natural forces such as wind and water, and by chemical, thermal, or electrical power, and include a system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of output forces and movement. They can also include computers and sensors that monitor performance and plan movement, often called mechanical systems.

Renaissance natural philosophers identified six simple machines which were the elementary devices that put a load into motion, and calculated the ratio of output force to input force, known today as mechanical advantage.^[1]

Modern machines are complex systems that consist of structural elements, mechanisms and control components and include interfaces for convenient use. Examples include: a wide range of vehicles, such as trains, automobiles, boats and airplanes; appliances in the home and office, including computers, building air handling and water handling systems; as well as farm machinery, machine tools and factory automation systems and robots. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine

This article is about delimiters in computing. For delimiters in human use, see Word divider and digit grouping.

A stylistic depiction of a fragment from a CSV-formatted text file. The commas (shown in red) are used as field delimiters.

A delimiter is a sequence of one or more characters for specifying the boundary between separate, independent regions in plain text, mathematical expressions or other data streams.^[1][2] An example of a delimiter is the comma character, which acts as a field delimiter in a sequence of comma-separated values. Another example of a delimiter is the time gap used to separate letters and words in the transmission of Morse code.

In mathematics, delimiters are often used to specify the scope of an operation, and can occur both as isolated symbols (e.g., colon in "${\displaystyle 1:4}$") and as a pair of opposing-looking symbols (e.g., angled brackets in ${\displaystyle ⟨a,b⟩}$).

Delimiters represent one of various means of specifying boundaries in a data stream. Declarative notation, for example, is an alternate method that uses a length field at the start of a data stream to specify the number of characters that the data stream contains.^[3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter}

This article is about delimiters in computing. For delimiters in human use, see Word divider and digit grouping.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter

 

A deliberative assembly is a meeting of members who use parliamentary procedure.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_assembly

An excursion is a trip by a group of people, usually made for leisure, education, or physical purposes. It is often an adjunct to a longer journey or visit to a place, sometimes for other (typically work-related) purposes.

Public transportation companies issue reduced price excursion tickets to attract business of this type. Often these tickets are restricted to off-peak days or times for the destination concerned.

Short excursions for education or for observations of natural phenomena are called field trips. One-day educational field studies are often made by classes as extracurricular exercises, e.g. to visit a natural or geographical feature.

The term is also used for short military movements into foreign territory, without a formal announcement of war.^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excursion}

Mass gatherings are events attended by a sufficient number of people to strain the planning and response resources of the host community, state/province, nation, or region where it is being held.^[1][2] Definitions of a mass gathering generally include the following:

• Planned (long term or spontaneously planned) event
• “a specified number of persons (at least >1000 persons).
• at a specific location, for a specific purpose (e.g. social function, public event, sporting event) for a defined period of time”.
• Requires Multi-Agency Coordination^{[citation needed]}

Mass gatherings are usually sporting events (such as Olympic Games) or religious pilgrimages (such as Kumbh Mela or Arba'een Pilgrimage). They are highly visible ^[3] and in some cases, millions of people attend them. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_gathering

A flash mob (or flashmob)^[1] is a group of people who assemble suddenly in a public place, perform for a brief time, then quickly disperse, often for the purposes of entertainment, satire, and artistic expression.^[2][3][4] Flash mobs may be organized via telecommunications, social media, or viral emails.^{[5][6][7][8][9]}

The term, coined in 2003, is generally not applied to events and performances organized for the purposes of politics (such as protests), commercial advertisement, publicity stunts that involve public relation firms, or paid professionals.^[7][10][11] In these cases of a planned purpose for the social activity in question, the term smart mobs is often applied instead.

The term "flash rob" or "flash mob robberies", a reference to the way flash mobs assemble, has been used to describe a number of robberies and assaults perpetrated suddenly by groups of teenage youth.^[12][13][14] Bill Wasik, originator of the first flash mobs, and a number of other commentators have questioned or objected to the usage of "flash mob" to describe criminal acts.^[14][15] Flash mob has also been featured in some Hollywood movie series, such as Step Up.^[16] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_mob

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Oxford_English_Dictionary

 

Mass psychogenic illness (MPI), also called mass sociogenic illness, mass psychogenic disorder, epidemic hysteria, involves the spread of illness symptoms through a population where there is no infectious agent responsible for contagion.^[1] It is the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms affecting members of a cohesive group, originating from a nervous system disturbance involving excitation, loss, or alteration of function, whereby physical complaints that are exhibited unconsciously have no corresponding organic causes that are known.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mass_hysteria&redirect=no

 

Oil agglomeration^[1][2] is one of the special processes of mineral processing. It is based on differences in surface properties of desired and undesired minerals i.e., carbonaceous coal particles and gangue minerals. It is used for dressing, dehydration of finely dispersed naturally hydrophobic minerals – most often coal, in the first tests – for sulphide ores, in addition, adhesion minerals processing of gold and diamonds. The product of oil agglomeration of coal is carbonaceous agglomerate or granulate.

There are many factor which affect the oil agglomeration process such as coal ranks, moisture content, pulp density or solid concentration, oil dosage or oil concentration, particle size distribution, oil types, agglomeration time, conditioning time, concentration of salts, pH, vessel type, impeller design, number of baffles placed etc., which can be categorized into process variables and design variables. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_agglomeration

A clandestine operation is an intelligence or military operation carried out in such a way that the operation goes unnoticed by the general population or specific enemy forces.

Until the 1970s, clandestine operations were primarily political in nature, generally aimed at assisting groups or nations favored by the sponsor. Examples include U.S. intelligence involvement with German and Japanese war criminals after World War II. Today these operations are numerous and include technology-related clandestine operations.

The bulk of clandestine operations are related to the gathering of intelligence, typically by both people (clandestine human intelligence) and by hidden sensors. Placement of underwater or land-based communications cable taps, cameras, microphones, traffic sensors, monitors such as sniffers, and similar systems require that the mission go undetected and unsuspected. Clandestine sensors may also be on unmanned underwater vehicles, reconnaissance (spy) satellites (such as Misty), low-observability unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), or unmanned detectors (as in Operation Igloo White and its successors), or hand-placed by clandestine human operations.

The United States Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (Joint Publication JP 1-02, dated 8 November 2010, Amended Through 15 February 2016) defines "clandestine", "clandestine intelligence collection", and "clandestine operation" as^[1]

clandestine — Any activity or operation sponsored or conducted by governmental departments or agencies with the intent to assure secrecy and concealment. (JP 2-01.2)

clandestine intelligence collection — The acquisition of protected intelligence information in a way designed to conceal the nature of the operation and protect the source. (JP 2-01.2)

clandestine operation — An operation sponsored or conducted by governmental departments or agencies in such a way as to assure secrecy or concealment. See also covert operation; overt operation. (JP 3-05)

The DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (January 2021) defines "clandestine" and "clandestine operation" the same way.^[2]

The terms clandestine and covert are not synonymous. As noted in the definition (which has been used by the United States and NATO since World War II) in a covert operation the identity of the sponsor is concealed, while in a clandestine operation the operation itself is concealed. Put differently, clandestine means "hidden", where the aim is for the operation to not be noticed at all. Covert means "deniable", such that if the operation is noticed, it is not attributed to a group. The term stealth refers both to a broad set of tactics aimed at providing and preserving the element of surprise and reducing enemy resistance. It can also be used to describe a set of technologies (stealth technology) to aid in those tactics. While secrecy and stealthiness are often desired in clandestine and covert operations, the terms secret and stealthy are not used to formally describe types of missions. Some operations may have both clandestine and covert aspects, such as the use of concealed remote sensors or human observers to direct artillery attacks and airstrikes. The attack is obviously overt (coming under attack alerts the target that he has been located by the enemy), but the targeting component (the exact method that was used to locate targets) can remain clandestine.

In World War II, targets found through cryptanalysis of radio communication were attacked only if there had been aerial reconnaissance in the area, or, in the case of the shootdown of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, where the sighting could be attributed to the Coastwatchers. During the Vietnam War, trucks attacked on the Ho Chi Minh trail were completely unaware of some sensors, such as the airborne Black Crow device that sensed their ignition. They could also have been spotted by a clandestine human patrol. Harassing and interdiction (H&I) or free-fire zone rules can also cause a target to be hit for purely random reasons. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_operation

A covert operation or undercover operation is a military or police operation involving a covert agent or troops acting under an assumed cover to conceal the identity of the party responsible.^[1] Some of the covert operations are also clandestine operations which are performed in secret and meant to stay secret, though many are not.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_operation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background

A background actor or extra is a performer in a film, television show, stage, musical, opera, or ballet production who appears in a nonspeaking or nonsinging (silent) capacity, usually in the background (for example, in an audience or busy street scene). War films and epic films often employ background actors in large numbers: some films have featured hundreds or even thousands of paid background actors as cast members (hence the term "cast of thousands"). Likewise, grand opera can involve many background actors appearing in spectacular productions.^{[citation needed]}

On a film or TV set, background actors are usually referred to as "junior artists", "atmosphere", "background talent", "background performers", "background artists", "background cast members", or simply "background",^[1] while the term "extra" is rarely used.^{[citation needed]} In a stage production, background actors are commonly referred to as "supernumeraries". In opera and ballet, they are called either "extras" or "supers".^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra_(acting)

For molding plastics, see Molding (process).

For other uses, see Casting (disambiguation).

Cast iron casting

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various time setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Heavy equipment like machine tool beds, ships' propellers, etc. can be cast easily in the required size, rather than fabricating by joining several small pieces.^[1] Casting is a 7,000-year-old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from 3200 BC.^[2]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting

 

Look up casting in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Casting is a manufacturing process using a fluid medium in a mould, so as to produce a casting. For casting metal, see casting (metalworking).

Casting may also refer to:

Creating a mold

• Casting, forming a protective orthopedic cast
• Casting, a process in sculpture of converting plastic materials into more solid form

Science and healthcare

• Casting (falconry), anything given to a hawk to purge and cleanse its gorge
• Casting, excretions from an earthworm
• Casting, moulting or shedding of hair in most breeds of dog and other mammals
• Casting, forming a protective orthopedic cast

Other uses

• Casting (fishing), the process of propelling a lure to catch fish
• Casting (performing arts), the process of selecting a cast of actors, or other visual talent such as models for a photo shoot
• Casting or footing, in bookkeeping, a method of summing a table of numbers by column
• Casting, to distribute a stream of data, images, sound, or voice, as in
  • Broadcasting
  • Podcasting
  • Webcasting
• Screen mirroring:
  • Miracast
  • Google Cast
  • AirPlay
• Casting, incantation of magical spells
• Casting, type conversion in computer programming
• Casting, propelling, as in casting off a boat or launching a rocket

See also

• Cast (disambiguation)
• Castang (disambiguation)
• Castaing, a surname
• Caster (disambiguation)
• Recast (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Casting.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(disambiguation)

 

"Starring role" redirects here. For the Marina and the Diamonds song, see Electra Heart.

Casting call for black cats, Los Angeles, 1961; seeking cats for Tales of Terror

In the performing arts industry such as theatre, film, or television, casting, or a casting call, is a pre-production process for selecting a certain type of actor, dancer, singer, or extra for a particular role or part in a script, screenplay, or teleplay. This process may be used for a motion picture, television program, documentary film, music video, play, or advertisement, intended for an audience. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(performing_arts)

 

Storm Castle, el. 7,165 feet (2,184 m) is a mountain peak in the Gallatin Range in Gallatin County, Montana. The peak is located in the Gallatin National Forest. Storm Castle is also known as Castle Peak or Castle Mountain. The peak is a popular 5-mile (8.0 km) round trip hike from the Storm Castle trailhead in the Gallatin Canyon.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_Castle

Gould's wattled bat[1]
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Chiroptera
Family:	Vespertilionidae
Genus:	Chalinolobus
Species:	C. gouldii
Binomial name
Chalinolobus gouldii (Gray, 1841)
Gould's wattled bat range

Gould's wattled bat (Chalinolobus gouldii) is a species of Australian wattled bat named after the English naturalist John Gould.^[3]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gould%27s_wattled_bat

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19

 

 

Americans are the citizens and nationals of the United States of America.^[11][12] The United States is home to people of many racial and ethnic origins; consequently, American culture and law do not equate nationality with race or ethnicity, but with citizenship and an oath of permanent allegiance.^{[13][14][15][16]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans

Humans (Homo sapiens) are the most common and widespread species of primate. A great ape characterized by their bipedalism and high intelligence, humans' large brain and resulting cognitive skills have allowed them to thrive in a variety of environments and develop complex societies and civilizations. Humans are highly social and tend to live in complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship networks to political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and rituals, each of which bolsters human society. The desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity's development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other conceptual frameworks.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human

A mammal (from Latin mamma 'breast')^[1] is a vertebrate animal of the class Mammalia (/məˈmeɪli.ə/). Mammals are characterized by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, from which their ancestors diverged in the Carboniferous Period over 300 million years ago. Around 6,400 extant species of mammals have been described and divided into 29 orders. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal

Speciesism (/ˈspiːʃiːˌzɪzəm, -siːˌzɪz-/) is a term used in philosophy regarding the treatment of individuals of different species. The term has several different definitions within the relevant literature.^[1] A common element of most definitions is that speciesism involves treating members of one species as morally more important than members of other species in the context of their similar interests.^[2] Some sources specifically define speciesism as discrimination or unjustified treatment based on an individual's species membership,^[3][4][5] while other sources define it as differential treatment without regard to whether the treatment is justified or not.^[6][7] Richard Ryder, who coined the term, defined it as "a prejudice or attitude of bias in favour of the interests of members of one's own species and against those of members of other species."^[8] Speciesism results in the belief that humans have the right to use non-human animals, which scholars say is pervasive in the modern society.^[9][10][11] Studies increasingly suggest that people who support animal exploitation also tend to endorse racist, sexist, and other prejudicial views, which furthers the beliefs in human supremacy and group dominance to justify systems of inequality and oppression.^{[10][11][12][13][14]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciesism

Origin(s) or The Origin may refer to:

Arts, entertainment, and media

Comics and manga

Main article: Origins (comics)

• Origin (comics), a Wolverine comic book mini-series published by Marvel Comics in 2002
• The Origin (Buffy comic), a 1999 Buffy the Vampire Slayer comic book series
• Origins (Judge Dredd story), a major Judge Dredd storyline running from 2006 through 2007
• Origin (manga), a 2016 manga by Boichi
• Mobile Suit Gundam: The Origin, a 2002 manga by Yoshikazu Yasuhiko
• Wolverine: Origins, a Marvel Comics series

Films and television

• Origin (TV series), 2018 science-fiction TV series
• "Origin" (Angel), a fifth-season episode of Angel
• Origin: Spirits of the Past, a 2006 anime movie also known as Gin-iro no Kami no Agito
• Origin (Stargate), the religion of the Ori
• "Origin" (Stargate SG-1), a ninth-season episode of Stargate SG-1
• X-Men Origins: Wolverine, a 2009 superhero film, prequel to the X-Men film trilogy
• Origins: The Journey of Humankind, a National Geographic TV series
• "The Origin" (Dark), episode 4 of season 3 of the Dark TV series
• The Origin (film), a 2022 British film

Gaming

• Origin (service), a video game digital distribution service and platform from Electronic Arts
• Origin Systems, a former video game developer
• Origin, King of the Summon Spirits in Tales of Phantasia and its prequel, Tales of Symphonia
• Origins, spirits that are attached to The Mystics in Legaia 2: Duel Saga
• Origins Award, presented by the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design at the Origins Game Fair
• Origins Game Fair, an annual board game event in Columbus, Ohio
• Assassin's Creed Origins, part of the Assassin's Creed franchise
• Batman: Arkham Origins, part of the Batman game franchise
• Dragon Age: Origins, a 2009 role-playing video game and first installment of the Dragon Age series
• F.E.A.R. 2: Project Origin, the sequel to F.E.A.R. by Monolith
• Rayman Origins, a 2011 installment in the Rayman series
• Silent Hill: Origins, the fifth installment of the Silent Hill survival horror series and prequel to the original 1999 game
• Origins, the final zombies map released for Call of Duty: Black Ops 2
• Origin, the final dungeon of Xenoblade Chronicles 3

Literature

Fiction

• Origin (Baxter novel), a 2001 science fiction book by Stephen Baxter
• Origin (Brown novel), a 2017 novel by Dan Brown, the fifth installment in the Robert Langdon series
• Origin, a 2007 novel by Diana Abu-Jaber
• Origins, a fantasy novel in the Fourth World series by Kate Thompson
• The Origin (novel), a biographical novel of Charles Darwin by Irving Stone

Nonfiction

• Origins (Cato), Cato the Elder's lost work on Roman and Italian history
• Origins, a book on evolution by Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin

Music

• The Origin (Einhorn), a 2009 opera/oratorio by Richard Einhorn

Groups

• Origin (band), an American metal band formed in 1997
• The Origin (band), an American rock and power pop band 1985–1992
• Origin, a jazz group led by Chick Corea

Albums

• Origin (Borknagar album), 2006
• Origin (Dayseeker album), 2015
• Origin (Evanescence album), 2000
• Origin (Origin album), 2000
• Origin, by Omnium Gatherum, 2021
• Origin, an EP by Kelly Moran, 2019
• The Origin (album), by The Origin, 1990
• Origins (Bridge to Grace album), 2015
• Origins (Eluveitie album), 2014
• Origins (God Is an Astronaut album), 2013
• Origins (Imagine Dragons album), 2018
• Origins (Dan Reed Network album) [de], by Dan Reed Network, 2018
• Origins, by Steve Roach, 1993

Songs

• "Origin", by Neurosis from their 2007 album Given to the Rising

Periodicals

• Origin (magazine), an American poetry magazine
• Origins, a theological journal published by Catholic News Service (CNS)
• Origins, a peer-reviewed creation science journal of the Geoscience Research Institute (GRI)

Brands and enterprises

• Atos Origin, a company formed by the merger of BSO and Philips C&P (Communications & Processing) division
• Origin Energy, an Australian gas and electricity company
• Origin Enterprises, Irish agribusiness multinational
• Origin PC, a personal computer manufacturer
• Origins (cosmetics), a plant-based skin care and fragrance company of Estée Lauder
• Toyota Origin, a limited edition Toyota automobile released in Japan
• Origin (3D printing), a San Francisco-based 3D printing company acquired by Stratasys

Philosophy and religion

• Creatio ex nihilo, Latin for "creation out of nothing", a phrase used in philosophical and theological contexts
• Creation myth, a symbolic account of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it
• Origin myth, a story or explanation that describes the beginning of some feature of the natural or social world
• Origin story, or pourquoi story, a fictional narrative that explains why something is the way it is
• Origins, a theological journal published by Catholic News Service (CNS)

Science, technology and mathematics

Biology and medicine

• Origin (anatomy), the place or point at which a part or structure arises
• Abiogenesis, the study of how life on Earth arose from inanimate matter
• Noogenesis, the study of origin and evolution of mind
• Origin of humanity, the study of human evolution
• Origin of replication, the location at which DNA replication is initiated
• Paleoanthropology, the study of human origin
• Pedigree (dog), registered ancestry

Computing and technology

• Dalsa Origin, a digital movie camera
• Origin of a URI, as used in the Same-origin policy
• Origin (data analysis software), scientific graphing and data analysis software developed by OriginLab Corp
• Original equipment manufacturer (OEM), any company which manufactures products for another company's brand name
• SGI Origin 200, a series of entry-level MIPS-based server computers made by Silicon Graphics
• SGI Origin 2000, a series of mid-range to high-end MIPS-based server computers made by Silicon Graphics
• SGI Origin 3000, a series of mid-range to high-end MIPS-based server computers made by Silicon Graphics that succeeded the Origin 2000

Mathematics

• Origin (mathematics), a fixed point of reference for the geometry of the surrounding space
  • Most commonly, the point of intersection of the axes in the Cartesian coordinate system
• Origin, the pole in the polar coordinate system

Time

• Origin, a general point in time
• Origin, an epochal date or event, see epoch
• Origin, in astronomy, an epochal moment, i.e., a reference for the orbital elements of a celestial body

Other

• Origin, in cosmogony, any theory concerning the origin of the universe
• Origin, in cosmology, the study of the universe and humanity's place in it

Sports

• City vs Country Origin, an annual Australian rugby league football match
• International Origin Match, England vs Exiles
• State of Origin series, annual best-of-three rugby league football match

Other uses

• Origin, or genealogy, the origin of families
• Origin, or etymology, the origin of words
• Origin, or toponymy, the origin of place names

See also

• Begin (disambiguation)
• Creation (disambiguation)
• Origen (disambiguation)
• Original (disambiguation)
• Point of origin (disambiguation)
• Source (disambiguation)
• Start (disambiguation)
• All pages with titles beginning with Origin
• All pages with titles containing Origin

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Origin.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin

Genesis may refer to:

Bible

• Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of mankind
• Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Book of Genesis, which describes the origin of the Earth
• Genesis Rabbah, a midrash probably written between 300 and 500 CE with some later additions, comprising a collection of interpretations of the Book of Genesis

Literature and comics

• Genesis (DC Comics), a 1997 DC Comics crossover
• Genesis (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics supervillain
• Genesis, a fictional character in the comic book series Preacher
• Genesis, a 1951 story by H. Beam Piper
• Genesis: The Origins of Man and the Universe, a 1982 science text by John Gribbin
• Genesis, a 1988 epic poem by Frederick Turner
• Genesis, a 2000 story by Poul Anderson
• Genesis (novel), a 2006 work by Bernard Beckett
• Genesis, a 2007 story by Paul Chafe
• Genesis (journal), a scientific journal of biology
• Genesis (magazine), a pornographic magazine
• Genesis Publications, a British publishing company
• Genesis, a graphic novel by Nathan Edmondson
• The Book of Genesis (comics), comic-book adaptation illustrated by Robert Crumb

People

Given name

• Génesis Dávila (born 1990), Puerto Rican-American model and beauty pageant titleholder
• Génesis Franchesco (born 1990), Venezuelan female volleyball player
• Genesis Lynea (born 1989), Bermudian-British actress, singer, dancer, and model
• Genesis Potini (1963–2011), New Zealand speed chess player
• Genesis Rodriguez (born 1987), American actress
• Génesis Rodríguez (born 1994), Venezuelan female weightlifter
• Génesis Romero (born 1995), Venezuelan athlete
• Genesis Servania (born 1991), Filipino professional boxer

Surname

• Mercy Genesis (born 1997), Nigerian wrestler

Fictional characters

• Genesis Rhapsodos, main antagonist of the video game Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII

Music

Artists

• Genesis (band), English rock band
• Génesis (band), Colombian folk rock band
• Genesis (1971–1974), original name for American rock/metal band Vixen
• Genesis P-Orridge (1950–2020), English musician and frontperson of Throbbing Gristle
• Genesis Drum and Bugle Corps, a drum and bugle corp from Austin, Texas

Albums

• Genesis (Busta Rhymes album)
• Genesis (Charles Sullivan album)
• Genesis, album by Coprofago
• Genesis (Diaura album)
• Genesis (Domo Genesis Album)
• Genesis (Elvin Jones album)
• Genesis (Genesis album)
• Genesis (The Gods album)
• Genesis, album by JJ Lin
• Genesis (Job for a Cowboy album)
• Genesis (Joy Williams album)
• Genesis, album by Larry Heard
• Génesis (Mary Ann Acevedo album)
• Genesis (Notaker EP)
• Genesis (Rotting Christ album)
• Genesis (S.H.E album)
• Genesis (Talisman album)
• Genesis, album by The-Dream
• Genesis (Woe, Is Me album)
• The Genesis, album by Yngwie Malmsteen

Songs

• "Genesis", by Ambrose Slade from Beginnings
• "Genesis", by Cult of Luna from The Beyond
• "Genesis", by Deftones from Ohms
• "Genesis", by Devin Townsend from Empath
• "Genesis", by Dua Lipa from Dua Lipa
• "Genesis", by Eir Aoi, from Aldnoah.Zero
• "Genesis", by Ghost, from Opus Eponymous
• "Genesis", by Glass Casket, from Desperate Man's Diary
• "Genesis" (Grimes song)
• "Genesis", by Jorma Kaukonen from Quah
• "Genesis", by Justice, from Cross
• "Génesis" (Lucecita Benítez song)
• "Génesis", by Mägo de Oz, from Jesús de Chamberí
• "Genesis" (Matthew Shell and Arun Shenoy song)
• "Genesis" (Michalis Hatzigiannis song)
• "Genesis" by Mumzy Stranger and Yasmin from Journey Begins
• "Genesis", by Northlane, from Singularity
• "Genesis", by Running Wild, from Black Hand Inn
• "Genesis", by The Ventures
• "Genesis" (VNV Nation song)
• "Génesis", by Vox Dei, from La Biblia

Technology

• Genesis, the time and date of the first block of a blockchain data structure
• GENESIS (software), GEneral NEural SImulation System
• Genesis Framework, a theme for the WordPress CMS
• Genesis LPMud, the first MUD of the LPMud family
• Norton 360, codenamed Project Genesis or simply Genesis
• X-COM: Genesis, a computer game
• Sega Genesis, a video game console

Television and film

Television

• "Genesis" (Arrow), episode of Arrow
• Genesis (TV series), Filipino television series
• "Genesis" (Heroes), pilot episode of Heroes
• "Genesis" (Quantum Leap episode)
• "Genesis" (Sliders), episode of Sliders
• "Genesis" (Survivors), episode of Survivors
• "Genesis" (Star Trek: The Next Generation), episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation
• Genesis II (film), science fiction TV movie created and produced by Gene Roddenberry
• Genesis Awards, television awards
• Genesis Entertainment, a News Corporation subsidiary
• Genesis Television Network, an American religious network
• TNA Genesis, a professional wrestling pay-per-view and television program
  • Genesis (2005)
  • Genesis (2006)
  • Genesis (2007)
  • Genesis (2009)
  • Genesis (2010)
  • Genesis (2011)
  • Genesis (2012)
  • Genesis (2013)
  • Genesis (2014)
  • Genesis (2017)
  • Genesis (2018)
  • Genesis (2021)
• Zoids: Genesis, fifth anime installment of the Zoids franchise
• Genesis (Air Gear), fictional Air Trek team in Air Gear
• Gênesis, Brazilian telenovela broadcast by RecordTV

Film

• Genesis (1986 film), an Indian film directed by Mrinal Sen Sen
• Genesis (1994 film), an Italian television film
• Genesis (1999 film), a Malian film
• Genesis (2004 film), a documentary
• Genesis (2018 Canadian film), a Canadian film
• Genesis (2018 Hungarian film), a Hungarian film
• [REC]³: Genesis, a 2012 Spanish horror film directed by Paco Plaza
• Project Genesis and the Genesis Planet, a fictional technology and the planet created by it in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek III: The Search for Spock

Transportation

Vehicles

• Aviomania Genesis Duo G2SA, a Cypriot autogyro design
• Aviomania Genesis Solo G1SA, a Cypriot autogyro design
• Bertone Genesis, a concept truck
• GE Genesis, a locomotive
• Genesis (bikes), a British bicycle brand
• Genesis Motor, luxury vehicle division of Hyundai Motor Company Group.
• Genesis Transport, a bus company in the Philippines
• Oasis class cruise ship, a class of Royal Caribbean cruise ships, formerly known as Project Genesis
• SlipStream Genesis, kit aircraft
• Yamaha FZR600 Genesis, a motorcycle

Spacecraft

• Genesis (spacecraft), a NASA probe that collected solar samples
• Genesis I, a private spacecraft produced by Bigelow Aerospace
  • Genesis II (space habitat), a follow-up to Genesis I

Companies

• Genesis, an American cryptocurrency brokerage
• Genesis Energy Limited, a New Zealand electricity generator and retailer
• Genesis HealthCare, a nursing home facility operator
• Genesis Microchip, a semiconductor company acquired by STMicroelectronics in 2007

Other uses

• Genesis (camera), a high-definition camera by Panavision
• Genesis Rock, a sample of lunar crust retrieved by Apollo 15 astronauts
• Sega Genesis, a 16-bit video game console also known as the Mega Drive
• Genesis (tournament), a Super Smash Bros. tournament in the San Francisco Bay Area

See also

• Terminator Genisys, a 2015 science fiction action film and fifth entry in the Terminator series
• Abiogenesis, the origin of life
• Biogenesis, the production of new living organisms
• Genesis Solar Energy Project, a solar power plant in California, United States
• Mass Effect Genesis, an interactive comic attached to the game Mass Effect 2
• Project Genesis (disambiguation)
• Genesys (disambiguation)
• Genisys (disambiguation)
• Gensis (disambiguation)
• Genesis (given name)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Genesis.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories:

• Disambiguation pages
• Disambiguation pages with given-name-holder lists
• Unisex given names

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis

In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. Astronomers have derived two different measurements of the age of the universe:^[1] a measurement based on direct observations of an early state of the universe, which indicate an age of 13.787±0.020 billion years as interpreted with the Lambda-CDM concordance model as of 2021;^[2] and a measurement based on the observations of the local, modern universe, which suggest a younger age.^[3][4][5] The uncertainty of the first kind of measurement has been narrowed down to 20 million years, based on a number of studies that all show similar figures for the age and that includes studies of the microwave background radiation by the Planck spacecraft, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and other space probes. Measurements of the cosmic background radiation give the cooling time of the universe since the Big Bang,^[6] and measurements of the expansion rate of the universe can be used to calculate its approximate age by extrapolating backwards in time. The range of the estimate is also within the range of the estimate for the oldest observed star in the universe.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe

The age of Earth is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years (4.54 × 10⁹ years ± 1%).^[1][2][3][4] This age may represent the age of Earth's accretion, or core formation, or of the material from which Earth formed.^[2] This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite^[5] material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial material^[6] and lunar samples.^[7]

Following the development of radiometric age-dating in the early 20th century, measurements of lead in uranium-rich minerals showed that some were in excess of a billion years old.^[8] The oldest such minerals analyzed to date—small crystals of zircon from the Jack Hills of Western Australia—are at least 4.404 billion years old.^[6][9][10] Calcium–aluminium-rich inclusions—the oldest known solid constituents within meteorites that are formed within the Solar System—are 4.567 billion years old,^[11][12] giving a lower limit for the age of the Solar System.

It is hypothesised that the accretion of Earth began soon after the formation of the calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions and the meteorites. Because the time this accretion process took is not yet known, and predictions from different accretion models range from a few million up to about 100 million years, the difference between the age of Earth and of the oldest rocks is difficult to determine. It is also difficult to determine the exact age of the oldest rocks on Earth, exposed at the surface, as they are aggregates of minerals of possibly different ages.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Earth

Development of modern geologic concepts

Life timeline
This box: view talk edit
−4500 — – — – −4000 — – — – −3500 — – — – −3000 — – — – −2500 — – — – −2000 — – — – −1500 — – — – −1000 — – — – −500 — – — – 0 —	Water   Single-celled life   Photosynthesis   Eukaryotes   Multicellular life   P l a n t s   Arthropods Molluscs Flowers Dinosaurs   Mammals Birds Primates H a d e a n A r c h e a n P r o t e r o z o i c P h a n e r o z o i c	← Earth formed ← Earliest water ← LUCA ← Earliest fossils ← LHB meteorites ← Earliest oxygen ← Pongola glaciation* ← Atmospheric oxygen ← Huronian glaciation* ← Sexual reproduction ← Earliest multicellular life ← Earliest fungi ← Earliest plants ← Earliest animals ← Cryogenian ice age* ← Ediacaran biota ← Cambrian explosion ← Andean glaciation* ← Earliest tetrapods ← Karoo ice age* ← Earliest apes / humans ← Quaternary ice age*
(million years ago) *Ice Ages

Main article: History of geology

Further information: Relative dating

Studies of strata—the layering of rocks and earth—gave naturalists an appreciation that Earth may have been through many changes during its existence. These layers often contained fossilized remains of unknown creatures, leading some to interpret a progression of organisms from layer to layer.^[13][14]

Nicolas Steno in the 17th century was one of the first naturalists to appreciate the connection between fossil remains and strata.^[14] His observations led him to formulate important stratigraphic concepts (i.e., the "law of superposition" and the "principle of original horizontality").^[15] In the 1790s, William Smith hypothesized that if two layers of rock at widely differing locations contained similar fossils, then it was very plausible that the layers were the same age.^[16] Smith's nephew and student, John Phillips, later calculated by such means that Earth was about 96 million years old.^[17]

In the mid-18th century, the naturalist Mikhail Lomonosov suggested that Earth had been created separately from, and several hundred thousand years before, the rest of the universe^{[citation needed]}. Lomonosov's ideas were mostly speculative^{[citation needed]}. In 1779 the Comte du Buffon tried to obtain a value for the age of Earth using an experiment: He created a small globe that resembled Earth in composition and then measured its rate of cooling. This led him to estimate that Earth was about 75,000 years old.^[18]

Other naturalists used these hypotheses to construct a history of Earth, though their timelines were inexact as they did not know how long it took to lay down stratigraphic layers.^[15] In 1830, geologist Charles Lyell, developing ideas found in James Hutton's works, popularized the concept that the features of Earth were in perpetual change, eroding and reforming continuously, and the rate of this change was roughly constant. This was a challenge to the traditional view, which saw the history of Earth as dominated by intermittent catastrophes. Many naturalists were influenced by Lyell to become "uniformitarians" who believed that changes were constant and uniform.^{[citation needed]}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Earth}

Mantle convection is the very slow creeping motion of Earth's solid silicate mantle as convection currents carry heat from the interior to the planet's surface.^[1][2]

The Earth's surface lithosphere rides atop the asthenosphere and the two form the components of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created or consumed at plate boundaries. Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate, associated with seafloor spreading. Upwelling beneath the spreading centers is a shallow, rising component of mantle convection and in most cases not directly linked to the global mantle upwelling. The hot material added at spreading centers cools down by conduction and convection of heat as it moves away from the spreading centers. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction usually at an ocean trench. Subduction is the descending component of mantle convection.^[3]

This subducted material sinks through the Earth's interior. Some subducted material appears to reach the lower mantle,^[4] while in other regions, this material is impeded from sinking further, possibly due to a phase transition from spinel to silicate perovskite and magnesiowustite, an endothermic reaction.^[5]

The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism, although the basic mechanisms are varied. Volcanism may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle, which would cause upward flow of the partial melt due to decrease in its density. Secondary convection may cause surface volcanism as a consequence of intraplate extension^[6] and mantle plumes.^[7] In 1993 it was suggested that inhomogeneities in D" layer have some impact on mantle convection.^[8]

Mantle convection causes tectonic plates to move around the Earth's surface.^[9] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_convection

A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location. The temperature gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of degrees (on a particular temperature scale) per unit length. The SI unit is kelvin per meter (K/m).

Temperature gradients in the atmosphere are important in the atmospheric sciences (meteorology, climatology and related fields). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_gradient

Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves.^[1][2][3] Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 3 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connected to an antenna which radiates the waves, and received by another antenna connected to a radio receiver. Radio is widely used in modern technology, in radio communication, radar, radio navigation, remote control, remote sensing, and other applications.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio

Psychoacoustics is the branch of psychophysics involving the scientific study of sound perception and audiology—how human auditory system perceives various sounds. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological responses associated with sound (including noise, speech, and music). Psychoacoustics is an interdisciplinary field of many areas, including psychology, acoustics, electronic engineering, physics, biology, physiology, and computer science.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics

Geopositioning, also known as geotracking, geolocalization, geolocating, geolocation, or geoposition fixing, is the process of determining or estimating the geographic position of an object.^[1]

Geopositioning yields a set of geographic coordinates (such as latitude and longitude) in a given map datum; positions may also be expressed as a bearing and range from a known landmark. In turn, positions can determine a meaningful location, such as a street address.

Specific instances include: animal geotracking, the process of inferring the location of animals; positioning system, the mechanisms for the determination of geographic positions in general; internet geolocation, geolocating a device connected to the internet; and mobile phone tracking.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopositioning

Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with identical genomes, either by natural or artificial means. In nature, some organisms produce clones through asexual reproduction. In the field of biotechnology, cloning is the process of creating cloned organisms of cells and of DNA fragments.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning

Tracing may refer to:

Computer graphics

• Image tracing, digital image processing to convert raster graphics into vector graphics
• Path tracing, a method of rendering images of three-dimensional scenes such that the global illumination is faithful to reality
• Ray tracing (graphics), techniques in computer graphics
• Boundary tracing (also known as contour tracing), a segmentation technique that identifies the boundary pixels of the digital region

Software engineering

• Tracing (software), a method of debugging in computer programming
• System monitoring
• Application performance management

Physics

• Ray tracing (physics), a method for calculating the path of waves or particles
• Dye tracing, tracking various flows using dye added to the liquid in question

Other uses

• Tracing (art), copying an object or drawing, especially with the use of translucent tracing paper
• Tracing (criminology), determining crime scene activity from trace evidence left at crime scenes
• Tracing (law), a legal process by which a claimant demonstrates what has happened to their property
• Anterograde tracing, and Retrograde tracing, biological research techniques used to map the connections of neurons
• Call tracing, a procedure that permits an entitled user to be informed about the routing of data for an established connection
• Curve sketching, a process for determining the shape of a geometric curve
• Family Tracing and Reunification, a process whereby disaster response teams locate separated family members
• Tracking and tracing, a process of monitoring the location and status of property in transit
• Curve tracing, a method for analyzing the characteristics of semiconductors; see Semiconductor curve tracer
• Tracing (as with a gun or camera), tracking an object, as with the use of tracer ammunition
• Contact tracing, finding and identifying people in contact with someone with an infectious disease

See also

• All pages with titles containing Tracing
• Trace (disambiguation)
• Tracer (disambiguation)
• Tracking (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Tracing.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracing

 

An error (from the Latin error, meaning "wandering")^[1] is an action which is inaccurate or incorrect.^[2] In some usages, an error is synonymous with a mistake. The etymology derives from the Latin term 'errare', meaning 'to stray'.

In statistics, "error" refers to the difference between the value which has been computed and the correct value.^[3] An error could result in failure or in a deviation from the intended performance or behavior.^[4]

Human behavior

One reference differentiates between "error" and "mistake" as follows:

An 'error' is a deviation from accuracy or correctness. A 'mistake' is an error caused by a fault: the fault being misjudgment, carelessness, or forgetfulness. Now, say that I run a stop sign because I was in a hurry, and wasn't concentrating, and the police stop me, that is a mistake. If, however, I try to park in an area with conflicting signs, and I get a ticket because I was incorrect on my interpretation of what the signs meant, that would be an error. The first time it would be an error. The second time it would be a mistake since I should have known better.^[5]

In human behavior the norms or expectations for behavior or its consequences can be derived from the intention of the actor or from the expectations of other individuals or from a social grouping or from social norms. (See deviance.) Gaffes and faux pas can be labels for certain instances of this kind of error. More serious departures from social norms carry labels such as misbehavior and labels from the legal system, such as misdemeanor and crime. Departures from norms connected to religion can have other labels, such as sin.

An individual language user's deviations from standard language norms in grammar, pronunciation and orthography are sometimes referred to as errors. However, in light of the role of language usage in everyday social class distinctions, many feel that linguistics should restrain itself from such prescriptivist judgments to avoid reinforcing dominant class value claims about what linguistic forms should and should not be used. One may distinguish various kinds of linguistic errors^[6] – some, such as aphasia or speech disorders, where the user is unable to say what they intend to, are generally considered errors, while cases where natural, intended speech is non-standard (as in vernacular dialects), are considered legitimate speech in scholarly linguistics, but might be considered errors in prescriptivist contexts. See also Error analysis (linguistics).

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_norm}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance}

 

In law, acquiescence occurs when a person knowingly stands by, without raising any objection to, the infringement of their rights, while someone else unknowingly and without malice aforethought acts in a manner inconsistent with their rights.^[1] As a result of acquiescence, the person whose rights are infringed may lose the ability to make a legal claim against the infringer, or may be unable to obtain an injunction against continued infringement. The doctrine infers a form of "permission" that results from silence or passiveness over an extended period of time. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquiescence

A silence procedure or tacit consent^[1] or tacit acceptance procedure^[2] (French: procédure d'approbation tacite; Latin: qui tacet consentire videtur, "he who is silent is taken to agree", "silence implies/means consent") is a way of formally adopting texts, often, but not exclusively in international political context.

A textbook on diplomacy describes the silence procedure thus:

... a proposal with strong support is deemed to have been agreed unless any member raises an objection to it before a precise deadline: silence signifies assent – or, at least, acquiescence. This procedure relies on a member in a minority fearing that raising an objection will expose it to the charge of obstructiveness and, thereby, the perils of isolation. Silence procedure is employed by NATO, the OSCE, in the framework of the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union (EU) and, no doubt, in numerous other international bodies.^[3]

In the context of international organisations, the subject of the procedure is often a joint statement or a procedural document, a formal vote on which with the members meeting in person is deemed unnecessary. Indeed, it is often impractical to try to stage a meeting between representatives of all member states either due to the limited importance of the text to be agreed upon or due to time constraints in the case of a joint declaration prompted by recent events. Organisations making extensive use of the procedure are, among others, the European Union, NATO and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).

A draft version of the text is circulated among participants who have a last opportunity to propose changes or amendments to the text. If no amendments are proposed (if no one 'breaks the silence') before the deadline of the procedure, the text is considered adopted by all participants. Often this procedure is the last step in adopting the text, after the basic premises of the text have been agreed upon in previous negotiations. 'Breaking the silence' is only a last resort in case a participant still has fundamental problems with parts of the text and is therefore the exception rather than the rule. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silence_procedure

A code of silence is a condition in effect when a person opts to withhold what is believed to be vital or important information voluntarily or involuntarily.

The code of silence is usually followed because of threat of force or danger to oneself, or being branded as a traitor or an outcast within the unit or organization, as the experience of police whistleblower Frank Serpico illustrates. Police are known to have a well-developed blue wall of silence.

A more well-known example of the code of silence is omertà (Italian: omertà, from the Latin: humilitas=humility or modesty), the Mafia code of silence.

See also

• Blue wall of silence – Informal rule that American police do not report misconduct by other officers
• Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
• Stop Snitchin'
• Spotlight, a 2015 film that explores a communal code of silence that reigned during the Boston sex abuse scandal

References

• Bill Maxwell, Opinion Columnist "Code of silence corrodes morality, puts blacks at risk" (2010, July 23)
• Board, Editorial. "Judgment day for Chicago's police code of silence". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2016-12-02.

This law enforcement–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories:

• Group processes
• Silence
• Law enforcement stubs

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_silence

To make an argument from silence (Latin: argumentum ex silentio) is to express a conclusion that is based on the absence of statements in historical documents, rather than their presence.^[2][3] In the field of classical studies, it often refers to the assertion that an author is ignorant of a subject, based on the lack of references to it in the author's available writings.^[3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_from_silence}

Secundus the Silent (Ancient Greek: Σεκοῦνδος) (fl. 2nd century AD) was a Cynic or Neopythagorean philosopher who lived in Athens in the early 2nd century, who had taken a vow of silence. An anonymous text entitled Life of Secundus (Latin: Vita Secundi Philosophi) purports to give details of his life as well as answers to philosophical questions posed to him by the emperor Hadrian. The work enjoyed great popularity in the Middle Ages. 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundus_the_Silent}

Noble Silence is a term attributed to the Gautama Buddha, for his reported responses to certain questions about reality. One such instance is when he was asked the fourteen unanswerable questions. In similar situations he often responded to antinomy-based descriptions of reality by saying that both antithetical options presented to him were inappropriate.

A specific reference to noble silence in Buddha's teaching involved an occasion where Buddha forbade his disciples from continuing a discussion, saying that in such congregation the discussion of the sacred doctrine is proper or practicing noble silence.^[1] This does not indicate misology or disdain for philosophy on the Buddha's part. Rather, it indicates that he viewed these questions as not leading to true knowledge.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Silence

A conspiracy of silence, or culture of silence, describes the behavior of a group of people of some size, as large as an entire national group or profession or as small as a group of colleagues, that by unspoken consensus does not mention, discuss, or acknowledge a given subject. The practice may be motivated by positive interest in group solidarity or by such negative impulses as fear of political repercussion or social ostracism. It differs from avoiding a taboo subject in that the term is applied to more limited social and political contexts rather than to an entire culture. As a descriptor, conspiracy of silence implies dishonesty, sometimes cowardice, sometimes privileging loyalty to one social group over another. As a social practice, it is rather more extensive than the use of euphemisms to avoid addressing a topic directly.

Some instances of such a practice are sufficiently well-known or enduring to become known by their own specific terms, including code of silence for the refusal of law enforcement officers to speak out against crimes committed by fellow officers and omertà, cultural code of organized crime in Sicily. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_of_silence_(expression)

This article is about a refusal to cooperate. For construction of stone walls, see Dry stone § Construction.

Stonewalling is a refusal to communicate or cooperate. Such behaviour occurs in situations such as marriage guidance counseling, diplomatic negotiations, politics and legal cases.^[1] Body language may indicate and reinforce this by avoiding contact and engagement with the other party.^[2] People use deflection in a conversation in order to render a conversation pointless and insignificant. Tactics in stonewalling include giving sparse, vague responses, refusing to answer questions, or responding to questions with additional questions. Stonewalling can be used as a stalling tactic rather than an avoidance tactic.^[3]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonewalling

 

Obstructionism is the practice of deliberately delaying or preventing a process or change, especially in politics.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstructionism

Exploit means to take advantage of something (a person, situation, etc.) for one's own end, especially unethically or unjustifiably.

Exploit can mean:

• Exploitation of natural resources
• Exploit (computer security)
• Video game exploit
• Exploitation of labour, Marxist and other sociological aspects

History

• Exploits River, the longest river on the island of Newfoundland
• Bay of Exploits, a bay of Newfoundland

Other

• Exploit (video game), a browser video game by Gregory Weir
• Exploit, episode of documentary Dark Net (TV series) 2016

See also

• The Exploited, a Scottish punk band
• Overexploitation
• Exploitation (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Exploit.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit

Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns.^[2] Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term applies to natural resources such as water aquifers, grazing pastures and forests, wild medicinal plants, fish stocks and other wildlife.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation

The Catch Trap is a novel by Marion Zimmer Bradley, published in 1979. Set in the circus world of the 1940s and 1950s, it tells the story of two trapeze artists, Mario Santelli and Tommy Zane, and the professional relationship they develop which ultimately leads to love.

This rich tale encompasses the exhilarating highs of soaring under the Big Top down to the lows of having to hide their secret relationship from their extended colourful circus family due to the conservative times they live in. What does remain steadfast is their devotion and passion to both their craft and each other.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catch_Trap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_states

A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere. Globes serve purposes similar to maps, but unlike maps, they do not distort the surface that they portray except to scale it down. A model globe of Earth is called a terrestrial globe. A model globe of the celestial sphere is called a celestial globe.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_(disambiguation)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

 

 

Deliberative democracy or discursive democracy is a form of democracy in which deliberation is central to decision-making. It often adopts elements of both consensus decision-making and majority rule. Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of legitimacy for the law. Deliberative democracy is closely related to consultative democracy, in which public consultation with citizens is central to democratic processes.

While deliberative democracy is generally seen as some form of an amalgam of representative democracy and direct democracy, the actual relationship is usually open to dispute.^[1] Some practitioners and theorists use the term to encompass representative bodies whose members authentically and practically deliberate on legislation without unequal distributions of power, while others use the term exclusively to refer to decision-making directly by lay citizens, as in direct democracy.

Joseph M. Bessette has been credited with coining the term in his 1980 work Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deliberative_democracy

Conscientious objection in the United States is based on the Military Selective Service Act,^[1] which delegates its implementation to the Selective Service System.^[2] Conscientious objection is also recognized by the Department of Defense.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientious_objection_in_the_United_States

A conscientious objector (often shortened to conchie)^[1] is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service"^[2] on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion.^[3] The term has also been extended to objecting to working for the military–industrial complex due to a crisis of conscience.^[4] In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to an alternative civilian service as a substitute for conscription or military service.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscientious_objector

The inverted black triangle (German: schwarzes Dreieck) was an identification badge used in Nazi concentration camps to mark prisoners designated asozial ("asocial")^[1][2] and arbeitsscheu ("work-shy"). The Roma and Sinti people were considered asocial and tagged with the black triangle.^[1][3] The designation also included alcoholics, beggars, homeless people, lesbians, nomads, prostitutes, and violators of laws prohibiting sexual relations between Aryans and Jews.^{[1][2] [2][4]}

 

An inverted black triangle, as used in badges.

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_triangle_(badge)}

 

 The forestry service^[1] was a form of alternative service offered to German speaking Mennonites in lieu of military service in Russia from 1881 to 1918. At its peak during World War I, 7,000 men served in forestry and agricultural pest control in Ukraine and South Russia. The program ended in the turmoil of the Russian Revolution. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry_service_(Russia)

Aamulehti (Finnish for "morning newspaper") is a Finnish-language daily newspaper published in Tampere, Finland.

History and profile

Aamulehti was founded in 1881^[1][2] to "improve the position of the Finnish people and the Finnish language" during Russia's rule over Finland.^[3] The founders were nationalistic Finns in Tampere.^[1][4]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aamulehti

Fragments (Russian: Осколки) was a Russian humorous, literary and artistic weekly magazine published in St Petersburg from 1881 to 1916.

History

From 1881 to 1906 Fragments was published by the popular writer Nikolay Leykin. From 1906 to 1908 it was run by the humorist Viktor Bilibin.^[1]

In the 1880s Fragments was known as the most liberal of Russian humorous magazines. Fragments played an important part in the early career of Anton Chekhov. From 1882 to 1887 Fragments published more than 270 of Chekhov's works.

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragments_(magazine)}

 

The Swiss Civilian Service is a Swiss institution, created in 1996 as an civilian substitute service to military service. It was introduced as part of the so-called Vision 95 (Armeeleitbild 95) reform package.^[1] Anyone who is unable to do military service for reasons of conscience can submit an application to perform civilian service instead. Formerly, the applicant was then forced to attend a hearing where they had to explain their reasons for refusal. Now, they must simply take part in a one-day introductory session to civilian service within three months of submitting their application.  

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Civilian_Service}

A construction soldier (German: Bausoldat, BS) was a non-combat role of the National People's Army, the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), from 1964 to 1990. Bausoldaten were conscientious objectors who accepted conscription but refused armed service and instead served in unarmed construction units. Bausoldaten were the only legal form of conscientious objection in the Warsaw Pact. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_soldier

 

Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including, though not necessarily limited to, governments, nation states,^[1] and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies or other forms of free associations. As a historically left-wing movement, this reading of anarchism is placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum, it is usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement (libertarian socialism).  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism

Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics,^[a][1] from Greek ἀρετή [aretḗ]) is an approach to ethics that treats the concept of moral virtue as central. Virtue ethics is usually contrasted with two other major approaches in ethics, consequentialism and deontology, which make the goodness of outcomes of an action (consequentialism) and the concept of moral duty (deontology) central. While virtue ethics does not necessarily deny the importance of goodness of states of affairs or moral duties to ethics, it emphasizes moral virtue, and sometimes other concepts, like eudaimonia, to an extent that other ethical dispositions do not. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics

 

Moral character or character (derived from charaktêr) is an analysis of an individual's steady moral qualities. The concept of character can express a variety of attributes, including the presence or lack of virtues such as empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, or of good behaviors or habits; these attributes are also a part of one's soft skills. Moral character primarily refers to the collection of qualities that differentiate one individual from another – although on a cultural level, the group of moral behaviors to which a social group adheres can be said to unite and define it culturally as distinct from others. Psychologist Lawrence Pervin defines moral character as "a disposition to express behavior in consistent patterns of functions across a range of situations".^[1] Same as, the philosopher Marie I. George refers to moral character as the "sum of one’s moral habits and dispositions".^[2] Aristotle has said, "we must take as a sign of states of character the pleasure or pain that ensues on acts."^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_character

 

Predicting consequences

Some argue that it is impossible to do the calculation that utilitarianism requires because consequences are inherently unknowable. Daniel Dennett describes this as the "Three Mile Island effect".^[85] Dennett points out that not only is it impossible to assign a precise utility value to the incident, it is impossible to know whether, ultimately, the near-meltdown that occurred was a good or bad thing. He suggests that it would have been a good thing if plant operators learned lessons that prevented future serious incidents.

Russell Hardin (1990) rejects such arguments. He argues that it is possible to distinguish the moral impulse of utilitarianism (which is "to define the right as good consequences and to motivate people to achieve these") from our ability to correctly apply rational principles that, among other things, "depend on the perceived facts of the case and on the particular moral actor's mental equipment."^[86] The fact that the latter is limited and can change does not mean that the former has to be rejected. "If we develop a better system for determining relevant causal relations so that we are able to choose actions that better produce our intended ends, it does not follow that we then must change our ethics. The moral impulse of utilitarianism is constant, but our decisions under it are contingent on our knowledge and scientific understanding."^[87]

From the beginning, utilitarianism has recognized that certainty in such matters is unobtainable and both Bentham and Mill said that it was necessary to rely on the tendencies of actions to bring about consequences. G. E. Moore, writing in 1903, said:^[88]

We certainly cannot hope directly to compare their effects except within a limited future; and all the arguments, which have ever been used in Ethics, and upon which we commonly act in common life, directed to shewing that one course is superior to another, are (apart from theological dogmas) confined to pointing out such probable immediate advantages ... An ethical law has the nature not of a scientific law but of a scientific prediction: and the latter is always merely probable, although the probability may be very great.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism#Predicting_consequences

• Utilitarianism (redirect from Moral cluelessness) is the utility of any moral rule alone, which constitutes the obligation of it. But to all this there seems a plain objection, viz. that many actions... 136 KB (18,060 words) - 21:03, 12 May 2023

 

The demandingness objection is a common^[1][2] argument raised against utilitarianism and other consequentialist ethical theories. The consequentialist requirement that we maximize the good impartially seems to this objection to require us to perform acts that we would normally consider optional.

For example, if our resources maximize utility through charitable contributions rather than spending them on ourselves, we are, according to utilitarianism, morally required to do so. The objection holds that this clashes with our intuitions about morality, since we would normally consider such acts to be "supererogatory" (praiseworthy but not obligatory). It is argued that because consequentialism appears to demand more than common-sense morality, it ought to be revised or rejected. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demandingness_objection

"Ought implies can"^[1] is an ethical formula ascribed to Immanuel Kant that claims an agent, if morally obliged to perform a certain action, must logically be able to perform it:

For if the moral law commands that we ought to be better human beings now, it inescapably follows that we must be capable of being better human beings.^[2]

The action to which the "ought" applies must indeed be possible under natural conditions.^[3]

Kant believed this principle was a categorical freedom, bound only by the free will as opposed to the Humean hypothetical freedom ("Free to do otherwise if I had so chosen").^[4] There are several ways of deriving the formula—for example, the argument that it is wrong to blame people for things that they cannot control (essentially phrasing the formula as the contrapositive "'cannot' implies 'has no duty to'").^[5]

This ethical formula can be expressed in deontic logic with the multimodal axiom: ${\displaystyle OA\to ◊A}$, where the deontic operator ${\displaystyle O}$ means "It's obligatory that..." and the alethic operator ${\displaystyle ◊}$ means "It's possible that...". However, in practical situations, obligations are usually assigned in anticipation of future events, in which case alethic possibilities can be hard to judge; Therefore, obligation assignments may be performed under the assumption of different conditions on different branches of timelines in the future, and past obligation assignments may be updated due to unforeseen developments that happened along the timeline.

"Ought implies can" is logically equivalent to the formula ${\displaystyle ◻\mathrm{\neg }A\to \mathrm{\neg }OA}$, which means "impossible implies omissible".

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ought_implies_can

Freedom and autonomy

Kant viewed the human individual as a rationally self-conscious being with "impure" freedom of choice:

The faculty of desire in accordance with concepts, in-so-far as the ground determining it to action lies within itself and not in its object, is called a faculty to "do or to refrain from doing as one pleases". Insofar as it is joined with one's consciousness of the ability to bring about its object by one's action it is called choice (Willkür); if it is not joined with this consciousness its act is called a wish. The faculty of desire whose inner determining ground, hence even what pleases it, lies within the subject's reason is called the will (Wille). The will is therefore the faculty of desire considered not so much in relation to action (as choice is) but rather in relation to the ground determining choice in action. The will itself, strictly speaking, has no determining ground; insofar as it can determine choice, it is instead practical reason itself. Insofar as reason can determine the faculty of desire as such, not only choice but also mere wish can be included under the will. That choice which can be determined by pure reason is called free choice. That which can be determined only by inclination (sensible impulse, stimulus) would be animal choice (arbitrium brutum). Human choice, however, is a choice that can indeed be affected but not determined by impulses, and is therefore of itself (apart from an acquired proficiency of reason) not pure but can still be determined to actions by pure will.

— Immanuel Kant, Metaphysics of Morals 6:213–4

For a will to be considered free, we must understand it as capable of affecting causal power without being caused to do so. However, the idea of lawless free will, meaning a will acting without any causal structure, is incomprehensible. Therefore, a free will must be acting under laws that it gives to itself.

Although Kant conceded that there could be no conceivable example of free will, because any example would only show us a will as it appears to us—as a subject of natural laws—he nevertheless argued against determinism. He proposed that determinism is logically inconsistent: the determinist claims that because A caused B, and B caused C, that A is the true cause of C. Applied to a case of the human will, a determinist would argue that the will does not have causal power and that something outside the will causes the will to act as it does. But this argument merely assumes what it sets out to prove: viz. that the human will is part of the causal chain.

Secondly, Kant remarks that free will is inherently unknowable. Since even a free person could not possibly have knowledge of their own freedom, we cannot use our failure to find a proof for freedom as evidence for a lack of it. The observable world could never contain an example of freedom because it would never show us a will as it appears to itself, but only a will that is subject to natural laws imposed on it. But we do appear to ourselves as free. Therefore, he argued for the idea of transcendental freedom—that is, freedom as a presupposition of the question "what ought I to do?" This is what gives us sufficient basis for ascribing moral responsibility: the rational and self-actualizing power of a person, which he calls moral autonomy: "the property the will has of being a law unto itself."

First formulation: Universality and the law of nature

Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.

— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals^[1]

Kant concludes that a moral proposition that is true must be one that is not tied to any particular conditions, including the identity and desires of the person making the moral deliberation.

A moral maxim must imply absolute necessity, which is to say that it must be disconnected from the particular physical details surrounding the proposition, and could be applied to any rational being.^[4] This leads to the first formulation of the categorical imperative, sometimes called the principle of universalizability: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."^[1]

Closely connected with this formulation is the law of nature formulation. Because laws of nature are by definition universal, Kant claims we may also express the categorical imperative as:^[5]

Act as if the maxims of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature.

Kant divides the duties imposed by this formulation into two sets of two subsets. The first division is between duties that we have to ourselves versus those we have to others.^[5] For example, we have an obligation not to kill ourselves as well as an obligation not to kill others. Kant also, however, introduces a distinction between perfect and imperfect duties.^[5]

Perfect duty

According to Kant's reasoning, we first have a perfect duty not to act by maxims that result in logical contradictions when we attempt to universalize them. The moral proposition A: "It is permissible to steal" would result in a contradiction upon universalisation. The notion of stealing presupposes the existence of personal property, but were A universalized, then there could be no personal property, and so the proposition has logically negated itself.

In general, perfect duties are those that are blameworthy if not met, as they are a basic required duty for a human being.

Imperfect duty

Second, we have imperfect duties, which are still based on pure reason, but which allow for desires in how they are carried out in practice. Because these depend somewhat on the subjective preferences of humankind, this duty is not as strong as a perfect duty, but it is still morally binding. As such, unlike perfect duties, you do not attract blame should you not complete an imperfect duty but you shall receive praise for it should you complete it, as you have gone beyond the basic duties and taken duty upon yourself. Imperfect duties are circumstantial, meaning simply that you could not reasonably exist in a constant state of performing that duty. This is what truly differentiates between perfect and imperfect duties, because imperfect duties are those duties that are never truly completed. A particular example provided by Kant is the imperfect duty to cultivate one's own talents.^[6]

Second formulation: Humanity

Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.

— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals^[7]

Every rational action must set before itself not only a principle, but also an end. Most ends are of a subjective kind, because they need only be pursued if they are in line with some particular hypothetical imperative that a person may choose to adopt. For an end to be objective, it would be necessary that we categorically pursue it.

The free will is the source of all rational action. But to treat it as a subjective end is to deny the possibility of freedom in general. Because the autonomous will is the one and only source of moral action, it would contradict the first formulation to claim that a person is merely a means to some other end, rather than always an end in themselves.

On this basis, Kant derives the second formulation of the categorical imperative from the first.

By combining this formulation with the first, we learn that a person has perfect duty not to use the humanity of themselves or others merely as a means to some other end. As a slave owner would be effectively asserting a moral right to own a person as a slave, they would be asserting a property right in another person. This would violate the categorical imperative, because it denies the basis for there to be free rational action at all; it denies the status of a person as an end in themselves. One cannot, on Kant's account, ever suppose a right to treat another person as a mere means to an end. In the case of a slave owner, the slaves are being used to cultivate the owner's fields (the slaves acting as the means) to ensure a sufficient harvest (the end goal of the owner).

The second formulation also leads to the imperfect duty to further the ends of ourselves and others. If any person desires perfection in themselves or others, it would be their moral duty to seek that end for all people equally, so long as that end does not contradict perfect duty.

Third formulation: Autonomy

Thus the third practical principle follows [from the first two] as the ultimate condition of their harmony with practical reason: the idea of the will of every rational being as a universally legislating will.

— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals^[8]

Kant claims that the first formulation lays out the objective conditions on the categorical imperative: that it be universal in form and thus capable of becoming a law of nature. Likewise, the second formulation lays out subjective conditions: that there be certain ends in themselves, namely rational beings as such.^[9] The result of these two considerations is that we must will maxims that can be at the same time universal, but which do not infringe on the freedom of ourselves nor of others. A universal maxim, however, could only have this form if it were a maxim that each subject by himself endorsed. Because it cannot be something which externally constrains each subject's activity, it must be a constraint that each subject has set for himself. This leads to the concept of self-legislation. Each subject must through his own use of reason will maxims which have the form of universality, but do not impinge on the freedom of others: thus each subject must will maxims that could be universally self-legislated.

The result, of course, is a formulation of the categorical imperative that contains much of the same as the first two. We must will something that we could at the same time freely will of ourselves. After introducing this third formulation, Kant introduces a distinction between autonomy (literally: self-law-giving) and heteronomy (literally: other-law-giving). This third formulation makes it clear that the categorical imperative requires autonomy. It is not enough that the right conduct be followed, but that one also demands that conduct of oneself.

Fourth formulation: The Kingdom of Ends

Main article: Kingdom of Ends

Act according to maxims of a universally legislating member of a merely possible kingdom of ends.

— Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals^[10]

In the Groundwork, Kant goes on to formulate the categorical imperative in a number of ways following the first three; however, because Kant himself claims that there are only three principles,^[11] little attention has been given to these other formulations. Moreover, they are often easily assimilated to the first three formulations, as Kant takes himself to be explicitly summarizing these earlier principles.^[12]

There is, however, another formulation that has received additional attention as it appears to introduce a social dimension into Kant's thought. This is the formulation of the "Kingdom of Ends."

Because a truly autonomous will would not be subjugated to any interest, it would only be subject to those laws it makes for itself—but it must also regard those laws as if they would be bound to others, or they would not be universalizable, and hence they would not be laws of conduct at all. Thus, Kant presents the notion of the hypothetical Kingdom of Ends of which he suggests all people should consider themselves never solely as means but always as ends.

We ought to act only by maxims that would harmonize with a possible kingdom of ends. We have perfect duty not to act by maxims that create incoherent or impossible states of natural affairs when we attempt to universalize them, and we have imperfect duty not to act by maxims that lead to unstable or greatly undesirable states of affairs.

Application

Although Kant was intensely critical^{[citation needed]} of the use of examples as moral yardsticks, as they tend to rely on our moral intuitions (feelings) rather than our rational powers, this section explores some applications of the categorical imperative for illustrative purposes.

Deception

Further information: Doctrine of mental reservation

Kant asserted that lying, or deception of any kind, would be forbidden under any interpretation and in any circumstance. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability^[clarify] (and thus contradicts perfect duty). With lying, it would logically contradict the reliability of language. If it were universally acceptable to lie, then no one would believe anyone and all truths would be assumed to be lies. In each case, the proposed action becomes inconceivable in a world where the maxim exists as law. In a world where no one would lend money, seeking to borrow money in the manner originally imagined is inconceivable. In a world where no one trusts one another, the same is true about manipulative lies.

The right to deceive could also not be claimed because it would deny the status of the person deceived as an end in itself. The theft would be incompatible with a possible kingdom of ends. Therefore, Kant denied the right to lie or deceive for any reason, regardless of context or anticipated consequences.

Theft

Kant argued that any action taken against another person to which he or she could not possibly consent is a violation of perfect duty as interpreted through the second formulation. If a thief were to steal a book from an unknowing victim, it may have been that the victim would have agreed, had the thief simply asked. However, no person can consent to theft, because the presence of consent would mean that the transfer was not a theft. Because the victim could not have consented to the action, it could not be instituted as a universal law of nature, and theft contradicts perfect duty.

Suicide

In the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant applies his categorical imperative to the issue of suicide motivated by a sickness of life:^[13]

A man reduced to despair by a series of misfortunes feels sick of life, but is still so far in possession of his reason that he can ask himself whether taking his own life would not be contrary to his duty to himself. Now he asks whether the maxim of his action could become a universal law of nature. But his maxim is this: from self-love I make as my principle to shorten my life when its continued duration threatens more evil than it promises satisfaction. There only remains the question as to whether this principle of self-love can become a universal law of nature. One sees at once that a contradiction in a system of nature whose law would destroy life by means of the very same feeling that acts so as to stimulate the furtherance of life, and hence there could be no existence as a system of nature. Therefore, such a maxim cannot possibly hold as a universal law of nature and is, consequently, wholly opposed to the supreme principle of all duty.

How the Categorical Imperative would apply to suicide from other motivations is unclear.

Laziness

Kant also applies the categorical imperative in the Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals on the subject of "failing to cultivate one's talents." He proposes a man who if he cultivated his talents could bring many goods, but he has everything he wants and would prefer to enjoy the pleasures of life instead. The man asks himself how the universality of such a thing works. While Kant agrees that a society could subsist if everyone did nothing, he notes that the man would have no pleasures to enjoy, for if everyone let their talents go to waste, there would be no one to create luxuries that created this theoretical situation in the first place. Not only that, but cultivating one's talents is a duty to oneself. Thus, it is not willed to make laziness universal, and a rational being has imperfect duty to cultivate its talents. Kant concludes in the Groundwork:

[H]e cannot possibly will that this should become a universal law of nature or be implanted in us as such a law by a natural instinct. For as a rational being he necessarily wills that all his faculties should be developed, inasmuch as they are given him for all sorts of possible purposes.^[14]

Charity

Kant's last application of the categorical imperative in the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals is of charity. He proposes a fourth man who finds his own life fine but sees other people struggling with life and who ponders the outcome of doing nothing to help those in need (while not envying them or accepting anything from them). While Kant admits that humanity could subsist (and admits it could possibly perform better) if this were universal, he states:

But even though it is possible that a universal law of nature could subsist in accordance with that maxim, still it is impossible to will that such a principle should hold everywhere as a law of nature. For a will that resolved in this way would contradict itself, inasmuch as cases might often arise in which one would have need of the love and sympathy of others and in which he would deprive himself, by such a law of nature springing from his own will, of all hope of the aid he wants for himself.^[15]

Cruelty to animals

Kant derived a prohibition against cruelty to animals by arguing that such cruelty is a violation of a duty in relation to oneself. According to Kant, man has the imperfect duty to strengthen the feeling of compassion, since this feeling promotes morality in relation to other human beings. However, cruelty to animals deadens the feeling of compassion in man. Therefore, man is obliged not to treat animals brutally.^[16]

The trial of Adolf Eichmann

In 1961, discussion of Kant's categorical imperative was included in the trial of the SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem.

As Hannah Arendt wrote in her book on the trial, Eichmann declared "with great emphasis that he had lived his whole life...according to a Kantian definition of duty." Arendt considered this so "incomprehensible on the face of it" that it confirmed her sense that he wasn't really thinking at all, just mouthing accepted formulae, thereby establishing his banality.^[17] Judge Raveh indeed had asked Eichmann whether he thought he had really lived according to the categorical imperative during the war. Eichmann acknowledged he did not "live entirely according to it, although I would like to do so."^[17]

Deborah Lipstadt, in her book on the trial, takes this as evidence that evil is not banal, but is in fact self-aware.^[18]

Application of the universalizability principle to the ethics of consumption

Pope Francis, in his 2015 encyclical, applies the first formulation of the universalizability principle to the issue of consumption:^[19]

Instead of resolving the problems of the poor and thinking of how the world can be different, some can only propose a reduction in the birth rate. ... To blame population growth instead of extreme and selective consumerism on the part of some, is one way of refusing to face the issues. It is an attempt to legitimize the present model of distribution, where a minority believes that it has the right to consume in a way which can never be universalized, since the planet could not even contain the waste products of such consumption.

Game theory

One form of the categorical imperative is superrationality.^[20][21] The concept was elucidated by Douglas Hofstadter as a new approach to game theory. Unlike in conventional game theory, a superrational player will act as if all other players are superrational too and that a superrational agent will always come up with the same strategy as any other superrational agent when facing the same problem.

Criticisms

The Golden Rule

The first formulation of the categorical imperative appears similar to the Golden Rule. In its negative form, the rule prescribes: "Do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself."^[22] In its positive form, the rule states: "Treat others how you wish to be treated."^[23] Due to this similarity, some have thought the two are identical.^[24] William P. Alston and Richard B. Brandt, in their introduction to Kant, stated, "His view about when an action is right is rather similar to the Golden Rule; he says, roughly, that an act is right if and only if its agent is prepared to have that kind of action made universal practice or a 'law of nature.' Thus, for instance, Kant says it is right for a person to lie if and only if he is prepared to have everyone lie in similar circumstances, including those in which he is deceived by the lie."^[25]

Claiming that Ken Binmore thought so as well, Peter Corning suggests that:^[26]

Kant's objection to the Golden Rule is especially suspect because the categorical imperative (CI) sounds a lot like a paraphrase, or perhaps a close cousin, of the same fundamental idea. In effect, it says that you should act toward others in ways that you would want everyone else to act toward others, yourself included (presumably). Calling it a universal law does not materially improve on the basic concept.

Kant himself did not think so in the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Rather, the categorical imperative is an attempt to identify a purely formal and necessarily universally binding rule on all rational agents. The Golden Rule, on the other hand, is neither purely formal nor necessarily universally binding. It is "empirical" in the sense that applying it depends on providing content, such as, "If you don't want others to hit you, then don't hit them." It is also a hypothetical imperative in the sense that it can be formulated, "If you want X done to you, then do X to others." Kant feared that the hypothetical clause, "if you want X done to you," remains open to dispute.^[27] In fact, he famously criticized it for not being sensitive to differences of situation, noting that a prisoner duly convicted of a crime could appeal to the golden rule while asking the judge to release him, pointing out that the judge would not want anyone else to send him to prison, so he should not do so to others.^[28]

Lying to a murderer

One of the first major challenges to Kant's reasoning came from the French philosopher Benjamin Constant, who asserted that since truth telling must be universal, according to Kant's theories, one must (if asked) tell a known murderer the location of his prey. This challenge occurred while Kant was still alive, and his response was the essay On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives (sometimes translated On a Supposed Right to Lie because of Philanthropic Concerns). In this reply, Kant agreed with Constant's inference, that from Kant's own premises one must infer a moral duty not to lie to a murderer.

Kant denied that such an inference indicates any weakness in his premises: not lying to the murderer is required because moral actions do not derive their worth from the expected consequences. He claimed that because lying to the murderer would treat him as a mere means to another end, the lie denies the rationality of another person, and therefore denies the possibility of there being free rational action at all. This lie results in a contradiction in conception^[clarify] and therefore the lie is in conflict with duty.

Constant and Kant agree that refusing to answer the murderer's question (rather than lying) is consistent with the categorical imperative, but assume for the purposes of argument that refusing to answer would not be an option.

Questioning autonomy

Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy expresses doubt concerning the absence of egoism in the categorical imperative. Schopenhauer claimed that the categorical imperative is actually hypothetical and egotistical, not categorical. However, Schopenhauer's criticism (as cited here) presents a weak case for linking egoism to Kant's formulations of the categorical imperative. By definition any form of sentient, organic life is interdependent and emergent with the organic and inorganic properties, environmental life supporting features, species dependent means of child rearing. These conditions are already rooted in mutual interdependence which makes that life form possible at all to be in a state of coordination with other forms of life - be it with pure practical reason or not. It may be that the categorical imperative is indeed biased in that it is life promoting and in part promotes the positive freedom for rational beings to pursue freely the setting of their own ends (read choices).

However, deontology also holds not merely the positive form freedom (to set ends freely) but also the negative forms of freedom to that same will (to restrict setting of ends that treat others merely as means, etc.). The deontological system is for Kant argued to be based in a synthetic a priori - since in restricting the will's motive at its root to a purely moral schema consistent its maxims can be held up to the pure moral law as a structure of cognition and therefore the alteration of action accompanying a cultured person to a 'reverence for the law' or 'moral feeling'.

Thus, insofar as individuals freely chosen ends are consistent in a rational Idea of community of interdependent beings also exercising the possibility of their pure moral reason is the egoism self-justified as being what is 'holy' good will because the motive is consistent with what all rational beings who are able to exercise this purely formal reason would see. The full community of other rational members - even if this 'Kingdom of Ends' is not yet actualized and whether or not we ever live to see it - is thus a kind of 'infinite game' that seeks to held in view by all beings able to participate and choose the 'highest use of reason' (see Critique of Pure Reason) which is reason in its pure practical form. That is, morality seen deontologically.

Søren Kierkegaard believed Kantian autonomy was insufficient and that, if unchecked, people tend to be lenient in their own cases, either by not exercising the full rigor of the moral law or by not properly disciplining themselves of moral transgressions. However, many of Kierkegaard's criticisms on his understanding of Kantian autonomy, neglect the evolution of Kant's moral theory from the Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals, to the second and final critiques respectively, The Critique of Practical Reason, The Critique of Moral Judgment, and his final work on moral theory the Metaphysics of Morals ^[29]

Kant was of the opinion that man is his own law (autonomy)—that is, he binds himself under the law which he himself gives himself. Actually, in a profounder sense, this is how lawlessness or experimentation are established. This is not being rigorously earnest any more than Sancho Panza's self-administered blows to his own bottom were vigorous. ... Now if a man is never even once willing in his lifetime to act so decisively that [a lawgiver] can get hold of him, well, then it happens, then the man is allowed to live on in self-complacent illusion and make-believe and experimentation, but this also means: utterly without grace.

— Søren Kierkegaard, Papers and Journals

See also

• Deontological ethics
• Ethic of reciprocity or "Golden Rule"
• Ethics
• Generalization error
• Generalization (logic)
• Hasty generalization
• Instrumental and value rationality
• Kantianism
• Normative ethics

References

1. 
   

Kant, Immanuel (1993) [1785]. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by Ellington, James W. (3rd ed.). Hackett. p. 30. ISBN 0-87220-166-X.It is standard to also reference the Akademie Ausgabe of Kant's works. The Groundwork occurs in the fourth volume. Citations throughout this article follow the format 4:x. For example, the above citation is taken from 4:421.

Kant, Immanuel (2007). Critique of pure reason. Marcus Weigelt, F. Max Müller. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044747-4. OCLC 51622849.

4:454

e.g. Pelegrinis, T. N. 1980. Kant's Conceptions of the Categorical Imperative and the Will. p. 92.

4:421

4:423

Kant 1993, p. 36. 4:429.

Kant 1993, p. 43. 4:431

4:431

Kant 1993, p. 44. 4:439

4:431–2; 4:435–6

These additional formulations, of which there are at least eight, can be seen at: 4:434 (1); 4:436–7 (1); 4:437 (4); 4:438 (1); 4:438–9 (1).

Kant 1993, pp. 30–31.

Kant 1993, p. 31

Kant 1993, p. 32

Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, § 17

Arendt, Hannah (22 September 2006) [First published 1963]. "Chapter VIII: Duties of a Law-Abiding Citizen". Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. London: Penguin Classics. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-14-303988-4.

Lipstadt, Deborah E. (2011). The Eichmann trial. New York: Nextbook/Schocken. ISBN 978-0-8052-4260-7. OCLC 644663318.

Pope Francis. May 24, 2015. Encyclical Letter Laudato si' of the Holy Father Francis on Care for Our Common Home. § 50 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.

Campbell, Paul J. (January 1984). "Reviews". Mathematics Magazine. 57 (1): 51–55. doi:10.2307/2690298. JSTOR 2690298.

Diekmann, Andreas (December 1985). "Volunteer's Dilemma". The Journal of Conflict Resolution. 29 (4): 605–610. doi:10.1177/0022002785029004003. JSTOR 174243. S2CID 143954605.

Freedman, Russell. Confucius: The Golden Rule.

Antony Flew, ed. (1979). "golden rule". A Dictionary of Philosophy. London: Pan Books in association with The MacMillan Press. p. 134. ISBN 0-330-48730-2.

"This is indeed the well-known “Golden Rule” that we find in the teachings of Moses, and Confucius, and Jesus, and many others. I think, however, that all three of them would say that the most universal moral rule is even more universal than this one: something like "Do good and not evil." Kreeft, Peter (2009). Socrates Meets Kant p. 234. Ignatius Press. Kindle Edition.^{[ISBN missing]}

Alston, William P.; Brandt, Richard B., eds. (1978). The Problems of Philosophy. Boston, London, Sydney, Toronto: Allyn and Bacon. p. 139. ISBN 978-0205061105.

Corning, Peter. The Fair Society.

Kreeft, Peter (2009). Socrates Meets Kant p. 236. Ignatius

Kant, Immanuel Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, footnote 12. Cambridge University Press (28 April 1998). ISBN 978-0-521-62695-8

29. Green, Ronald (1992). Kierkegaard and Kant: The Hidden Debt. SUNY Press. pp. 90–91.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Categorical imperative.

• Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals at Project Gutenberg

• Palmquist, Stephen. 1993. "Glossary of Kant's Technical Terms." In Kant's System of Perspectives: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy. University Press of America.
• Immanuel Kant in Italia, a website on the presence and diffusion of the philosophy of Immanuel Kant in Italy (archived page)
• The Categorical Imperative

Portal:

•  Philosophy

Authority control: National	France BnF data Germany Czech Republic

Categories:

• Deontological ethics
• Kantianism
• Ethical principles

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_imperative#Freedom_and_autonomy

 

Deontic logic is the field of philosophical logic that is concerned with obligation, permission, and related concepts. Alternatively, a deontic logic is a formal system that attempts to capture the essential logical features of these concepts. It can be used to formalize imperative logic, or directive modality in natural languages. Typically, a deontic logic uses OA to mean it is obligatory that A (or it ought to be (the case) that A), and PA to mean it is permitted (or permissible) that A, which is defined as ${\displaystyle PA\equiv \mathrm{\neg }O\mathrm{\neg }A}$.

Note that in natural language, the statement "You may go to the zoo OR the park" should be understood as ${\displaystyle Pz\wedge Pp}$ instead of ${\displaystyle Pz\vee Pp}$, as both options are permitted by the statement; See Hans Kamp's paradox of free choice for more details.

When there are multiple agents involved in the domain of discourse, the deontic modal operator can be specified to each agent to express their individual obligations and permissions. For example, by using a subscript ${\displaystyle O_i}$ for agent ${\displaystyle a_i}$, ${\displaystyle O_{i}A}$ means that "It is an obligation for agent ${\displaystyle a_i}$ (to bring it about/make it happen) that ${\displaystyle A}$". Note that ${\displaystyle A}$ could be stated as an action by another agent; One example is "It is an obligation for Adam that Bob doesn't crash the car", which would be represented as ${\displaystyle O_{Adam}B}$, where B="Bob doesn't crash the car". 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontic_logic

In the formal sciences, the domain of discourse, also called the universe of discourse, universal set, or simply universe, is the set of entities over which certain variables of interest in some formal treatment may range.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_of_discourse

Imperative logic is the field of logic concerned with imperatives. In contrast to declaratives, it is not clear whether imperatives denote propositions or more generally what role truth and falsity play in their semantics. Thus, there is almost no consensus on any aspect of imperative logic. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_logic

Disjunction introduction or addition (also called or introduction)^[1][2][3] is a rule of inference of propositional logic and almost every other deduction system. The rule makes it possible to introduce disjunctions to logical proofs. It is the inference that if P is true, then P or Q must be true.

An example in English:

Socrates is a man.

Therefore, Socrates is a man or pigs are flying in formation over the English Channel.

The rule can be expressed as:

${\displaystyle \frac{P}{\therefore P\vee Q}}$

where the rule is that whenever instances of "${\displaystyle P}$" appear on lines of a proof, "${\displaystyle P\vee Q}$" can be placed on a subsequent line.

More generally it's also a simple valid argument form, this means that if the premise is true, then the conclusion is also true as any rule of inference should be, and an immediate inference, as it has a single proposition in its premises.

Disjunction introduction is not a rule in some paraconsistent logics because in combination with other rules of logic, it leads to explosion (i.e. everything becomes provable) and paraconsistent logic tries to avoid explosion and to be able to reason with contradictions. One of the solutions is to introduce disjunction with over rules. See Paraconsistent logic § Tradeoffs.

Formal notation

The disjunction introduction rule may be written in sequent notation:

${\displaystyle P⊢(P\vee Q)}$

where ${\displaystyle ⊢}$ is a metalogical symbol meaning that ${\displaystyle P\vee Q}$ is a syntactic consequence of ${\displaystyle P}$ in some logical system;

and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic:

${\displaystyle P\to (P\vee Q)}$

where ${\displaystyle P}$ and ${\displaystyle Q}$ are propositions expressed in some formal system.

References

1. 
   

Hurley, Patrick J. (2014). A Concise Introduction to Logic (12th ed.). Cengage. pp. 401–402, 707. ISBN 978-1-285-19654-1.

Moore, Brooke Noel; Parker, Richard (2015). "Deductive Arguments II Truth-Functional Logic". Critical Thinking (11th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. p. 311. ISBN 978-0-07-811914-9.

3. Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl; McMahon, Kenneth (2014). Introduction to Logic (14th ed.). Pearson. pp. 370, 618. ISBN 978-1-292-02482-0.

Categories:

• Rules of inference
• Paraconsistent logic
• Theorems in propositional logic

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjunction_introduction

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Transformation rules
Propositional calculus
Rules of inference
Implication introduction / elimination (modus ponens) Biconditional introduction / elimination Conjunction introduction / elimination Disjunction introduction / elimination Disjunctive / hypothetical syllogism Constructive / destructive dilemma Absorption / modus tollens / modus ponendo tollens Negation introduction
Rules of replacement
Associativity Commutativity Distributivity Double negation De Morgan's laws Transposition Material implication Exportation Tautology
Predicate logic
Rules of inference
Universal generalization / instantiation Existential generalization / instantiation

In logic, a rule of replacement^[1][2][3] is a transformation rule that may be applied to only a particular segment of an expression. A logical system may be constructed so that it uses either axioms, rules of inference, or both as transformation rules for logical expressions in the system. Whereas a rule of inference is always applied to a whole logical expression, a rule of replacement may be applied to only a particular segment. Within the context of a logical proof, logically equivalent expressions may replace each other. Rules of replacement are used in propositional logic to manipulate propositions.

Common rules of replacement include de Morgan's laws, commutation, association, distribution, double negation,^[a] transposition, material implication, logical equivalence, exportation, and tautology.

See also

• Salva veritate

Notes

1. 
   

1. not admitted in intuitionistic logic

References

1. 
   

Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl (2005). Introduction to Logic. Prentice Hall.

Hurley, Patrick (1991). A Concise Introduction to Logic 4th edition. Wadsworth Publishing.

3. Moore and Parker^{[full citation needed]}

This logic-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories:

• Propositional calculus
• Rules of inference
• Logical expressions
• Logic stubs

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_replacement

 Antitheatricality is any form of opposition or hostility to theater. Such opposition is as old as theater itself,^{[citation needed]} suggesting a deep-seated ambivalence in human nature about the dramatic arts. Jonas Barish's 1981 book, The Antitheatrical Prejudice, was, according to one of his Berkeley colleagues, immediately recognized as having given intellectual and historical definition to a phenomenon which up to that point had been only dimly observed and understood. The book earned the American Theater Association's Barnard Hewitt Award for outstanding research in theater history.^[1] Barish and some more recent commentators treat the anti-theatrical, not as an enemy to be overcome, but rather as an inevitable and valuable part of the theatrical dynamic. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitheatricality

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Theatre_criticism

 

 

Modal realism is the view propounded by philosopher David Lewis that all possible worlds are real in the same way as is the actual world: they are "of a kind with this world of ours."^[1] It is based on four tenets: possible worlds exist, possible worlds are not different in kind from the actual world, possible worlds are irreducible entities, and the term actual in actual world is indexical, i.e. any subject can declare their world to be the actual one, much as they label the place they are "here" and the time they are "now".

Extended modal realism is a form of modal realism that involves ontological commitments not just to possible worlds but also to impossible worlds. Objects are conceived as being spread out in the modal dimension, i.e. as having not just spatial and temporal parts but also modal parts. This contrasts with Lewis' modal realism according to which each object only inhabits one possible world.

Common arguments for modal realism refer to their theoretical usefulness for modal reasoning and to commonly accepted expressions in natural language that seem to imply ontological commitments to possible worlds. A common objection to modal realism is that it leads to an inflated ontology, which some think to run counter to Occam's razor. Critics of modal realism have also pointed out that it is counterintuitive to allow possible objects the same ontological status as actual objects. This line of thought has been further developed in the argument from morality by showing how an equal treatment of actual and non-actual persons would lead to highly implausible consequences for morality, culminating in the moral principle that every choice is equally permissible. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_realism

 

The term possible world

Main article: Possible world

The term goes back to Leibniz's theory of possible worlds,^[2] used to analyse necessity, possibility, and similar modal notions. In short: the actual world is regarded as merely one among an infinite set of logically possible worlds, some "nearer" to the actual world and some more remote. A proposition is necessary if it is true in all possible worlds, and possible if it is true in at least one.^[3]

Main tenets

At the heart of David Lewis's modal realism are six central doctrines about possible worlds:^[4]

1. Possible worlds exist – they are just as real as our world;
2. Possible worlds are the same sort of things as our world – they differ in content, not in kind;
3. Possible worlds cannot be reduced to something more basic – they are irreducible entities in their own right.
4. Actuality is indexical. When we distinguish our world from other possible worlds by claiming that it alone is actual, we mean only that it is our world.
5. Possible worlds are unified by the spatiotemporal interrelations of their parts; every world is spatiotemporally isolated from every other world.
6. Possible worlds are causally isolated from each other.

Details and alternatives

In philosophy possible worlds are usually regarded as real but abstract possibilities (i.e. platonism),^[5] or sometimes as a mere metaphor, abbreviation, or as mathematical devices, or a mere combination of propositions.

Lewis himself not only claimed to take modal realism seriously (although he did regret his choice of the expression modal realism), he also insisted that his claims should be taken literally:

By what right do we call possible worlds and their inhabitants disreputable entities, unfit for philosophical services unless they can beg redemption from philosophy of language? I know of no accusation against possibles that cannot be made with equal justice against sets. Yet few philosophical consciences scruple at set theory. Sets and possibles alike make for a crowded ontology. Sets and possibles alike raise questions we have no way to answer. [...] I propose to be equally undisturbed by these equally mysterious mysteries.^[6]

How many [possible worlds] are there? In what respects do they vary, and what is common to them all? Do they obey a nontrivial law of identity of indiscernibles? Here I am at a disadvantage compared to someone who pretends as a figure of speech to believe in possible worlds, but really does not. If worlds were creatures of my imagination, I could imagine them to be any way I liked, and I could tell you all you wished to hear simply by carrying on my imaginative creation. But as I believe that there really are other worlds, I am entitled to confess that there is much about them that I do not know, and that I do not know how to find out.^[7]

Extended modal realism

Main article: Extended modal realism

Extended modal realism, as developed by Takashi Yagisawa,^[8] differs from other versions of modal realism, such as David Lewis' views, in several important aspects. Possible worlds are conceived as points or indices of the modal dimension rather than as isolated space-time structures. Regular objects are extended not only in the spatial and the temporal dimensions but also in the modal dimension: some of their parts are modal parts, i.e. belong to non-actual worlds. The concept of modal parts is best explained in analogy to spatial and temporal parts.^[9][10] My hand is a spatial part of myself just as my childhood is a temporal part of myself, according to four-dimensionalism.^[11] These intuitions can be extended to the modal dimension by considering possible versions of myself which took different choices in life than I actually did. According to extended modal realism, these other selves are inhabitants of different possible worlds and are also parts of myself: modal parts.^{[8]: 41 [12]}

Another difference to the Lewisian form of modal realism is that among non-actual worlds within the modal dimension are not just possible worlds but also impossible worlds. Yagisawa holds that while the notion of a world is simple, being a modal index, the notion of a possible world is composite: it is a world that is possible. Possibility can be understood in various ways: there is logical possibility, metaphysical possibility, physical possibility, etc.^[9][13] A world is possible if it doesn't violate the laws of the corresponding type of possibility. For example, a world is logically possible if it obeys the laws of logic or physically possible if it obeys the laws of nature. Worlds that don't obey these laws are impossible worlds. But impossible worlds and their inhabitants are just as real as possible or actual entities.

Arguments for modal realism

Reasons given by Lewis

Lewis backs modal realism for a variety of reasons.^[14] First, there doesn't seem to be a reason not to. Many abstract mathematical entities are held to exist simply because they are useful. For example, sets are useful, abstract mathematical constructs that were only conceived in the 19th century. Sets are now considered to be objects in their own right, and while this is a philosophically unintuitive idea, its usefulness in understanding the workings of mathematics makes belief in it worthwhile. The same should go for possible worlds. Since these constructs have helped us make sense of key philosophical concepts in epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of mind, etc., their existence should be accepted on pragmatic grounds.

Lewis believes that the concept of alethic modality can be reduced to talk of real possible worlds. For example, to say "x is possible" is to say that there exists a possible world where x is true. To say "x is necessary" is to say that in all possible worlds x is true. The appeal to possible worlds provides a sort of economy with the least number of undefined primitives/axioms in our ontology.

Taking this latter point one step further, Lewis argues that modality cannot be made sense of without such a reduction. He maintains that we cannot determine that x is possible without a conception of what a real world where x holds would look like. In deciding whether it is possible for basketballs to be inside of atoms we do not simply make a linguistic determination of whether the proposition is grammatically coherent, we actually think about whether a real world would be able to sustain such a state of affairs. Thus we require a brand of modal realism if we are to use modality at all.

Argument from ways

Possible worlds are often regarded with suspicion, which is why their proponents have struggled to find arguments in their favor.^[15] An often-cited argument is called the argument from ways. It defines possible worlds as "ways how things could have been" and relies for its premises and inferences on assumptions from natural language,^[16][17][18] for example:

(1) Hillary Clinton could have won the 2016 US election.

(2) So there are other ways how things could have been.

(3) Possible worlds are ways how things could have been.

(4) So there are other possible worlds.

The central step of this argument happens at (2) where the plausible (1) is interpreted in a way that involves quantification over "ways". Many philosophers, following Willard Van Orman Quine,^[19] hold that quantification entails ontological commitments, in this case, a commitment to the existence of possible worlds. Quine himself restricted his method to scientific theories, but others have applied it also to natural language, for example, Amie L. Thomasson in her easy approach to ontology.^[20] The strength of the argument from ways depends on these assumptions and may be challenged by casting doubt on the quantifier-method of ontology or on the reliability of natural language as a guide to ontology.

Criticisms

A number of philosophers, including Lewis himself, have produced criticisms of (what some call) "extreme realism" about possible worlds.

Lewis's own critique

Lewis's own extended presentation of the theory (On the Plurality of Worlds, 1986) raises and then counters several lines of argument against it. That work introduces not only the theory, but its reception among philosophers. The many objections that continue to be published are typically variations on one or other of the lines that Lewis has already canvassed.

Here are some of the major categories of objection:

• Catastrophic counterintuitiveness The theory does not accord with our deepest intuitions about reality. This is sometimes called "the incredulous stare", since it lacks argumentative content, and is merely an expression of the affront that the theory represents to "common sense" philosophical and pre-philosophical orthodoxy. Lewis is concerned to support the deliverances of common sense in general: "Common sense is a settled body of theory — unsystematic folk theory — which at any rate we do believe; and I presume that we are reasonable to believe it. (Most of it.)" (1986, p. 134). But most of it is not all of it (otherwise there would be no place for philosophy at all), and Lewis finds that reasonable argument and the weight of such considerations as theoretical efficiency compel us to accept modal realism. The alternatives, he argues at length, can themselves be shown to yield conclusions offensive to our modal intuitions.
• Inflated ontology Some^[21] object that modal realism postulates vastly too many entities, compared with other theories. It is therefore, they argue, vulnerable to Occam's razor, according to which we should prefer, all things being equal, those theories that postulate the smallest number of entities. Lewis's reply is that all things are not equal, and in particular competing accounts of possible worlds themselves postulate more classes of entities, since there must be not only one real "concrete" world (the actual world), but many worlds of a different class altogether ("abstract" in some way or other).
• Too many worlds This is perhaps a variant of the previous category, but it relies on appeals to mathematical propriety rather than Occamist principles. Some argue that Lewis's principles of "worldmaking" (means by which we might establish the existence of further worlds by recombination of parts of worlds we already think exist) are too permissive. So permissive are they, in fact, that the total number of worlds must exceed what is mathematically coherent. Lewis allows that there are difficulties and subtleties to address on this front (1986, pp. 89–90). Daniel Nolan ("Recombination unbound", Philosophical Studies, 1996, vol. 84, pp. 239–262) mounts a sustained argument against certain forms of the objection; but variations on it continue to appear.
• Island universes On the version of his theory that Lewis strongly favours, each world is distinct from every other world by being spatially and temporally isolated from it. Some have objected that a world in which spatio-temporally isolated universes ("island universes") coexist is therefore not possible, by Lewis's theory (see for example Bigelow, John, and Pargetter, Robert, "Beyond the blank stare", Theoria, 1987, Vol. 53, pp. 97–114). Lewis's awareness of this difficulty discomforted him; but he could have replied that other means of distinguishing worlds may be available, or alternatively that sometimes there will inevitably be further surprising and counterintuitive consequences — beyond what we had thought we would be committed to at the start of our investigation. But this fact in itself is hardly surprising. Plantinga also wonders why we would think that possibility is grounded in some other multi-verse counterpart to me if we were to discover other universes. If not, then why think the same would apply to possible worlds as a whole?^[22]

Finally, some of these objections can be combined. For example, one^[23] can think that modal realism is unnecessary because multiverse theory can do all the modal work (e.g. many "worlds" interpretation of quantum mechanics).^[24]

A pervasive theme in Lewis's replies to the critics of modal realism is the use of tu quoque argument: your account would fail in just the same way that you claim mine would. A major heuristic virtue of Lewis's theory is that it is sufficiently definite for objections to gain some foothold; but these objections, once clearly articulated, can then be turned equally against other theories of the ontology and epistemology of possible worlds.

Stalnaker's response

Robert Stalnaker, while he finds some merit in Lewis's account of possible worlds, finds the position to be ultimately untenable. He himself advances a more "moderate" realism about possible worlds, which he terms actualism (since it holds that all that exists is in fact actual, and that there are no "merely possible" entities).^[25] In particular, Stalnaker does not accept Lewis's attempt to argue on the basis of a supposed analogy with the epistemological objection to mathematical Platonism that believing in possible worlds as Lewis imagines them is no less reasonable than believing in mathematical entities such as sets or functions.^[26]

Kripke's response

Saul Kripke described modal realism as "totally misguided", "wrong", and "objectionable".^[27] Kripke argued that possible worlds were not like distant countries out there to be discovered; rather, we stipulate what is true according to them. Kripke also criticized modal realism for its reliance on counterpart theory, which he regarded as untenable. Specifically, Kripke states that Lewis' modal realism implies that when we refer to possibilities regarding persons like you or me, we're not referring to you or me. Instead, we're referring to counterparts who are similar to us but not identical. This seems problematic because it seems like when, for example, we say that, 'Humphrey could have become President', we are talking about Humphrey (and we're not talking about a person that is like Humphrey).^[28] Lewis responds by saying this objection (i.e. The Humphrey Objection) wouldn't apply to modal realists who believe that the identity of persons can "overlap" in multiple worlds, even though Lewis thinks that view is problematic.^[29] Secondly, Lewis doesn't seem to share the intuition that there is any problem, as evidenced by the fact that he calls it an "alleged" intuition.^[30]

Argument from morality

The argument from morality, as initially formulated by Robert Merrihew Adams,^[31] criticizes modal realism on the grounds that modal realism has very implausible consequences for morality and should therefore be rejected. This can be seen by considering the principle of plenitude: the thesis that there is a possible world for every way things could be.^[32][33] The consequence of this principle is that the nature of the pluriverse, i.e. of reality in the widest sense, is fixed. This means that whatever choices human agents make, they have no impact on reality as a whole.^[34] For example, assume that during a stroll at a lake you spot a drowning child not far from the shore. You have a choice to save the child or not to. If you choose to save the child then a counterpart of you at another possible world chooses to let it drown. If you choose to let it drown then the counterpart of you at this other possible world chooses to save it. Either way, the result for these two possible worlds is the same: one child drowns and the other is saved. The only impact of your choice is to relocate a death from the actual world to another possible world.^[35] But since, according to modal realism, there is no important difference between the actual world and other possible worlds, this shouldn't matter. The consequence would be that there is no moral obligation to save the child, which is drastically at odds with common-sense morality. Worse still, this argument can be generalized to any decision, so whatever you choose in any decision would be morally permissible.^[36]

David Lewis defends moral realism against this argument by pointing out that morality, as commonly conceived, is only interested in the actual world, specifically, that the actual agent doesn't do evil. So the argument from morality would only be problematic for an odd version of utilitarianism aiming at maximizing the "sum total of good throughout the plurality of worlds".^[37] But, as Mark Heller points out, this reply doesn't explain why we are justified in morally privileging the actual world, as modal realism seems to be precisely against such a form of unequal treatment. This is not just a problem for utilitarians but for any moral theory that is sensitive to how other people are affected by one's actions in the widest sense, causally or otherwise: "the modal realist has to consider more people in moral decision making than we ordinarily do consider".^[35] Bob Fischer, speaking on Lewis' behalf, concedes that, from a modally unrestricted point of view of morality, there is no obligation to save the child from drowning. Common-sense morality, on the other hand, assumes a modally restricted point of view. This disagreement with common-sense is a cost of modal realism to be considered in an overall cost-benefit calculation, but it is no knockdown argument.^[36]

See also

• Counterpart theory
• Impossible world
• Linguistic modality
• Many-worlds interpretation
• Mathematical universe hypothesis
• Multiverse
• Brane cosmology
• J. B. Priestley's Time Plays
• Actualism
• Extended modal realism

References

1. 
   

Lewis D, 1986, p2, On the Plurality of Worlds, Oxford, Blackwell.

"Possible Worlds". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.

"Possible Worlds". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.

Lewis, David (1986). On the Plurality of Worlds. Wiley-Blackwell.

"Platonism in Metaphysics". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016.

David Lewis, Convention, 1968, p. 208

David Lewis, Counterfactuals, 1973, pp. 87–88

Yagisawa, Takashi (2009). Worlds and Individuals, Possible and Otherwise. Oxford University Press.

Yagisawa, Takashi (2011). "Précis of Worlds and Individuals, Possible and Otherwise". Analytic Philosophy. 52 (4): 270–272. doi:10.1111/j.2153-960X.2011.00534.x.

Thomas, Andrew D. (2020). "Extended Modal Realism — a New Solution to the Problem of Intentional Inexistence". Philosophia. 48 (3): 1197–1208. doi:10.1007/s11406-019-00126-z.

Sider, Theodore (2001). Four Dimensionalism: An Ontology of Persistence and Time. Oxford University Press.

Vacek, Martin (2017). "Extended Modal Dimensionalism". Acta Analytica. 32 (1): 13–28. doi:10.1007/s12136-016-0297-9. S2CID 114272096.

Berto, Francesco; Jago, Mark (2018). "Impossible Worlds". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.

Lewis, David (1986). On the Plurality of Worlds. Wiley-Blackwell.

Lewis, David K. (1973). "4. Foundations". Counterfactuals. Blackwell.

Laan, David A. Vander (1997). "The Ontology of Impossible Worlds". Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic. 38 (4): 597–620. doi:10.1305/ndjfl/1039540772.

Berto, Francesco; Jago, Mark (2018). "Impossible Worlds". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 November 2020.

Menzel, Christopher (2017). "Possible Worlds". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 November 2020.

Quine, Willard V. (1948). "On What There Is". Review of Metaphysics. 2 (1): 21–38.

Thomasson, Amie L. (2014). Ontology Made Easy. Oup Usa. p. 248.

W. V. O. Quine, "Proportional Objects" in Ontological Relativity and Other Essays', 1969, pp.140-147

Plantinga, A. (2003). Essays on the Metaphysics of Modality, M. Davidson (ed.), Oxford: Oxford UP.

Wilson, Alastair (2020). The Nature of Contingency: Quantum Physics as Modal Realism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Wilson, Alastair (2020). The Nature of Contingency: Quantum Physics as Modal Realism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Stalnaker (1976,1996 both reprinted in Stalnaker 2003)

Stalnaker (1996)

Kripke (1972)

Saul Kripke. Naming and necessity. Harvard University Press, 1980.

Lewis, David (1986). On the Plurality of Worlds. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 196-197.

Lewis, David (1986). On the Plurality of Worlds. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 197-198.

Adams, Robert Merrihew (1974). "Theories of Actuality". Noûs. 8 (3): 211–231. doi:10.2307/2214751. JSTOR 2214751.

Bricker, Phillip (2006). "David Lewis: On the Plurality of Worlds". Central Works of Philosophy, Vol. 5: The Twentieth Century: Quine and After. Acumen Publishing.

Parent, Ted. "Modal Metaphysics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 15 November 2020.

Weatherson, Brian (2016). "David Lewis". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 November 2020.

Heller, Mark (2003). "The Immorality of Modal Realism, Or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Let the Children Drown". Philosophical Studies. 114 (1–2): 1–22. doi:10.1023/A:1024471800380. S2CID 169297729.

Fischer, Bob (2017). "The Moral Objection to Modal Realism". Erkenntnis. 82 (5): 1015–1030. doi:10.1007/s10670-016-9856-0. S2CID 151975605.

37. Lewis, David (1986). On the Plurality of Worlds. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 127–8.

Bibliography

• David Lewis, Counterfactuals, (1973 [revised printing 1986]; Blackwell & Harvard U.P.)
• David Lewis, Convention: A Philosophical Study, (1969; Harvard University Press)
• David Lewis, On the Plurality of Worlds (1986; Blackwell)
• Saul Kripke, "Naming and Necessity". Semantics of Natural Language, D. Davidson and G. Harman [eds.], [Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1972]
• Saul Kripke, "Identity and Necessity". Identity and Individuation, Milton K. Munitz [ed.], [1974; New York, New York University Press, pp. 135-164].
• David Armstrong, A Combinatorial Theory of Possibility (1989; Cambridge University Press)
• John D. Barrow, The Constants of Nature (2002; published by Vintage in 2003)
• Colin McGinn, "Modal Reality" (Reduction, Time, and Reality, R. Healey [ed.]; Cambridge University Press)
• Stalnaker, Robert (2003). Ways a world might be: metaphysical and anti-metaphysical essays. Oxford: Clarendon. ISBN 0-19-925149-5.
• Andrea Sauchelli, "Concrete Possible Worlds and Counterfactual Conditionals", Synthese, 176, 3 (2010), pp. 345–56.

v t e Philosophy

Categories:

• Analytic philosophy
• Possible worlds
• Metaphysical realism

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_realism

Category:Possible worlds

• Category
• Talk

• Read
• Edit
• View history

Tools

• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  

• 
  
• 
  

Help

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The main article for this category is Possible world.

See also: WP:WikiProject Philosophy/Resources

Pages in category "Possible worlds"

The following 10 pages are in this category, out of 10 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.

A

• Actualism

B

• Best of all possible worlds

C

• Centered world

E

• Extended modal realism

I

• Impossible world

M

• Modal fictionalism
• Modal realism

P

• Possibilism (philosophy)
• Possible world

T

• Transworld identity

Category:

• Modal metaphysics

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Possible_worlds