05-17-2023-2216 - boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE, /ˈblɛviː/ BLEV-ee), backdraft, backdraught, dack, conflagration, dust explosion, fuel-air explosion, deflagration, flashover, friction loss, gas leak, spontaneous combustion or spontaneous ignition, thermal radiation, fluid, pressure, firefighting, magnet, gel, flash point, pen, trap, glass, stop, bar, cut, fire, greast duct, standpipe, firefighting, flame spread, asbestos cement, fibro, ac sheet, assist n search, special operations, quint, bunk, fog, drill, tower, crash, search, hard suction, vaccume, dessicant, temperature, coolant, fusion, fission, subatomy, bomb down, smoking, gassing, fogging, foaming, dusting, magnetizing, rotary, demagnitizing, splintering, plasma, siren, rotary saw, saw, hazmat, chimney fire, backdraft, deluge gun, draft, water, kelly tool, tool, hard suction hose, siren, rotary saw, hazmat suit, chimney fire, backdraft, deluge gun, gaseous, suppression, flash fire, flash, fire, structure fire, flashover, aerial firefighting, bomb down, weather, stilling, bomb phase, air comp, variable value set, fire retardant gel, gel, hydrocolloid, eyes, eye, fire rake, driptorch, flame thrower, torch, sublimination, etc. (draft)

Flames subsequent to a flammable liquid BLEVE from a tanker. (BLEVEs do not necessarily involve fire).

A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE, /ˈblɛviː/ BLEV-ee) is an explosion caused by the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that has reached a temperature above its boiling point.^[1][2] Because the boiling point of a liquid rises with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can remain a liquid as long as the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss of pressure drops the boiling point, which can cause the liquid to rapidly convert to a gas expanding rapidly. If the gas is combustible, as in the case with hydrocarbons and alcohols, further damage can be caused by the ensuing fire.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_liquid_expanding_vapor_explosion

A backdraft (North American English) or backdraught (British English)^[1] is the abrupt burning of superheated gasses in a fire, caused when oxygen rapidly enters a hot, oxygen-depleted environment; for example, when a window or door to an enclosed space is opened or broken. Backdrafts present a serious threat to firefighters. There is some debate concerning whether backdrafts should be considered a type of flashover (see below).

A firefighter demonstrates the behavior of a backdraft during live-fire training

0:29

Explosive combustion of hydrogen. Escaping hydrogen is ignited, while the removal of the bottom cap allows air to enter. Eventually, the air mixes with the hydrogen inside the container, causing an explosion. A similar process occurs during a backdraft, with the introduction of oxygen and mixing with unburnt gases causing abrupt or even explosive combustion

Burning

When material is heated enough, it begins to break down into smaller compounds, including flammable or even explosive gas, typically hydrocarbons. This is called pyrolysis, and does not require oxygen. If oxygen is also provided, then the hydrocarbons can combust, starting a fire.

If material undergoing pyrolysis is later given sufficient oxygen, the hydrocarbons will ignite, and therefore, combustion takes place. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backdraft

The August Complex fire in 2020, the largest fire in California's history

A conflagration is a large fire.^[1] Conflagrations often damage human life, animal life, health, and/or property. A conflagration can begin accidentally or be intentionally created (arson). A very large fire can produce a firestorm, in which the central column of rising heated air induces strong inward winds, which supply oxygen to the fire. Conflagrations can cause casualties including deaths or injuries from burns, trauma due to collapse of structures and attempts to escape, and smoke inhalation.

Firefighting is the practice of extinguishing a conflagration, protecting life and property and minimizing damage and injury. One of the goals of fire prevention is to avoid conflagrations. When a conflagration is extinguished, there is often a fire investigation to determine the cause of the fire. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflagration

A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air within an enclosed location. Dust explosions can occur where any dispersed powdered combustible material is present in high-enough concentrations in the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous medium, such as pure oxygen. In cases when fuel plays the role of a combustible material, the explosion is known as a fuel-air explosion.

Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in coal mines, grain elevators, and other industrial environments. They are also commonly used by special effects artists, filmmakers, and pyrotechnicians, given their spectacular appearance and ability to be safely contained under certain carefully controlled conditions.

Thermobaric weapons exploit this principle by rapidly saturating an area with an easily combustible material and then igniting it to produce explosive force. These weapons are the most powerful non-nuclear weapons in existence.^[1] 

Lab demonstration with burning lycopodium powder

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_explosion

Deflagration (Lat: de + flagrare, "to burn down") is subsonic combustion in which a pre-mixed flame propagates through a mixture of fuel and oxidizer.^[1] Deflagrations can only occur in pre-mixed fuels. Most fires found in daily life are diffusion flames. Deflagrations with flame speeds in the range of 1 m/sec differ from detonations which propagate supersonically through shock waves with speeds in the range of 1 km/sec.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflagration

For other uses, see Flashover (disambiguation) and Electric arc.

A flashover is the near-simultaneous ignition of most of the directly exposed combustible material in an enclosed area. When certain organic materials are heated, they undergo thermal decomposition and release flammable gases. Flashover occurs when the majority of the exposed surfaces in a space are heated to their autoignition temperature and emit flammable gases (see also flash point). Flashover normally occurs at 500 °C (932 °F) or 590 °C (1,100 °F) for ordinary combustibles and an incident heat flux at floor level of 20 kilowatts per square metre (2.5 hp/sq ft).

An example of flashover is the ignition of a piece of furniture in a domestic room. The fire involving the initial piece of furniture can produce a layer of hot smoke, which spreads across the ceiling in the room. The hot buoyant smoke layer grows in depth, as it is bounded by the walls of the room. The radiated heat from this layer heats the surfaces of the directly exposed combustible materials in the room, causing them to give off flammable gases, via pyrolysis. When the temperatures of the evolved gases becomes high enough, these gases will ignite throughout their extent.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashover

The term friction loss (or frictional loss) has a number of different meanings, depending on its context.

• In fluid flow it is the head loss that occurs in a containment such as a pipe or duct due to the effect of the fluid's viscosity near the surface of the containment.^[1]

• In mechanical systems such as internal combustion engines, the term refers to the power lost in overcoming the friction between two moving surfaces.

Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, Nouvelles expériences sur la résistance des fluides, 1777

• In economics, frictional loss is natural and irrecoverable loss in a transaction or the cost(s) of doing business too small to account for. Contrast with tret in shipping, which made a general allowance for otherwise unaccounted for factors.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction_loss

A gas leak refers to a leak of natural gas or another gaseous product from a pipeline or other containment into any area where the gas should not be present. Gas leaks can be hazardous to health as well as the environment. Even a small leak into a building or other confined space may gradually build up an explosive or lethal concentration of gas.^[1] Leaks of natural gas and refrigerant gas into the atmosphere are especially harmful due to their global warming potential and ozone depletion potential.^[2]

Leaks of gases associated with industrial operations and equipment are also generally known as fugitive emissions. Natural gas leaks from fossil fuel extraction and use are known as fugitive gas emissions. Such unintended leaks should not be confused with similar intentional types of gas release, such as:

• gas venting emissions which are controlled releases, and often practised as a part of routine operations, or
• "emergency pressure releases" which are intended to prevent equipment damage and safeguard life.

Gas leaks should also not be confused with "gas seepage" from the earth or oceans - either natural or due to human activity. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_leak

For the spontaneous combustion of humans, see Spontaneous human combustion. For other uses, see Spontaneous combustion (disambiguation).

A large compost pile can spontaneously combust if not properly managed.

Spontaneous combustion or spontaneous ignition is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, autoignition.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_combustion

This article is about any type of electromagnetic radiation from an object related to its temperature. For infrared light, see Infrared.

"Heat radiation" redirects here. Not to be confused with Heat-Ray (disambiguation).

The peak wavelength and total-s radiated amount vary with temperature according to Wien's displacement law. Although this shows relatively high temperatures, the same relationships hold true for any temperature down to absolute zero.

Thermal radiation in visible light can be seen on this hot metalwork. Its emission in the infrared is invisible to the human eye. Infrared cameras are capable of capturing this infrared emission (see Thermography).

Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles in matter. Thermal radiation is generated when heat from the movement of charges in the material (electrons and protons in common forms of matter) is converted to electromagnetic radiation. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. At room temperature, most of the emission is in the infrared (IR) spectrum.^{[1]: 73–86} Particle motion results in charge-acceleration or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation.

Infrared radiation emitted by animals (detectable with an infrared camera) and cosmic microwave background radiation are examples of thermal radiation.

If a radiation object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium, the radiation is called blackbody radiation.^[2] Planck's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation, which depends solely on the object's temperature. Wien's displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity.^[3]

Thermal radiation is also one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation

Fluid pressure

Fluid pressure is most often the compressive stress at some point within a fluid. (The term fluid refers to both liquids and gases – for more information specifically about liquid pressure, see section below.)

Water escapes at high speed from a damaged hydrant that contains water at high pressure

Fluid pressure occurs in one of two situations:

1. An open condition, called "open channel flow", e.g. the ocean, a swimming pool, or the atmosphere.
2. A closed condition, called "closed conduit", e.g. a water line or gas line.

Pressure in open conditions usually can be approximated as the pressure in "static" or non-moving conditions (even in the ocean where there are waves and currents), because the motions create only negligible changes in the pressure. Such conditions conform with principles of fluid statics. The pressure at any given point of a non-moving (static) fluid is called the hydrostatic pressure.

Closed bodies of fluid are either "static", when the fluid is not moving, or "dynamic", when the fluid can move as in either a pipe or by compressing an air gap in a closed container. The pressure in closed conditions conforms with the principles of fluid dynamics.

The concepts of fluid pressure are predominantly attributed to the discoveries of Blaise Pascal and Daniel Bernoulli. Bernoulli's equation can be used in almost any situation to determine the pressure at any point in a fluid. The equation makes some assumptions about the fluid, such as the fluid being ideal^[12] and incompressible.^[12] An ideal fluid is a fluid in which there is no friction, it is inviscid^[12] (zero viscosity).^[12] The equation for all points of a system filled with a constant-density fluid is^[13]

${\displaystyle \frac{p}{\gamma }+\frac{v^2}{2g}+z=\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t},}$

where:

p, pressure of the fluid,

${\displaystyle \gamma }$ = ρg, density × acceleration of gravity is the (volume-) specific weight of the fluid,^[12]

v, velocity of the fluid,

g, acceleration of gravity,

z, elevation,

${\displaystyle \frac{p}{\gamma }}$, pressure head,

${\displaystyle \frac{v^2}{2g}}$, velocity head.

Applications

• Hydraulic brakes
• Artesian well
• Blood pressure
• Hydraulic head
• Plant cell turgidity
• Pythagorean cup
• Pressure washing

Explosion or deflagration pressures

Explosion or deflagration pressures are the result of the ignition of explosive gases, mists, dust/air suspensions, in unconfined and confined spaces.

Negative pressures

Low-pressure chamber in Bundesleistungszentrum Kienbaum, Germany

While pressures are, in general, positive, there are several situations in which negative pressures may be encountered:

• When dealing in relative (gauge) pressures. For instance, an absolute pressure of 80 kPa may be described as a gauge pressure of −21 kPa (i.e., 21 kPa below an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa). For example, abdominal decompression is an obstetric procedure during which negative gauge pressure is applied intermittently to a pregnant woman's abdomen.
• Negative absolute pressures are possible. They are effectively tension, and both bulk solids and bulk liquids can be put under negative absolute pressure by pulling on them.^[14] Microscopically, the molecules in solids and liquids have attractive interactions that overpower the thermal kinetic energy, so some tension can be sustained. Thermodynamically, however, a bulk material under negative pressure is in a metastable state, and it is especially fragile in the case of liquids where the negative pressure state is similar to superheating and is easily susceptible to cavitation.^[15] In certain situations, the cavitation can be avoided and negative pressures sustained indefinitely,^[15] for example, liquid mercury has been observed to sustain up to −425 atm in clean glass containers.^[16] Negative liquid pressures are thought to be involved in the ascent of sap in plants taller than 10 m (the atmospheric pressure head of water).^[17]
• The Casimir effect can create a small attractive force due to interactions with vacuum energy; this force is sometimes termed "vacuum pressure" (not to be confused with the negative gauge pressure of a vacuum).
• For non-isotropic stresses in rigid bodies, depending on how the orientation of a surface is chosen, the same distribution of forces may have a component of positive pressure along one surface normal, with a component of negative pressure acting along another surface normal.
  • The stresses in an electromagnetic field are generally non-isotropic, with the pressure normal to one surface element (the normal stress) being negative, and positive for surface elements perpendicular to this.
• In cosmology, dark energy creates a very small yet cosmically significant amount of negative pressure, which accelerates the expansion of the universe.

Stagnation pressure

Main article: Stagnation pressure

Stagnation pressure is the pressure a fluid exerts when it is forced to stop moving. Consequently, although a fluid moving at higher speed will have a lower static pressure, it may have a higher stagnation pressure when forced to a standstill. Static pressure and stagnation pressure are related by:

${\displaystyle p_0=\frac{1}{2}\rho v^2+p}$

where

${\displaystyle p_0}$ is the stagnation pressure,

${\displaystyle \rho }$ is the density,

${\displaystyle v}$ is the flow velocity,

${\displaystyle p}$ is the static pressure.

The pressure of a moving fluid can be measured using a Pitot tube, or one of its variations such as a Kiel probe or Cobra probe, connected to a manometer. Depending on where the inlet holes are located on the probe, it can measure static pressures or stagnation pressures.

Surface pressure and surface tension

There is a two-dimensional analog of pressure – the lateral force per unit length applied on a line perpendicular to the force.

Surface pressure is denoted by π:

${\displaystyle \pi =\frac{F}{l}}$

and shares many similar properties with three-dimensional pressure. Properties of surface chemicals can be investigated by measuring pressure/area isotherms, as the two-dimensional analog of Boyle's law, πA = k, at constant temperature.

Surface tension is another example of surface pressure, but with a reversed sign, because "tension" is the opposite to "pressure".

Pressure of an ideal gas

Main article: Ideal gas law

In an ideal gas, molecules have no volume and do not interact. According to the ideal gas law, pressure varies linearly with temperature and quantity, and inversely with volume:

${\displaystyle p=\frac{nRT}{V},}$

where:

p is the absolute pressure of the gas,

n is the amount of substance,

T is the absolute temperature,

V is the volume,

R is the ideal gas constant.

Real gases exhibit a more complex dependence on the variables of state.^[18]

Vapour pressure

Main article: Vapour pressure

Vapour pressure is the pressure of a vapour in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases in a closed system. All liquids and solids have a tendency to evaporate into a gaseous form, and all gases have a tendency to condense back to their liquid or solid form.

The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapour bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure, and therefore higher temperature, because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases.

The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called partial vapor pressure.

Liquid pressure

See also: Fluid statics § Pressure in fluids at rest

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When a person swims under the water, water pressure is felt acting on the person's eardrums. The deeper that person swims, the greater the pressure. The pressure felt is due to the weight of the water above the person. As someone swims deeper, there is more water above the person and therefore greater pressure. The pressure a liquid exerts depends on its depth.

Liquid pressure also depends on the density of the liquid. If someone was submerged in a liquid more dense than water, the pressure would be correspondingly greater. Thus, we can say that the depth, density and liquid pressure are directly proportionate. The pressure due to a liquid in liquid columns of constant density or at a depth within a substance is represented by the following formula:

${\displaystyle p=\rho gh,}$

where:

p is liquid pressure,

g is gravity at the surface of overlaying material,

ρ is density of liquid,

h is height of liquid column or depth within a substance.

Another way of saying the same formula is the following:

${\displaystyle p=\text{weight density}\times \text{depth}.}$

Derivation of this equation

The pressure a liquid exerts against the sides and bottom of a container depends on the density and the depth of the liquid. If atmospheric pressure is neglected, liquid pressure against the bottom is twice as great at twice the depth; at three times the depth, the liquid pressure is threefold; etc. Or, if the liquid is two or three times as dense, the liquid pressure is correspondingly two or three times as great for any given depth. Liquids are practically incompressible – that is, their volume can hardly be changed by pressure (water volume decreases by only 50 millionths of its original volume for each atmospheric increase in pressure). Thus, except for small changes produced by temperature, the density of a particular liquid is practically the same at all depths.

Atmospheric pressure pressing on the surface of a liquid must be taken into account when trying to discover the total pressure acting on a liquid. The total pressure of a liquid, then, is ρgh plus the pressure of the atmosphere. When this distinction is important, the term total pressure is used. Otherwise, discussions of liquid pressure refer to pressure without regard to the normally ever-present atmospheric pressure.

The pressure does not depend on the amount of liquid present. Volume is not the important factor – depth is. The average water pressure acting against a dam depends on the average depth of the water and not on the volume of water held back. For example, a wide but shallow lake with a depth of 3 m (10 ft) exerts only half the average pressure that a small 6 m (20 ft) deep pond does. (The total force applied to the longer dam will be greater, due to the greater total surface area for the pressure to act upon. But for a given 5-foot (1.5 m)-wide section of each dam, the 10 ft (3.0 m) deep water will apply one quarter the force of 20 ft (6.1 m) deep water). A person will feel the same pressure whether their head is dunked a metre beneath the surface of the water in a small pool or to the same depth in the middle of a large lake.

If four interconnected vases contain different amounts of water but are all filled to equal depths, then a fish with its head dunked a few centimetres under the surface will be acted on by water pressure that is the same in any of the vases. If the fish swims a few centimetres deeper, the pressure on the fish will increase with depth and be the same no matter which vase the fish is in. If the fish swims to the bottom, the pressure will be greater, but it makes no difference which vase it is in. All vases are filled to equal depths, so the water pressure is the same at the bottom of each vase, regardless of its shape or volume. If water pressure at the bottom of a vase were greater than water pressure at the bottom of a neighboring vase, the greater pressure would force water sideways and then up the narrower vase to a higher level until the pressures at the bottom were equalized. Pressure is depth dependent, not volume dependent, so there is a reason that water seeks its own level.

Restating this as an energy equation, the energy per unit volume in an ideal, incompressible liquid is constant throughout its vessel. At the surface, gravitational potential energy is large but liquid pressure energy is low. At the bottom of the vessel, all the gravitational potential energy is converted to pressure energy. The sum of pressure energy and gravitational potential energy per unit volume is constant throughout the volume of the fluid and the two energy components change linearly with the depth.^[19] Mathematically, it is described by Bernoulli's equation, where velocity head is zero and comparisons per unit volume in the vessel are

${\displaystyle \frac{p}{\gamma }+z=\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}.}$

Terms have the same meaning as in section Fluid pressure.

Direction of liquid pressure

An experimentally determined fact about liquid pressure is that it is exerted equally in all directions.^[20] If someone is submerged in water, no matter which way that person tilts their head, the person will feel the same amount of water pressure on their ears. Because a liquid can flow, this pressure is not only downward. Pressure is seen acting sideways when water spurts sideways from a leak in the side of an upright can. Pressure also acts upward, as demonstrated when someone tries to push a beach ball beneath the surface of the water. The bottom of a boat is pushed upward by water pressure (buoyancy).

When a liquid presses against a surface, there is a net force that is perpendicular to the surface. Although pressure does not have a specific direction, force does. A submerged triangular block has water forced against each point from many directions, but components of the force that are not perpendicular to the surface cancel each other out, leaving only a net perpendicular point.^[20] This is why water spurting from a hole in a bucket initially exits the bucket in a direction at right angles to the surface of the bucket in which the hole is located. Then it curves downward due to gravity. If there are three holes in a bucket (top, bottom, and middle), then the force vectors perpendicular to the inner container surface will increase with increasing depth – that is, a greater pressure at the bottom makes it so that the bottom hole will shoot water out the farthest. The force exerted by a fluid on a smooth surface is always at right angles to the surface. The speed of liquid out of the hole is ${\displaystyle \sqrt{2gh}}$, where h is the depth below the free surface.^[20] This is the same speed the water (or anything else) would have if freely falling the same vertical distance h.

Kinematic pressure

${\displaystyle P=p/{\rho }_0}$

is the kinematic pressure, where ${\displaystyle p}$ is the pressure and ${\displaystyle {\rho }_0}$ constant mass density. The SI unit of P is m²/s². Kinematic pressure is used in the same manner as kinematic viscosity ${\displaystyle \nu }$ in order to compute the Navier–Stokes equation without explicitly showing the density ${\displaystyle {\rho }_0}$.

Navier–Stokes equation with kinematic quantities

${\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\partial }u}{\mathrm{\partial }t}+(u\mathrm{\nabla })u=-\mathrm{\nabla }P+\nu {\mathrm{\nabla }}^{2}u.}$

See also

• Atmospheric pressure – Static pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere
• Blood pressure – Pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of arteries
• Boyle's law – Relationship between pressure and volume in a gas at constant temperature
• Combined gas law – Combination of Charles', Boyle's and Gay-Lussac's gas laws
• Conversion of units – Comparison of various scales
• Critical point (thermodynamics) – Temperature and pressure point where phase boundaries disappear
• Dimensional analysis – Analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities
• Dynamic pressure – Kinetic energy per unit volume of a fluid
• Electric potential – Line integral of the electric field
• Electron degeneracy pressure – Repulsive force in quantum mechanics
• High pressure – Great force distributed over a small area
• Hydraulics – Applied engineering involving liquids
• Internal pressure – measure of how the internal energy of a system changes when it expands or contracts at constant temperature
• Kinetic theory – Historical physical model of gases
• Microphone – Device that converts sound into an electrical signal
• Orders of magnitude (pressure) – Range of exerted pressure from vacuums to black holes.
• Partial pressure – Pressure attributed to a component gas in a mixture
• Pressure measurement – Analysis of force applied by a fluid on a surface
• Pressure sensor – Pressure measurement device
• Sound pressure – Local pressure deviation caused by a sound wave
• Static pressure – Term in fluid dynamics; how "heavy" a stagnant fluid is
• Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
• Torricelli's law – theorem in fluid dynamics
• Vacuum – Space that is empty of matter
• Vacuum pump – Equipment generating a relative vacuum
• Vertical pressure variation – Variation in pressure as a function of elevation

Notes

1. 
   

1. The preferred spelling varies by country and even by industry. Further, both spellings are often used within a particular industry or country. Industries in British English-speaking countries typically use the "gauge" spelling.

References

1. 
   

Knight, PhD, Randall D. (2007). "Fluid Mechanics". Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach (google books) (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Addison Wesley. p. 1183. ISBN 978-0-321-51671-8. Retrieved 6 April 2020. Pressure itself is not a Force, even though we sometimes talk "informally" about the "force exerted by the pressure. The correct statement is that the Fluid exerts a force on a surface. In addition, Pressure is a scalar, not a vector.

Giancoli, Douglas G. (2004). Physics: principles with applications. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-060620-4.

McNaught, A. D.; Wilkinson, A.; Nic, M.; Jirat, J.; Kosata, B.; Jenkins, A. (2014). IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book"). 2.3.3. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. doi:10.1351/goldbook.P04819. ISBN 978-0-9678550-9-7. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.

R Nave. "Pressure". Hyperphysics. Georgia State University, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 2022-03-05.

Alberty, Robert A. (2001). "USE OF LEGENDRE TRANSFORMS IN CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS (IUPAC Technical Report)" (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 73 (8): 1349–1380. doi:10.1351/pac200173081349. S2CID 98264934. Retrieved 1 November 2021. See Table 1 Conjugate pairs of variables ... (p.1357)

"14th Conference of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures". Bipm.fr. Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2012-03-27.

International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), p. 127, ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-06-04, retrieved 2021-12-16

"Rules and Style Conventions for Expressing Values of Quantities". NIST. 2 July 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-07-10. Retrieved 2009-07-07.

Lautrup, Benny (2005). Physics of continuous matter : exotic and everyday phenomena in the macroscopic world. Bristol: Institute of Physics. p. 50. ISBN 9780750307529.

Breithaupt, Jim (2015). Physics (Fourth ed.). Basingstoke. p. 106. ISBN 9781137443243.

Vishwakarma, Ram Gopal (2009). "Einstein's gravity under pressure". Astrophysics and Space Science. 321 (2): 151–156. arXiv:0705.0825. Bibcode:2009Ap&SS.321..151V. doi:10.1007/s10509-009-0016-8. S2CID 218673952.

Finnemore, John, E. and Joseph B. Franzini (2002). Fluid Mechanics: With Engineering Applications. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. pp. 14–29. ISBN 978-0-07-243202-2.

NCEES (2011). Fundamentals of Engineering: Supplied Reference Handbook. Clemson, South Carolina: NCEES. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-932613-59-9.

Imre, A. R. (2007). "How to generate and measure negative pressure in liquids?". Soft Matter under Exogenic Impacts. NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. Vol. 242. pp. 379–388. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5872-1_24. ISBN 978-1-4020-5871-4. ISSN 1568-2609.

Imre, A. R; Maris, H. J; Williams, P. R, eds. (2002). Liquids Under Negative Pressure (Nato Science Series II). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0498-5. ISBN 978-1-4020-0895-5.

Briggs, Lyman J. (1953). "The Limiting Negative Pressure of Mercury in Pyrex Glass". Journal of Applied Physics. 24 (4): 488–490. Bibcode:1953JAP....24..488B. doi:10.1063/1.1721307. ISSN 0021-8979.

Karen Wright (March 2003). "The Physics of Negative Pressure". Discover. Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.

P. Atkins, J. de Paula Elements of Physical Chemistry, 4th Ed, W. H. Freeman, 2006. ISBN 0-7167-7329-5.

Streeter, V. L., Fluid Mechanics, Example 3.5, McGraw–Hill Inc. (1966), New York.

20. Hewitt 251 (2006)^{[full citation needed]}

External links

• Introduction to Fluid Statics and Dynamics on Project PHYSNET
• Pressure being a scalar quantity
• wikiUnits.org - Convert units of pressure

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Categories:

• Pressure
• Atmospheric thermodynamics
• Underwater diving physics
• Fluid dynamics
• Fluid mechanics
• Hydraulics
• Thermodynamic properties
• State functions

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure#Fluid_pressure

 

 

em

Building design

Annulus (firestop) Area of refuge Booster pump Compartmentalization (fire protection) Crash bar Electromagnetic door holder Electromagnetic lock Emergency exit Emergency light Exit sign Fire curtain Fire cut Fire damper Fire door Fire escape Fire extinguisher Fire hose Fire hydrant Fire pump Fire sprinkler Firestop Firestop pillow Firewall (construction) Grease duct Heat and smoke vent Occupancy Packing (firestopping) Penetrant (mechanical, electrical, or structural) Penetration (firestop) Pressurisation ductwork Safety glass Smoke control Smoke damper Smoke exhaust ductwork Smokeproof enclosure Standpipe (firefighting)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_glass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annulus_(firestop)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_bar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_cut

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grease_duct

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standpipe_(firefighting)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_spread

Asbestos cement, genericized as fibro, fibrolite (short for "fibrous (or fibre) cement sheet") or AC sheet, is a building material in which asbestos fibres are used to reinforce thin rigid cement sheets.^[1]

Although invented at the end of the 19th century,^[2] the material was adopted extensively during World War II to make easily-built, sturdy and inexpensive structures for military purposes, and it continued to be used widely following the war as an affordable external cladding for buildings.^[3] Advertised as a fireproof alternative to other roofing materials such as asphalt, asbestos-cement roofs were popular, not only for safety but also for affordability.^[4] Due to asbestos-cement's imitation of more expensive materials such as wood siding and shingles, brick, slate, and stone, the product was marketed as an affordable renovation material. Asbestos-cement faced competition with the aluminum alloy, available in large quantities after WWII, and the reemergence of wood clapboard and vinyl siding in the mid to late twentieth century.

Asbestos-cement is usually formed into flat or corrugated sheets, or into pipes, but can be molded into any shape that can be formed using wet cement. In Europe, cement sheets came in a wide variety of shapes, while there was less variation in the US, due to labor and production costs. Although fibro was used in a number of countries, it was in Australia and New Zealand that its use was most widespread. Predominantly manufactured and sold by James Hardie & Co. until the mid-1980s, fibro in all its forms was a very popular building material, largely due to its durability. The reinforcing fibres used in the product were almost always asbestos.

StateLibQld 2 152895 James Hardie and Wunderlich float ready for the Victory Day procession in Brisbane, 1946

The use of fibro that contains asbestos has been banned in several countries, including Australia, but as recently as 2016, the material was discovered in new components sold for construction projects.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asbestos_cement

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Firefighting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighter_assist_and_search_team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_operations_firefighter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drill_tower

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hose_tower

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_crash_tender

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quint_(fire_apparatus)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunker_gear

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog_nozzle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_suction_hose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_tool

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siren_(alarm)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_saw

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazmat_suit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimney_fire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backdraft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deluge_gun

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_(water)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_class

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaseous_fire_suppression

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_fire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_triangle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_fire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashover

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_photography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire_suppression

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefighting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_retardant_gel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_Airborne_FireFighting_System

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire_suppression_equipment_and_personnel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_rake

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting_apparatus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_retardant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driptorch