Historical fantasy is a category of fantasy and genre of historical fiction that incorporates fantastic elements (such as magic) into a more "realistic" narrative.[1] There is much crossover with other subgenres of fantasy; those classed as Arthurian, Celtic, or Dark Ages could just as easily be placed in historical fantasy.[2] Stories fitting this classification generally take place prior to the 20th century.
Films of this genre may have plots set in biblical times or classical antiquity. They often have plots based very loosely on mythology or legends of Greek-Roman history, or the surrounding cultures of the same era.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_fantasy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_fantasy
Subgenres
Arabian fantasy
After Antoine Galland's translation of One Thousand and One Nights became popular in Europe, many writers wrote fantasy based on Galland's romantic image of the Middle East and North Africa. Early examples included the satirical tales of Anthony Hamilton, and Zadig by Voltaire.[7] English-language work in the Arabian fantasy genre includes Rasselas (1759) by Samuel Johnson, The Tales of the Genii by James Ridley (1764), Vathek by William Thomas Beckford (1786),[8] George Meredith's The Shaving of Shagpat (1856), Khaled (1891) by F. Marion Crawford, and James Elroy Flecker's Hassan (1922).[9]
In the late 1970s, interest in the subgenre revived with Hasan (1977) by Piers Anthony. This was followed by several other novels reworking Arabian legend: the metafictional The Arabian Nightmare (1983) by Robert Irwin, Diana Wynne Jones' children's novel Castle in the Air (1990), Tom Holt's humorous Djinn Rummy (1995) and Hilari Bell's Fall of a Kingdom.[9]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_fantasy
Classical fantasy
Classical fantasy is a subgenre fantasy based on the Greek and Roman myths. Symbolism from classical mythology is enormously influential on Western culture, but it was not until the 19th century that it was used in the context of literary fantasy. Richard Garnett (The Twilight of the Gods and Other Tales, 1888, revised 1903) and John Kendrick Bangs (Olympian Nights, 1902) used the Greek myths for satirical purposes.[17]
20th-century writers who made extensive use of the subgenre included John Erksine, who continued the satirical tradition of classical fantasy in such works as The Private Life of Helen of Troy (1925) and Venus, the Lonely Goddess (1949). Eden Phillpotts used Greek myths to make philosophical points in such fantasies as Pan and the Twins (1922) and Circe's Island (1925).[17] Jack Williamson's The Reign of Wizardry (Unknown Worlds, 1940) is an adventure story based on the legend of Theseus.[18] Several of Thomas Burnett Swann's novels draw on Greek and Roman myth, including Day of the Minotaur (1966).[19] The Firebrand (1986) by Marion Zimmer Bradley and Olympic Games (2004) by Leslie What are both classical fantasy tales with feminist undertones.[17] Guy Gavriel Kay who has made a career out of historical fantasy, set his two novels in The Sarantine Mosaic series in a parallel world heavily mirroring Justinian I's Byzantium.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_fantasy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_fantasy
An idyll (/ˈaɪdɪl/, UK also /ˈɪdɪl/; from Greek εἰδύλλιον, eidullion, "short poem"; occasionally spelt idyl in American English)[1][2][3] is a short poem, descriptive of rustic life, written in the style of Theocritus' short pastoral poems, the Idylls (Εἰδύλλια).
Unlike Homer, Theocritus did not engage in heroes and warfare. His idylls are limited to a small intimate world, and describe scenes from everyday life. Later imitators include the Roman poets Virgil and Catullus, Italian poets Torquato Tasso, Sannazaro and Leopardi, the English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson (Idylls of the King), and Nietzsche's Idylls from Messina. Goethe called his poem Hermann and Dorothea—which Schiller considered the very climax in Goethe's production—an idyll.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idyll
| Part of a series on |
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Arcadia (Greek: Αρκαδία) refers to a vision of pastoralism and harmony with nature. The term is derived from the Greek province of the same name which dates to antiquity; the province's mountainous topography and sparse population of pastoralists later caused the word Arcadia to develop into a poetic byword for an idyllic vision of unspoiled wilderness. Arcadia is a poetic term associated with bountiful natural splendor and harmony. The 'Garden' is often inhabited by shepherds. The concept also figures in Renaissance mythology. Although commonly thought of as being in line with Utopian ideals, Arcadia differs from that tradition in that it is more often specifically regarded as unattainable. Furthermore, it is seen as a lost, Edenic form of life, contrasting to the progressive nature of Utopian desires.
The inhabitants were often regarded as having continued to live after the manner of the Golden Age, without the pride and avarice that corrupted other regions.[1] It is also sometimes referred to in English poetry as Arcady. The inhabitants of this region bear an obvious connection to the figure of the noble savage, both being regarded as living close to nature, uncorrupted by civilization, and virtuous.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_(utopia)
The pastoral genre of literature, art, or music depicts an idealised form of the shepherd's lifestyle – herding livestock around open areas of land according to the seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. The target audience is typically an urban one. A pastoral is a work of this genre. A piece of music in the genre is usually referred to as a pastorale.
The genre is also known as bucolic, from the Greek βουκολικόν, from βουκόλος, meaning a cowherd.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral
Idylls of the King, published between 1859 and 1885, is a cycle of twelve narrative poems by the English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892; Poet Laureate from 1850) which retells the legend of King Arthur, his knights, his love for Guinevere and her tragic betrayal of him, and the rise and fall of Arthur's kingdom.
The whole work recounts Arthur's attempt and failure to lift up mankind and create a perfect kingdom, from his coming to power to his death at the hands of the traitor Mordred. Individual poems detail the deeds of various knights, including Lancelot, Geraint, Galahad, and Balin and Balan, and also Merlin and the Lady of the Lake. There is little transition between Idylls, but the central figure of Arthur links all the stories. The poems were dedicated to the late Albert, Prince Consort.
The Idylls are written in blank verse. Tennyson's descriptions of nature are derived from observations of his own surroundings, collected over the course of many years. The dramatic narratives are not an epic either in structure or tone, but derive elegiac sadness in the style of the idylls of Theocritus. Idylls of the King is often read as an allegory of the societal conflicts in Britain during the mid-Victorian era.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idylls_of_the_King
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idyllic_account
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recontextualisation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recoupment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashback_(narrative)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reminiscence?wprov=srpw1_0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tale
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fiction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-fiction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostwriter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Script_doctor
The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession
In antiquity such works were typically entitled apologia, purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. The title of John Henry Newman's 1864 Christian confessional work Apologia Pro Vita Sua refers to this tradition.
The historian Flavius Josephus introduces his autobiography Josephi Vita (c. 99) with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee.[4]
The rhetor Libanius (c. 314–394) framed his life memoir Oration I (begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that would not be read aloud in privacy.
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) applied the title Confessions to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology[5]). Confessions is considered one of the great masterpieces of western literature.[6]
Peter Abelard's 12th-century Historia Calamitatum is in the spirit of Augustine's Confessions, an outstanding autobiographical document of its period.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography
18th and 19th centuries
Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions, a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal's autobiographical writings of the 1830s, The Life of Henry Brulard and Memoirs of an Egotist, are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau.[15] An English example is William Hazlitt's Liber Amoris (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life.
With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of "Cellinian" autobiography.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography
20th and 21st centuries
From the 17th century onwards, "scandalous memoirs" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called "autobiographies" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians—generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their "autobiographies".[16] Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey's A Million Little Pieces have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors' lives.
Autobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. A Fortunate Life by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic.[17] With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as Angela’s Ashes and The Color of Water, more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson's book The Argonauts is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it "autotheory"—a combination of autobiography and critical theory.[18]
A genre where the "claim for truth" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to be autobiographical is autofiction.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography
In literary criticism, autofiction is a form of fictionalized autobiography.
Autofiction combines two mutually inconsistent narrative forms, namely autobiography, and fiction. An author may decide to recount their life in the third person, to modify significant details and characters, using fictive subplots and imagined scenarios with real-life characters in the service of a search for self. In this way, autofiction shares similarities with the Bildungsroman as well as the New Narrative movement and has parallels with faction, a genre devised by Truman Capote to describe his novel In Cold Blood.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autofiction
Autobiographical memory (AM)[1] is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place)[2] and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.[3] It is thus a type of explicit memory.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiographical_memory
A letter collection consists of a publication, usually a book, containing a compilation of letters written by a real person. Unlike an epistolary novel, a letter collection belongs to non-fiction literature. As a publication, a letter collection is distinct from an archive, which is a repository of original documents.
Usually, the original letters are written over the course of the lifetime of an important individual, noted either for their social position or their intellectual influence, and consist of messages to specific recipients. They might also be open letters intended for a broad audience. After these letters have served their original purpose, a letter collection gathers them to be republished as a group.[1] Letter collections, as a form of life writing, serve a biographical purpose.[2] They also typically select and organize the letters to serve an aesthetic or didactic aim, as in literary belles-lettres and religious epistles.[3] The editor who chooses, organizes, and sometimes alters the letters plays a major role in the interpretation of the published collection.[4] Letter collections have existed as a form of literature in most times and places where letter-writing played a prominent part of public life. Before the invention of printing, letter collections were recopied and circulated as manuscripts, like all literature.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_collection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rank
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreliable_narrator
A memoir (/ˈmɛm.wɑːr/;[1] from French mémoire [me.mwaʁ], from Latin memoria 'memory, remembrance') is any nonfiction narrative writing based on the author's personal memories.[2][3] The assertions made in the work are thus understood to be factual. While memoir has historically been defined as a subcategory of biography or autobiography since the late 20th century, the genre is differentiated in form, presenting a narrowed focus, usually a particular time phase in someone's life or career. A biography or autobiography tells the story "of a life", while a memoir often tells the story of a particular career, event, or time, such as touchstone moments and turning points in the author's life. The author of a memoir may be referred to as a memoirist or a memorialist.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoir
Histoire de ma vie (History of My Life) is both the memoir and autobiography of Giacomo Casanova, a famous 18th-century Italian adventurer. A previous, bowdlerized version was originally known in English as The Memoirs of Jacques Casanova (from the French Mémoires de Jacques Casanova) until the original version was published between 1960 and 1962. The unexpurgated English translation was published in 1971.
From 1838 to 1960, all the editions of the memoirs were derived from the censored editions produced in German and French in the early nineteenth century. Arthur Machen used one of these inaccurate versions for his English translation published in 1894 which remained the standard English edition for many years.
Although Casanova was Venetian (born 2 April 1725, in Venice, died 4 June 1798, in Dux, Bohemia, now Duchcov, Czech Republic), the book is written in French, which was the dominant language in the upper class at the time. The book covers Casanova's life only through 1774, although the full title of the book is Histoire de ma vie jusqu'à l'an 1797 (History of my Life until the year 1797).
On 18 February 2010, the National Library of France purchased the 3,700-page manuscript[1] of Histoire de ma vie for approximately €7 million (£5,750,000). The manuscript is believed to have been given to Casanova's nephew, Carlo Angiolini, in 1798. The manuscript is believed to contain pages not previously read or published.[2] Following this acquisition, a new edition of the Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, based on the manuscript, was published from 2013 to 2015.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_ma_vie
A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (résumé), a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of their life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality.
Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography.
An authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An autobiography is written by the person themselves, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
From the same region a couple of centuries later, according to another famous biography, departed Abraham. He and his 3 descendants became subjects of ancient Hebrew biographies whether fictional or historical.
One of the earliest Roman biographers was Cornelius Nepos, who published his work Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae ("Lives of outstanding generals") in 44 BC. Longer and more extensive biographies were written in Greek by Plutarch, in his Parallel Lives, published about 80 A.D. In this work famous Greeks are paired with famous Romans, for example, the orators Demosthenes and Cicero, or the generals Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar; some fifty biographies from the work survive. Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum ("On the Lives of the Caesars") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian. Meanwhile, in the eastern imperial periphery, Gospel described the life of Jesus.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
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John Foxe's The Book of Martyrs, was one of the earliest English-language biographies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear. The most famous of such biographies was Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The book was an account of the life of the fabled King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.
Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (1550) was the landmark biography focusing on secular lives. Vasari made celebrities of his subjects, as the Lives became an early "bestseller". Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
Influential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
A notable early collection of biographies of eminent men and women in the United Kingdom was Biographia Britannica (1747-1766) edited by William Oldys.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
Autobiographies became more popular, as with the rise of education and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop. Autobiographies were written by authors, such as Charles Dickens (who incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, (his Autobiography appeared posthumously, quickly becoming a bestseller in London[13]), philosophers, such as John Stuart Mill, churchmen – John Henry Newman – and entertainers – P. T. Barnum.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
Eminent Victorians set the standard for 20th century biographical writing, when it was published in 1918.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
Modern biography
The sciences of psychology and sociology were ascendant at the turn of the 20th century and would heavily influence the new century's biographies.[14] The demise of the "great man" theory of history was indicative of the emerging mindset. Human behavior would be explained through Darwinian theories. "Sociological" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality. The development of psychoanalysis led to a more penetrating and comprehensive understanding of the biographical subject, and induced biographers to give more emphasis to childhood and adolescence. Clearly these psychological ideas were changing the way biographies were written, as a culture of autobiography developed, in which the telling of one's own story became a form of therapy.[12] The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.
British critic Lytton Strachey revolutionized the art of biographical writing with his 1918 work Eminent Victorians, consisting of biographies of four leading figures from the Victorian era: Cardinal Manning, Florence Nightingale, Thomas Arnold, and General Gordon.[15] Strachey set out to breathe life into the Victorian era for future generations to read. Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been "as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker", and wore the same air of "slow, funereal barbarism." Strachey defied the tradition of "two fat volumes ... of undigested masses of material" and took aim at the four iconic figures. His narrative demolished the myths that had built up around these cherished national heroes, whom he regarded as no better than a "set of mouth bungled hypocrites". The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.[16]
In the 1920s and 1930s, biographical writers sought to capitalize on Strachey's popularity by imitating his style. This new school featured iconoclasts, scientific analysts, and fictional biographers and included Gamaliel Bradford, André Maurois, and Emil Ludwig, among others. Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of "debunking biographies." The trend in literary biography was accompanied in popular biography by a sort of "celebrity voyeurism", in the early decades of the century. This latter form's appeal to readers was based on curiosity more than morality or patriotism. By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular. The decades of the 1920s witnessed a biographical "boom."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
Biographical research
Biographical research is defined by Miller as a research method that collects and analyses a person's whole life, or portion of a life, through the in-depth and unstructured interview, or sometimes reinforced by semi-structured interview or personal documents.[24] It is a way of viewing social life in procedural terms, rather than static terms. The information can come from "oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography" or "diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials".[25] The central aim of biographical research is to produce rich descriptions of persons or "conceptualise structural types of actions", which means to "understand the action logics or how persons and structures are interlinked".[26] This method can be used to understand an individual's life within its social context or understand the cultural phenomena.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Non-fiction_literature
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Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the historiography of the United Kingdom, that of WWII, the pre-Columbian Americas, early Islam, and China—and different approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the development of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state—remains a debated question.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography
Legal biography is the biography of persons relevant to law. In a preface dated October 1983, A. W. B. Simpson wrote that it was "a rather neglected field".[1] Since then there has been a "resurgence of interest".[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_biography
Biographia Juridica: A Biographical Dictionary Of The Judges Of England From The Conquest To The Present Time, 1066-1870 is a lengthy and rigorous review of the major legal minds in British history. It was compiled by Edward Foss, a lawyer and devoted amateur historian who died only two months before its publication in 1870.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographia_Juridica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Biographical_dictionary_stubs
Chambers Biographical Dictionary provides concise descriptions of over 18,000 notable figures from Britain and the rest of the world. It was first published in 1897.
The publishers, Chambers Harrap, who were formerly based in Edinburgh, claim their Biographical Dictionary is the most comprehensive and authoritative single-volume biographical dictionary available, covering entries in such areas as sport, science, music, art, literature, politics, television, and film. The 1990 reprint is published by University Press, Cambridge.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambers_Biographical_Dictionary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:British_biographical_dictionaries
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory
A telephone directory, commonly called a telephone book, telephone address book, phonebook, or the white and yellow pages, is a listing of telephone subscribers in a geographical area or subscribers to services provided by the organization that publishes the directory. Its purpose is to allow the telephone number of a subscriber identified by name and address to be found.
The advent of the Internet and smartphones in the 21st century greatly reduced the need for a paper phone book.[1][2] Some communities, such as Seattle and San Francisco, sought to ban their unsolicited distribution as wasteful, unwanted and harmful to the environment.[3][4]
The slogan "Let Your Fingers Do the Walking" refers to use of phone books.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_directory
Telephone directories can be published in hard copy or in electronic form. In the latter case, the directory can be on physical media such as CD-ROM,[6] or using an online service through proprietary terminals or over the Internet.[7][8]
In many countries directories are both published in book form and also available over the Internet. Printed directories were usually supplied free of charge.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_directory
The first telephone directory, printed in New Haven, Connecticut, United States, in November 1878
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_directory
In telephony, an unlisted number (United States, New Zealand), ex-directory number (United Kingdom) silent number, silent line (Australia[1]), or private number (New Zealand, and Canada) is a telephone number that, for a fee,[2] is intentionally not listed in telephone books. Although an unpublished number is not included in the phone book, an unlisted number may be available from the phone company's information operator.[3] When used for residential households, they're primarily for privacy concerns.[4]
Another form of anomity is being listed with just a first initial, for those with a relatively common family name; sometimes these listings also lack an address. No fee is charged for initially being so-listed.[5][6][7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlisted_number
Direction finding (DF), or radio direction finding (RDF), is – in accordance with International Telecommunication Union (ITU) – defined as radio location that uses the reception of radio waves to determine the direction in which a radio station or an object is located. This can refer to radio or other forms of wireless communication, including radar signals detection and monitoring (ELINT/ESM). By combining the direction information from two or more suitably spaced receivers (or a single mobile receiver), the source of a transmission may be located via triangulation. Radio direction finding is used in the navigation of ships and aircraft, to locate emergency transmitters for search and rescue, for tracking wildlife, and to locate illegal or interfering transmitters. RDF was important in combating German threats during both the World War II Battle of Britain and the long running Battle of the Atlantic. In the former, the Air Ministry also used RDF to locate its own fighter groups and vector them to detected German raids.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_finding
A breed registry, also known as a herdbook, studbook or register, in animal husbandry and the hobby of animal fancy, is an official list of animals within a specific breed whose parents are known. Animals are usually registered by their breeders while they are young. The terms studbook and register are also used to refer to lists of male animals "standing at stud", that is, those animals actively breeding, as opposed to every known specimen of that breed. Such registries usually issue certificates for each recorded animal, called a pedigree, pedigreed animal documentation, or most commonly, an animal's "papers". Registration papers may consist of a simple certificate or a listing of ancestors in the animal's background, sometimes with a chart showing the lineage.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breed_registry
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stud_book&redirect=no
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Dog_Stud_Book
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tag
A personal account is a bank account for use by an individual for that person's own needs. It is a relative term to differentiate them from those accounts for business or corporate use.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_account
A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost always in the form of written documents.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Report
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD
A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost always in the form of written documents.[1][2]
Usage
In modern business scenario, reports play a major role in the progress of business. Reports are the backbone to the thinking process of the establishment and they are responsible, to a great extent, in evolving an efficient or inefficient work environment.
The significance of the reports includes:
- Reports present adequate information on various aspects of the business.
- All the skills and the knowledge of the professionals are communicated through reports.
- Reports help the top line in decision making.
- A rule and balanced report also helps in problem solving.
- Reports communicate the planning, policies and other matters regarding an organization to the masses. News reports play the role of ombudsman and levy checks and balances on the establishment.
Attributes
One of the most common formats for presenting reports is IMRAD—introduction, methods, results, and discussion. This structure, standard for the genre, mirrors traditional publication of scientific research and summons the ethos and credibility of that discipline. Reports are not required to follow this pattern and may use alternative methods such as the problem-solution format, wherein the author first lists an issue and then details what must be done to fix the problem. Transparency and a focus on quality are keys to writing a useful report. Accuracy is also important. Faulty numbers in a financial report could lead to disastrous consequences.
Standard elements
Reports use features such as tables, graphics, pictures, voice, or specialized vocabulary in order to persuade a specific audience to undertake an action or inform the reader of the subject at hand. Some common elements of written reports include headings to indicate topics and help the reader locate relevant information quickly, and visual elements such as charts, tables and figures, which are useful for breaking up large sections of text and making complex issues more accessible. Lengthy written reports will almost always contain a table of contents, appendices, footnotes, and references. A bibliography or list of references will appear at the end of any credible report and citations are often included within the text itself. Complex terms are explained within the body of the report or listed as footnotes in order to make the report easier to follow. A short summary of the report's contents, called an abstract, may appear in the beginning so that the audience knows what the report will cover. Online reports often contain hyperlinks to internal or external sources as well.
Verbal reports differ from written reports in the minutiae of their format, but they still educate or advocate for a course of action. Quality reports will be well researched and the speaker will list their sources if at all possible.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Report
Structure of a report[3]
A typical report would include the following sections in it:
- Title page
- Executive summary
- Table of contents
- Introduction
- Discussion or body
- Conclusion
- Recommendations
- Reference list
- Appendices.
Types
.jpg)
Some examples of reports are:
- Annual reports
- Auditor's reports
- Book reports
- Bound report
- Retail report
- Census reports
- Credit reports
- Demographic reports
- Expense report
- Experience report
- Incident report
- Inspection reports
- Military reports
- Police reports
- Policy reports
- Informal reports
- Progress reports
- Investigative reports
- Technical or scientific reports
- Trip reports
- White papers
- Appraisal reports
- Workplace reports[4][unreliable source?]
See also
- Customer relationship management
- Data quality
- Decision support system
- Enterprise application integration
- Enterprise resource planning
- Global Reporting Initiative
- Grey Literature International Steering Committee – International guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports
- Management information system
References
- "Report". archive.org. Archived from the original on 2014-03-19.
Further reading
- Blick, Ronald (2003). "Technically-Write!". Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-114878-8.
- Gerson, Sharon and Gerson, Steven (2005). Technical Writing: Process and Product. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-119664-2.
- Lannon, John (2007). Technical Communication. Longman. ISBN 0-205-55957-3.
| Authority control: National |
|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Report
The Grey Literature International Steering Committee (GLISC) was established in 2006 after the 7th International Conference on Grey Literature (GL7) held in Nancy (France) on 5–6 December 2005.[1]
During this conference, the Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS) (Rome, Italy) presented guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports documents included in the wider category of grey literature (GL) defined at the International Conferences on Grey Literature held in Luxembourg (1997) and in New York (2004) – as "information produced on all levels of government, academics, business and industry in electronic and print formats not controlled by commercial publishing i.e. where publishing is not the primary activity of the producing body".
The Italian initiative for the adoption of uniform requirements for the production of reports was discussed during a Round Table on Quality Assessment by a small group of GL producers, librarians and information professionals who agreed to collaborate in the revision of the guidelines proposed by ISS.
The group approving these guidelines – informally known as the "Nancy Group" – has been formally defined as the Grey Literature International Steering Committee (GLISC).
The recommendations are adapted from the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, produced by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) - better known as "Vancouver Style" (updated February 2006, available from ICMJE | Home and now adopted by more than 500 biomedical journals). These requirements also took into consideration the basic principles of ISO Standard Documentation entitled "Presentation of scientific and technical reports" (ISO 5966/1982) withdrawn in 2000. The ISO 5966 no longer met the requirements of ITC (Information Technology Communication), however, it still provides useful tips in the preparation of reports.
The Guidelines are created primarily to help authors and GL producers in their mutual task of creating and distributing accurate, clear, easily accessible reports in different fields. The goal of the Guidelines is, in fact, to permit an independent and correct production of institutional reports in accordance with basic editorial principles.
The Guidelines include ethical principles related to the process of evaluating, improving, and making reports available and the relationships between GL producers and authors. The latter sections address the more technical aspects of preparing and submitting reports. GLISC believes the entire document is relevant to the concerns of both authors and GL producers.
The Guidelines are informally known as "Nancy style".
GLISC members
These are the institutions which officially adopted the "Nancy Style" in the production and distribution of grey literature.
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS) – Rome, Italy
- Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique (INIST-CNRS) – Nancy, France
- Grey Literature Network Service (GreyNet), Amsterdam – The Netherlands
Many other institutions all over the world do support and use the GLISC guidelines without a formal agreement which would require longer procedures.
The GLISC Guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports (also known as "Nancy style")
Authorship: The GLISC guidelines were prepared by Paola De Castro and Sandra Salinetti from the Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome (Italy). They were critically revised by Joachim Schöpfel and Christiane Stock (INIST-CNRS, Nancy, France), Dominic Farace (GreyNet, Amsterdam, The Netherlands), Catherine Candea and Toby Green (OECD, Paris, France) and Keith G. Jeffery (CCLRC, Chilton Didcot, UK). The work was accompanied by Marcus A. Banks (Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, USA), Stefania Biagioni (ISTI-CNR, Pisa, Italy), June Crowe (Information International Associates Inc., IIA, Oak Ridge, USA) and Markus Weber (Swiss Federal Office of Public Health, Berne, Switzerland).
Structure: The guidelines are divided in five sections:
- Statement of purpose
- Ethical considerations (authorship, peer review, confidentiality...)
- Publishing and editorial issues (copyright, institutional repositories, advertising...)
- Report preparation (instructions to authors, report structure, revision editing...)
- General information on the Guidelines
The annex contains references and a list of institutions adopting the guidelines.
Update: The first version 1.0 from March 2006 was updated in July 2007 (version 1.1).
Translation: Version 1.1 was translated in French, German and Italian and Spanish.
Availability: Version 1.1 and translations are available on the GLISC website.
The total content of the Guidelines may be reproduced for educational, not-for-profit purposes without regard for copyright; the Committee encourages distribution of the material.
The GLISC policy is for interested organizations to link to the official English language document at www.glisc.info. The GLISC does not endorse posting of the document on websites other than GLISC . The GLISC welcomes organizations to reprint or translate this document into languages other than English for no-profit purposes.
Comparison between "Nancy style" and ANSI/NISO Z39.18
The ANSI/NISO Standard Z39.18-2005 Scientific and Technical Reports – Preparation, Presentation, and Preservation (released in 2005) has been considered a valuable source for comparison. The major differences concerning the two documents as a whole regard:
*Document type
They are different in that the "Nancy style" represents guidelines – that is general principles agreed upon by a small group of experts, to be followed as an indication or outline of policy or conduct –, while the ANSI/NISO Z39.18 is a proper standard, developed by the Standards Committees of the US National Information Standards Organization (NISO), subject to rigorous control and approval process including peer review. This is why also the structure of the two documents is different since the standard may repeat concepts in different sections which may be used separately, while the Guidelines are intended as an easy to read document giving the general idea for recommended items. The Guidelines, different from standards, do not give full details on format and style. Moreover, the "Nancy style" represents international guidelines developed by a corporate author (GLISC), which worked on the draft proposed by the Istituto Superiore di Sanità, and signed approval of this best practice on behalf of their respective organizations, while the ANSI/NISO Z39.18 is a national standard approved by the American National Standards Institute through a number of Voting Members.
*Paper vs digital document medium
The "Nancy style" is mostly paper oriented giving recommendations on report preparation mainly reflecting a traditional paper structure, while the organization pattern of the ANSI/NISO Z39.18 is user-based more than content-based. The key concepts incorporated in the American standard mainly refer to metadata, persistence of links, interoperability, creation, discovery/retrieval, presentation in digital format (DTD, XML, XSL), maintenance and preservation (original content, software and media); it also contains a metadata schema, which is absent in the Guidelines.
*Annexes
All material included in the "Nancy style" is approved by the GLISC, while the ANSI/NISO Z39.18 provides a large amount of additional information (almost half of the pages) that is not part of the Standard (Appendices including selected annotated bibliography, glossary, Dublin Core data elements, etc.).
*Content
In general, the "Nancy style" contains technical requirements for a report, but does not include full details (i.e. format, style, etc.); yet, it provides important elements, which are not present or not fully described in the ANSI/NISO Z39.18.
- Ethical issues
An initial section is explicitly devoted to authorship, editorship, peer review, conflicts of interest, privacy and confidentiality.
- Instructions for authors
Producers are strongly recommended to issue instructions to guide authors in the production of a formally correct document containing ethical and editorial issues as well as indications for formats, styles, illustrations, etc.
- Revision
Special attention is given to revision editing as GL is not generally peer reviewed, or produced with editorial support; therefore, it is fundamental that authors be aware of the importance of a careful revision of their texts before diffusion.
- Reference style
The adoption of the "Vancouver style" is recommended and examples and rules are given as a fundamental step for information retrieval. As regards document structure, it is basically the same in "Nancy style" and ANSI/NISO Z39.18, with minor terminological variations. Yet, the American standard explicitly gives indication on: – Report Documentation Page (since it is used by some agencies within the federal government, and also some sample pages are given). – Distribution list. – Glossary (although not part of the Standard). – Executive abstract.
*Technical recommendations
Since the "Nancy style" represents guidelines and not a standard, all technical considerations are limited to the essential, while the ANSI/NISO Z39.18 gives indications (all absent in the "Nancy style") on:
- Print-specific/non-print-specific recommendations
The Section 6 "Presentation and display" describes standard methods for ensuring consistency in presentation including designing visual and tabular matter, formatting, etc. and makes a distinction between rules applicable to all reports regardless of mode of publication (paper or digital) and rules applicable to reports published in paper form only.
- Format
Specific information is provided on fonts, line length, margins, page numbering, style, units and numbers, formulas and equations, paper (format and type), printing equipment, ink. The ANSI/NISO Z39.18 also includes specifications on index entries and errata, which are not present in the "Nancy style".
Support, translation and updating of the "Nancy style"
Many institutions considered the relevance of the GLISC Guidelines for the production and distribution of technical reports and for educational purposed, therefore, accepted to carry out the translation of the original English version into different languages.
Translations are available in:
- Italian - translation carried out by the Istituto Superiore di Sanità
. The ISS published a technical report on "Grey literature in scientific communication: "Nancy style" to guarantee editorial quality of technical reports", including the translation of the GLISC guidelines Rapporti ISTISAN 06/55 - French - translation carried out by INIST - Institute for Scientific and Technical Information - France INIST - Institute for Scientific and Technical Information - France - Nancy Style
- German translation carried out by Technischen Informationsbibliothek (TIB), Hannover - Germany
- Spanish - translation carried out by Universidad de Salamanca - Spain
The GLISC guidelines and the impact of grey literature on science communication were also appreciated by the European Association of Science Editors which included a chapter on grey literature in their Science Editor's Handbook. The use of GLISC guidelines is also supported by the European NECOBELAC Project Necobelac financed by the European Commission within the [7 Framework program], by the US National Library of Medicine Research Reporting Guidelines and Initiatives: By Organization, by the German National Library of Science and Technology TIB - Technische Informationsbibliothek: Reports / Germany and by the French Academic Agency of Francophony [1].
Next steps for updating the GLISC Guidelines could be:
- Adding an Appendix on metadata
- Creating a Subject index
- Providing more technical advice on digital format
- Facilitating reference
The Guidelines should be considered as a suggested model rather than a model in itself; they represent a basic step to improve quality in the different stages of GL production in view of its wider electronic circulation. The proposals for their updating will make them more effective, although a regular revision is required to keep pace with the changing ITC scenarios and information policies (see De Castro et al. 2006).
On the development of the GLISC guidelines
*Electronic grey literature The "Nancy style" is mostly paper oriented, because editorial consistency and ethical considerations recommended for traditional documents do apply also to digital publications. Yet, progressively more and more GL is being produced, stored, published and made available electronically and in order to manage relevant GL publications, metadata are required. The importance of metadata, as the natural evolution of library catalogue records, had been already stressed in the first version of the "Nancy style" (when dealing with report structure: Section 4.2 of the Guidelines), but no metadata schema was then provided since it was difficult to find a formula that would satisfy all requirements. At present, much GL is catalogued using the Dublin Core Metadata Standard (DC). However – as Keith Jeffery of the UK Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC) pointed out working on the "Nancy style" draft – this standard has several problems: a) it is machine-readable but not machine-understandable; b) it does not have a formalised syntax or semantics and therefore is open to ambiguous interpretations. Therefore, he proposed a formalised metadata standard (an umbrella standard, mainly generated from Dublin Core metadata: "Formalised DC" based on the concepts of the CERIF Model (Error message (euroCRIS)). Yet, as the traditional cataloguing practice has different rules, similarly different communities may adopt different metadata schema. Nowadays the World Wide Web provides the possibility to search for information across heterogeneous archives/databases/catalogues, but the systems managing different information resources must be "interoperable" (capable to work together), and interoperability requires that the same metadata schema be used. As Stefania Biagioni (of the Italian Istituto di Scienza e Tecnologie dell'Informazione - ISTI, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche) clearly commented, there is much work towards standardization and the Dublin Core Initiative (DCMI: Home) is receiving worldwide consensus as it suggests adding a very simple metadata record to any specialized one.
*Adoption strategy When consensus was to be reached to release the first version of the Guidelines, a formal approval was asked to all organizations wishing to officially adopt them. Contrary to expectations, consensus was given only by a small number of institutions as the official adoption was sometimes a difficult step. Yet, support and encouragement did not lack: a less formal approach in launching the Guidelines and getting them adopted was soon granted by all institutions involved in their creation. For example, a large international organization (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - OECD), which took part in the development of the Guidelines, expressed concern to officially endorse them (and in fact, it did not), because that would require a great deal of internal debate and discussion with their own members. Suggestions were made to follow a voluntary system backed up by an official recognition of compliance to facilitate the adoption of the Guidelines. This would encourage like-minded supporters within an organisation to informally use the Guidelines and then gain the official "stamp of approval" to show that they are really following them. Actually, other organizations policies take a voluntary approach in the documents they recommend, such as the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) with more than 230 not-for-profit publishers. As suggested by the OECD, voluntary sign-up is a less demanding step for organisations to take, but the effect is the same – more and more publishers will opt to use them.
See also
- Scientific literature
- Technical report
- Grey literature
- European Association of Science Editors
- OpenSIGLE
- Scientific writing
- Academic authorship
References
- "GLISC". September 18, 2009. Archived from the original on September 18, 2009.
Sources
- ANSI/NISO. Scientific and Technical Reports – Preparation, Presentation, and Preservation. Bethesda, MD: NISO Press; 2005. (Standard Z39.18-2005). Available from: [2]; last visited July 12, 2007.
- Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1. DCMI; 1995–2007. Available from: DCMI: Dublin Core™ Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description; last visited July 12, 2007.
- European Association of Science Editors. Science editors handbook. Old Woking (UK): EASE; 2003.
- Farace DJ, Frantzen J, editors. GL '97 Conference Proceedings: Third International Conference on Grey Literature: Perspectives on the design and transfer of scientific and technical information. Luxembourg, 13–14 November 1997. Amsterdam: GreyNet/TransAtlantic; 1998. (GL-conference series No. 3).
- Farace DJ, Frantzen J, editors. Sixth International Conference on Grey Literature: Work on Grey in Progress. New York, 6–7 December 2004. Amsterdam : TextRelease; 2005. (GL-conference series No. 6).
- Gustavii B. How to write and illustrate a scientific paper. Lund: Studentlitteratur; 2000.
- Huth EJ. How to write and publish papers in the medical sciences. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1990.
- International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals: writing and editing for biomedical publication. ICMJE: 2006. Available from ICMJE | Home; last visited: 15/2/2006.
- International Organization for Standardization. Documentation – Presentation of scientific and technical reports. Geneva: ISO; 1982. (ISO 5966).
- Matthews JR, Bowen JM, Matthews RW. Successful scientific writing. A step-by-step guide for biological and medical sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000.
- Nadziejka DE. Levels of technical editing. Reston (VA): Council of Biology Editors; 1999. (Council or Science Editors GuideLines No. 4).
- National Library of Medicine. Bibliographic Services Division. International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Uniform requirements for Manuscript submitted to Biomedical Journals: Sample references. Bethesda, MD: NLM; 2005. Available from Samples of Formatted References for Authors of Journal Articles; last visited: 31/10/2005.
- SIGLE Manual. Part 1: SIGLE cataloguing rules. Luxembourg: EAGLE; 1990.
- De Castro P, Salinetti S,. Banks M. Awareness and empowerment as a must for open access: sharing experiences in the creation and development of Nancy Style. In 8. International Conference on Grey Literature. New Orleans 4–5 December 2006 New Orleans.
- Raju, Saraswati; Jatrana, Santosh (2016), "Preface", Women Workers in Urban India, Cambridge University Press, pp. xi–xiv, doi:10.1017/cbo9781316459621.001, ISBN 978-1-316-45962-1
External links
- GLISC GLISC
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità Istituto Superiore di Sanità (ISS) - ISS
- INIST-CNRS Inist - Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique | CNRS
- Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_Literature_International_Steering_Committee
Report
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A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost always in the form of written documents.[1][2]
Usage
In modern business scenario, reports play a major role in the progress of business. Reports are the backbone to the thinking process of the establishment and they are responsible, to a great extent, in evolving an efficient or inefficient work environment.
The significance of the reports includes:
- Reports present adequate information on various aspects of the business.
- All the skills and the knowledge of the professionals are communicated through reports.
- Reports help the top line in decision making.
- A rule and balanced report also helps in problem solving.
- Reports communicate the planning, policies and other matters regarding an organization to the masses. News reports play the role of ombudsman and levy checks and balances on the establishment.
Attributes
One of the most common formats for presenting reports is IMRAD—introduction, methods, results, and discussion. This structure, standard for the genre, mirrors traditional publication of scientific research and summons the ethos and credibility of that discipline. Reports are not required to follow this pattern and may use alternative methods such as the problem-solution format, wherein the author first lists an issue and then details what must be done to fix the problem. Transparency and a focus on quality are keys to writing a useful report. Accuracy is also important. Faulty numbers in a financial report could lead to disastrous consequences.
Standard elements
Reports use features such as tables, graphics, pictures, voice, or specialized vocabulary in order to persuade a specific audience to undertake an action or inform the reader of the subject at hand. Some common elements of written reports include headings to indicate topics and help the reader locate relevant information quickly, and visual elements such as charts, tables and figures, which are useful for breaking up large sections of text and making complex issues more accessible. Lengthy written reports will almost always contain a table of contents, appendices, footnotes, and references. A bibliography or list of references will appear at the end of any credible report and citations are often included within the text itself. Complex terms are explained within the body of the report or listed as footnotes in order to make the report easier to follow. A short summary of the report's contents, called an abstract, may appear in the beginning so that the audience knows what the report will cover. Online reports often contain hyperlinks to internal or external sources as well.
Verbal reports differ from written reports in the minutiae of their format, but they still educate or advocate for a course of action. Quality reports will be well researched and the speaker will list their sources if at all possible.
Structure of a report[3]
A typical report would include the following sections in it:
- Title page
- Executive summary
- Table of contents
- Introduction
- Discussion or body
- Conclusion
- Recommendations
- Reference list
- Appendices.
Types
Some examples of reports are:
- Annual reports
- Auditor's reports
- Book reports
- Bound report
- Retail report
- Census reports
- Credit reports
- Demographic reports
- Expense report
- Experience report
- Incident report
- Inspection reports
- Military reports
- Police reports
- Policy reports
- Informal reports
- Progress reports
- Investigative reports
- Technical or scientific reports
- Trip reports
- White papers
- Appraisal reports
- Workplace reports[4][unreliable source?]
See also
- Customer relationship management
- Data quality
- Decision support system
- Enterprise application integration
- Enterprise resource planning
- Global Reporting Initiative
- Grey Literature International Steering Committee – International guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports
- Management information system
References
- "Report". archive.org. Archived from the original on 2014-03-19.
Further reading
- Blick, Ronald (2003). "Technically-Write!". Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-114878-8.
- Gerson, Sharon and Gerson, Steven (2005). Technical Writing: Process and Product. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-119664-2.
- Lannon, John (2007). Technical Communication. Longman. ISBN 0-205-55957-3.
| Authority control: National |
|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Report
A white paper is a report or guide that informs readers concisely about a complex issue and presents the issuing body's philosophy on the matter. It is meant to help readers understand an issue, solve a problem, or make a decision. A white paper is the first document researchers should read to better understand a core concept or idea.
The term originated in the 1920s to mean a type of position paper or industry report published by some department of the UK government.
Since the 1990s, this type of document has proliferated in business. Today, a business-to-business (B2B) white paper is closer to a marketing presentation, a form of content meant to persuade customers and partners and promote a certain product or viewpoint.[1][2][3] That makes B2B white papers a type of grey literature.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paper
A technical report (also scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem.[1][2] It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research. Unlike other scientific literature, such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review before publication. They may be considered as grey literature. Where there is a review process, it is often limited to within the originating organization. Similarly, there are no formal publishing procedures for such reports, except where established locally.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_report
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An annual report is a comprehensive report on a company's activities throughout the preceding year. Annual reports are intended to give shareholders and other interested people information about the company's activities and financial performance. They may be considered as grey literature. Most jurisdictions require companies to prepare and disclose annual reports, and many require the annual report to be filed at the company's registry. Companies listed on a stock exchange are also required to report at more frequent intervals (depending upon the rules of the stock exchange involved).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_report
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording and calculating population information about the members of a given population. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include censuses of agriculture, traditional culture, business, supplies, and traffic censuses. The United Nations (UN) defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every ten years. UN recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications and other useful information to co-ordinate international practices.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census
Data quality refers to the state of qualitative or quantitative pieces of information. There are many definitions of data quality, but data is generally considered high quality if it is "fit for [its] intended uses in operations, decision making and planning".[1][2][3] Moreover, data is deemed of high quality if it correctly represents the real-world construct to which it refers. Furthermore, apart from these definitions, as the number of data sources increases, the question of internal data consistency becomes significant, regardless of fitness for use for any particular external purpose. People's views on data quality can often be in disagreement, even when discussing the same set of data used for the same purpose. When this is the case, data governance is used to form agreed upon definitions and standards for data quality. In such cases, data cleansing, including standardization, may be required in order to ensure data quality.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_quality
Expertization is the process of authentication of an object, usually of a sort that is collected, by an individual authority or a committee of authorities. The expert, or expert committee, examines the collectible and issues a certificate typically including:
- A statement of:
- Whether or not the item is authentic
- Identification of any damage to the item
- Identification of any repairs to the item
- Identification of any forgery or faked parts of the item
- A photo of the item
Some experts apply a mark or signature to the item attesting its genuineness.
Expertization is particularly common with valuable philatelic items, some of which are so often forged that they may be unsaleable without it.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertization
An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledge, skill and experience through practice and education in a particular field. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by peers or the public in a specific well-distinguished domain. An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study. Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be believed, by virtue of credentials, training, education, profession, publication or experience, to have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon the individual's opinion on that topic. Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The individual was usually a profound thinker distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Expertise&redirect=no
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veracity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject-matter_expert
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_of_Expertise
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_competence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actual_Weights
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheme_Plot
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_Schema
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure
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 Philosophy portal |
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch[1] of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".[2] The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value; these fields comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology.[3]
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.[4] As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.
Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:[2]
- Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined;
- Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action;
- Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics
In analytic philosophy, actualism is the view that everything there is (i.e., everything that has being, in the broadest sense) is actual.[1][2] Another phrasing of the thesis is that the domain of unrestricted quantification ranges over all and only actual existents.[3]
The denial of actualism is possibilism, the thesis that there are some entities that are merely possible: these entities have being but are not actual and, hence, enjoy a "less robust" sort of being than do actually existing things. An important, but significantly different notion of possibilism known as modal realism was developed by the philosopher David Lewis.[1] On Lewis's account, the actual world is identified with the physical universe of which we are all a part. Other possible worlds exist in exactly the same sense as the actual world; they are simply spatio-temporally unrelated to our world, and to each other. Hence, for Lewis, "merely possible" entities—entities that exist in other possible worlds—exist in exactly the same sense as do we in the actual world; to be actual, from the perspective of any given individual x in any possible world, is simply to be part of the same world as x.
Actualists face the problem of explaining why many expressions commonly used in natural language are meaningful and sometimes even true despite the fact that they contain references to non-actual entities. Problematic expressions include names of fictional characters, definite descriptions and intentional attitude reports. Actualists have often responded to this problem by paraphrasing the expressions with apparently problematic ontological commitments into ones that are free of such commitments. Actualism has been challenged by truthmaker theory to explain how truths about what is possible or necessary depend on actuality, i.e. to point out which actual entities can act as truthmakers for them. Popular candidates for this role within an actualist ontology include possible worlds conceived as abstract objects, essences and dispositions.
Actualism and possibilism in ethics are two different theories about how future choices affect what the agent should presently do. Actualists assert that it is only relevant what the agent would actually do later for assessing the normative status of an alternative. Possibilists, on the other hand, hold that we should also take into account what the agent could do, even if he wouldn't do it.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actualism
Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary, nonexistent or nonactual. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence.[1] In physical terms, reality is the totality of a system, known and unknown.[2]
Philosophical questions about the nature of reality or existence or being are considered under the rubric of ontology, which is a major branch of metaphysics in the Western philosophical tradition. Ontological questions also feature in diverse branches of philosophy, including the philosophy of science, of religion, of mathematics, and philosophical logic. These include questions about whether only physical objects are real (i.e., physicalism), whether reality is fundamentally immaterial (e.g. idealism), whether hypothetical unobservable entities posited by scientific theories exist, whether a 'God' exists, whether numbers and other abstract objects exist, and whether possible worlds exist. Epistemology is concerned with what can be known or inferred as likely and how, whereby in the modern world emphasis is put on reason, empirical evidence and science as sources and methods to determine or investigate reality.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality
Certain ideas from physics, philosophy, sociology, literary criticism, and other fields shape various theories of reality. One such theory is that there simply and literally is no reality beyond the perceptions or beliefs we each have about reality.[citation needed] Such attitudes are summarized in the popular statement, "Perception is reality" or "Life is how you perceive reality" or "reality is what you can get away with" (Robert Anton Wilson), and they indicate anti-realism – that is, the view that there is no objective reality, whether acknowledged explicitly or not.
Many of the concepts of science and philosophy are often defined culturally and socially. This idea was elaborated by Thomas Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). The Social Construction of Reality, a book about the sociology of knowledge written by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, was published in 1966. It explained how knowledge is acquired and used for the comprehension of reality. Out of all the realities, the reality of everyday life is the most important one since our consciousness requires us to be completely aware and attentive to the experience of everyday life.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality
Related concepts
A priori and a posteriori
Potentiality and actuality
In philosophy, potentiality and actuality[7] are a pair of closely connected principles which Aristotle used to analyze motion, causality, ethics, and physiology in his Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, and De Anima.[8]
The concept of potentiality, in this context, generally refers to any "possibility" that a thing can be said to have. Aristotle did not consider all possibilities the same, and emphasized the importance of those that become real of their own accord when conditions are right and nothing stops them.[9]
Actuality, in contrast to potentiality, is the motion, change or activity that represents an exercise or fulfillment of a possibility, when a possibility becomes real in the fullest sense.[10]Belief
A belief is a subjective attitude that a proposition is true or a state of affairs is the case. A subjective attitude is a mental state of having some stance, take, or opinion about something.[11] In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false.[12] To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition "snow is white". However, holding a belief does not require active introspection. For example, few carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be occurrent (e.g. a person actively thinking "snow is white"), but can instead be dispositional (e.g. a person who if asked about the color of snow would assert "snow is white").[12]
There are various ways that contemporary philosophers have tried to describe beliefs, including as representations of ways that the world could be (Jerry Fodor), as dispositions to act as if certain things are true (Roderick Chisholm), as interpretive schemes for making sense of someone's actions (Daniel Dennett and Donald Davidson), or as mental states that fill a particular function (Hilary Putnam).[12] Some have also attempted to offer significant revisions to our notion of belief, including eliminativists about belief who argue that there is no phenomenon in the natural world which corresponds to our folk psychological concept of belief (Paul Churchland) and formal epistemologists who aim to replace our bivalent notion of belief ("either we have a belief or we don't have a belief") with the more permissive, probabilistic notion of credence ("there is an entire spectrum of degrees of belief, not a simple dichotomy between belief and non-belief").[12][13]
Beliefs are the subject of various important philosophical debates. Notable examples include: "What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?", "Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant facts have any bearing on our beliefs (e.g. if I believe that I'm holding a glass of water, is the non-mental fact that water is H2O part of the content of that belief)?", "How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?", and "Must it be possible for a belief to be expressible in language, or are there non-linguistic beliefs?".[12]Belief studies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit
Measure may refer to:
- Measurement, the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event
Law
- Ballot measure, proposed legislation in the United States
- Church of England Measure, legislation of the Church of England
- Measure of the National Assembly for Wales, primary legislation in Wales
- Assembly Measure of the Northern Ireland Assembly (1973)
Science and mathematics
- Measure (data warehouse), a property on which calculations can be made
- Measure (mathematics), a systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of a given set
- Measure (physics), a way to integrate over all possible histories of a system in quantum field theory
- Measure (termination), in computer program termination analysis
- Measuring coalgebra, a coalgebra constructed from two algebras
- Measure (Apple), an iOS augmented reality app
Other uses
- Measure (album), by Matt Pond PA, 2000, and its title track
- Measure (bartending) or jigger, a bartending tool used to measure liquor
- Measure (journal), an international journal of formal poetry
- "Measures" (Justified), a 2012 episode of the TV series Justified
- Measure (music), or bar, in musical notation
- Measure (typography), line length in characters per line
- Coal measures, the coal-bearing part of the Upper Carboniferous System
- The Measure (SA), an American punk rock band
- Bar (Music), a time segment in musical notation
See also
- All pages with titles beginning with Measure
- All pages with titles containing Measure
- Countermeasure, a measure or action taken to counter or offset another one
- Quantity, a property that can exist as a multitude or magnitude
- Measure for Measure, a play by William Shakespeare
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure
,_as_Vicentio_in_%27Measure_for_Measure%27_by_William_Shakespeare,_1794_British_School_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum.jpg)
Measure for Measure is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603 or 1604 and first performed in 1604, according to available records. It was published in the First Folio of 1623.
The play's plot features its protagonist, Duke Vincentio of Vienna, stepping out from public life to observe the affairs of the city under the governance of his deputy, Angelo. Angelo's harsh and ascetic public image is compared to his abhorrent personal conduct once in office, in which he exploits his power to procure a sexual favour from Isabella, whom he considers enigmatically beautiful. The tension in the play is eventually resolved through Duke Vincentio's intervention, which is considered an early use of the deus ex machina in English literature.[1]
Measure for Measure was printed as a comedy in the First Folio and continues to be classified as one. Though it shares features with other Shakespearean comedies, such as the use of wordplay and irony, and the employment of disguise and substitution as plot devices, it also features tragic elements such as executions and soliloquies, with Claudio's speech in particular having been favorably compared to tragic heroes like Prince Hamlet.[2][3] It is often cited as one of Shakespeare's problem plays due to its ambiguous tone.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure_for_Measure
Measure
Measure is an augmented reality measurement app available on devices running iOS 12 and above. Using Apple's ARKit, it allows users to measure objects by pointing the device's camera at them.[38] It is capable of measuring in both metric and imperial units and moving the camera closer to an object will display a ruler view which divides measurements into centimetres or inches, respectively. The app also allows for an iPhone to be used as a level; a feature previously available in the Compass app.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-installed_iOS_apps#Measure
The measure in quantum physics is the integration measure used for performing a path integral.
In quantum field theory, one must sum over all possible histories of a system. When summing over possible histories, which may be very similar to each other, one has to decide when two histories are to be considered different, and when they are to be considered the same, in order not to count the same history twice. This decision is coded within the concept of the measure by an observer.
In fact, the possible histories can be deformed continuously, and therefore the sum is in fact an integral, known as path integral.
In the limit where the sum is becoming an integral, the concept of the measure described above is replaced by an integration measure.
See also
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure_(physics)
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In mathematics, the concept of a measure is a generalization and formalization of geometrical measures (length, area, volume) and other common notions, such as magnitude, mass, and probability of events. These seemingly distinct concepts have many similarities and can often be treated together in a single mathematical context. Measures are foundational in probability theory, integration theory, and can be generalized to assume negative values, as with electrical charge. Far-reaching generalizations (such as spectral measures and projection-valued measures) of measure are widely used in quantum physics and physics in general.
The intuition behind this concept dates back to ancient Greece, when Archimedes tried to calculate the area of a circle. But it was not until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that measure theory became a branch of mathematics. The foundations of modern measure theory were laid in the works of Émile Borel, Henri Lebesgue, Nikolai Luzin, Johann Radon, Constantin Carathéodory, and Maurice Fréchet, among others.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure_(mathematics)
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to compare with other objects or events.[1][2] In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind.[3] The scope and application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline. In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[2] However, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioural sciences, measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.[1][4]
Measurement is a cornerstone of trade, science, technology and quantitative research in many disciplines. Historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of human existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields. Often these were achieved by local agreements between trading partners or collaborators. Since the 18th century, developments progressed towards unifying, widely accepted standards that resulted in the modern International System of Units (SI). This system reduces all physical measurements to a mathematical combination of seven base units. The science of measurement is pursued in the field of metrology.
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a known or standard quantity.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a known or standard quantity.
Methodology
The measurement of a property may be categorized by the following criteria: type, magnitude, unit, and uncertainty.[citation needed] They enable unambiguous comparisons between measurements.
- The level of measurement is a taxonomy for the methodological character of a comparison. For example, two states of a property may be compared by ratio, difference, or ordinal preference. The type is commonly not explicitly expressed, but implicit in the definition of a measurement procedure.
- The magnitude is the numerical value of the characterization, usually obtained with a suitably chosen measuring instrument.
- A unit assigns a mathematical weighting factor to the magnitude that is derived as a ratio to the property of an artifact used as standard or a natural physical quantity.
- An uncertainty represents the random and systemic errors of the measurement procedure; it indicates a confidence level in the measurement. Errors are evaluated by methodically repeating measurements and considering the accuracy and precision of the measuring instrument.
Standardization of measurement units
Measurements most commonly use the International System of Units (SI) as a comparison framework. The system defines seven fundamental units: kilogram, metre, candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. All of these units are defined without reference to a particular physical object which serves as a standard. Artifact-free definitions fix measurements at an exact value related to a physical constant or other invariable phenomena in nature, in contrast to standard artifacts which are subject to deterioration or destruction. Instead, the measurement unit can only ever change through increased accuracy in determining the value of the constant it is tied to.
The first proposal to tie an SI base unit to an experimental standard independent of fiat was by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914),[5] who proposed to define the metre in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line.[6] This directly influenced the Michelson–Morley experiment; Michelson and Morley cite Peirce, and improve on his method.[7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight
Standards
With the exception of a few fundamental quantum constants, units of measurement are derived from historical agreements. Nothing inherent in nature dictates that an inch has to be a certain length, nor that a mile is a better measure of distance than a kilometre. Over the course of human history, however, first for convenience and then for necessity, standards of measurement evolved so that communities would have certain common benchmarks. Laws regulating measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud in commerce.
Units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the Metre Convention, overseeing the International System of Units (SI). For example, the metre was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM in terms of the speed of light, the kilogram was redefined in 2019 in terms of the Planck constant and the international yard was defined in 1960 by the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa as being exactly 0.9144 metres.
In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. In the United Kingdom, the role is performed by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), in Australia by the National Measurement Institute,[8] in South Africa by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and in India the National Physical Laboratory of India.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement
Terra Nova (literally "New Earth" or "New Land") may refer to:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_Nova
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