. 2007 Dec;189(23):8719-26. doi: 10.1128/JB.00741-07. Epub 2007 Sep 14.
Structure and biological activities of beta toxin from Staphylococcus aureus
Medora Huseby 1, Ke Shi, C Kent Brown, Jeff Digre, Fikre Mengistu, Keun Seok Seo, Gregory A Bohach, Patrick M Schlievert, Douglas H Ohlendorf, Cathleen A Earhart
Affiliations expand
PMID: 17873030
PMCID: PMC2168928
DOI: 10.1128/JB.00741-07
Beta toxin is a neutral sphingomyelinase secreted by certain strains of Staphylococcus aureus. This virulence factor lyses erythrocytes in order to evade the host immune system as well as scavenge nutrients. The structure of beta toxin was determined at 2.4-A resolution using crystals that were merohedrally twinned. This structure is similar to that of the sphingomyelinases of Listeria ivanovii and Bacillus cereus. Beta toxin belongs to the DNase I folding superfamily; in addition to sphingomyelinases, the proteins most structurally related to beta toxin include human endonuclease HAP1, Escherichia coli endonuclease III, bovine pancreatic DNase I, and the endonuclease domain of TRAS1 from Bombyx mori. Our biological assays demonstrated for the first time that beta toxin kills proliferating human lymphocytes. Structure-directed active site mutations show that biological activities, including hemolysis and lymphotoxicity, are due to the sphingomyelinase activity of the enzyme.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17873030/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2168928/
Calciseptine (CaS) is a natural neurotoxin isolated from the black mamba Dendroaspis p. polylepisvenom. This toxin consists of 60 amino acids with four disulfide bonds. Calciseptine specifically blocks L-type calcium channels, but not other voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels such as N-type and T-type channels.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciseptine
Clostridioides difficile (syn. Clostridium difficile), also known as C. difficile, or C. diff (/siː dɪf/), is Gram-positive species of spore-forming bacteria.[3] Clostridioides spp. are anaerobic, motile bacteria, ubiquitous in nature and especially prevalent in soil. Its vegetative cells are rod-shaped, pleomorphic, and occur in pairs or short chains. Under the microscope, they appear as long, irregular (often drumstick- or spindle-shaped) cells with a bulge at their terminal ends (forms subterminal spores). Under Gram staining, C. difficile cells are Gram-positive and show optimum growth on blood agar at human body temperatures in the absence of oxygen. C. difficile is catalase- and superoxide dismutase-negative, and produces two types of toxins: enterotoxin A and cytotoxin B, which disrupts cytoskeleton signal transductions in the host.[4] Under stress conditions, the bacteria produce spores that are able to tolerate extreme conditions that the active bacteria cannot tolerate.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_(bacteria)
Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin is a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) and is responsible for gas gangrene and myonecrosis in infected tissues. The toxin also possesses hemolytic activity.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens_alpha_toxin
'Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin is a toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus.[1] It has a wide spectrum of cytolytic activity.[2]
It is among other toxins produced by S. aureus and is part of the phenol-soluble modulin peptide family.[3]Its alpha-helical, amphipathic structure gives it detergent-like properties, allowing it to disrupt and attach to the cytoplasmic membrane of a cell non-specifically, without a receptor, and integrate into the membrane.[4][5] Delta toxin degrades the membrane on contact and forms short-lived pores, causing cell lysis and subsequent cell death.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus_delta_toxin
Clostridium botulinum is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, spore-forming, motile bacterium with the ability to produce the neurotoxin botulinum.[1][2]
The botulinum toxin can cause botulism; a severe flaccid paralytic disease in humans and other animals[2] and is the most potent toxin known to humankind, natural or synthetic, with a lethal dose of 1.3–2.1 ng/kg in humans.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_botulinum
Superantigens (SAgs) are a class of antigens that result in excessive activation of the immune system. Specifically it causes non-specific activation of T-cells resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and massive cytokine release. SAgs are produced by some pathogenic viruses and bacteria most likely as a defense mechanism against the immune system.[1] Compared to a normal antigen-induced T-cell response where 0.0001-0.001% of the body's T-cells are activated, these SAgs are capable of activating up to 20% of the body's T-cells.[2] Furthermore, Anti-CD3 and Anti-CD28 antibodies (CD28-SuperMAB) have also shown to be highly potent superantigens (and can activate up to 100% of T cells).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superantigen
Aflatoxins are various poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain molds, particularly Aspergillus species. The fungi grow in soil, decaying vegetation and various staple foodstuffs and commoditiessuch as hay, sweetcorn, wheat, millet, sorghum, cassava, rice, chili peppers, cottonseed, peanuts, tree nuts, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, and various spices. In short, the relevant fungi grow on almost any crop or food. When such contaminated food is processed or consumed, the aflatoxins enter the general food supply. They have been found in both pet and human foods, as well as in feedstocks for agricultural animals. Animals fed contaminated food can pass aflatoxin transformation products into eggs, milk products, and meat.[1] For example, contaminated poultry feed is the suspected source of aflatoxin-contaminated chicken meat and eggs in Pakistan.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aflatoxin
β-Nitropropionic acid (3-nitropropanoic acid, BPA, 3-NPA) is a mycotoxin, a potent mitochondrialinhibitor,[1] toxic to humans. It is produced by a number of fungi, and found widely in food, in sugar cane, as well as Japanese fungally fermented staples miso, soy sauce, katsuobushi,[2] and some traditional Chinese medicines.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-Nitropropionic_acid
Cytochalasins are fungal metabolites that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result of the inhibition of actin polymerization, cytochalasins can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and even cause cells to undergo apoptosis.[1] Cytochalasins have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation and cause cells to enucleate.[2]Cytochalasins can also have an effect on other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. For example, cytochalasin A and cytochalasin B can also inhibit the transport of monosaccharides across the cell membrane,[2] cytochalasin H has been found to regulate plant growth,[3]cytochalasin D inhibits protein synthesis[4] and cytochalasin E prevents angiogenesis.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochalasin
Ergotamine, sold under the brand names Cafergot (with caffeine) and Ergomar among others, is an ergopeptine and part of the ergot family of alkaloids; it is structurally and biochemically closely related to ergoline.[4] It possesses structural similarity to several neurotransmitters, and has biological activity as a vasoconstrictor.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergotamine
A mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης mykes, "fungus" and τοξίνη toxini, "toxin")[1][2] is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of the fungus kingdom[3] and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals.[4] The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.[5]
Examples of mycotoxins causing human and animal illness include aflatoxin, citrinin, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and ergot alkaloids such as ergotamine.[6]
One mold species may produce many different mycotoxins, and several species may produce the same mycotoxin.[7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxin
Fumonisin B1 is the most prevalent member of a family of toxins, known as fumonisins, produced by several species of Fusarium molds, such as Fusarium verticillioides,[1] which occur mainly in maize (corn), wheat and other cereals. Fumonisin B1 contamination of maize has been reported worldwide at mg/kg levels. Human exposure occurs at levels of micrograms to milligrams per day and is greatest in regions where maize products are the dietary staple.
Fumonisin B1 is hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in all animal species tested. The earliest histological change to appear in either the liver or kidney of fumonisin-treated animals is increased apoptosis followed by regenerative cell proliferation. While the acute toxicity of fumonisin is low, it is the known cause of two diseases which occur in domestic animals with rapid onset: equine leukoencephalomalacia and porcine pulmonary oedema syndrome. Both of these diseases involve disturbed sphingolipid metabolism and cardiovascular dysfunction.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumonisin_B1
Listeriolysin O (LLO) is a hemolysin produced by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, the pathogen responsible for causing listeriosis. The toxin may be considered a virulence factor, since it is crucial for the virulence of L. monocytogenes.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeriolysin_O
Gliotoxin is a sulfur-containing mycotoxin that belongs to a class of naturally occurring 2,5-diketopiperazines[1] produced by several species of fungi, especially those of marine origin. It is the most prominent member of the epipolythiopiperazines, a large class of natural products featuring a diketopiperazine with di- or polysulfide linkage. These highly bioactive compounds have been the subject of numerous studies aimed at new therapeutics.[2] Gliotoxin was originally isolated from Gliocladium fimbriatum, and was named accordingly. It is an epipolythiodioxopiperazine metabolite.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliotoxin
Lolitrem B is one of many toxins produced by a fungus called Epichloë festucae (var. lolii), which grows in perennial ryegrass. The fungus is symbiotic with the ryegrass; it doesn't harm the plant, and the toxins it produces kill insects that feed on ryegrass. Lolitrem B is one of these toxins, but it is also harmful to mammals. The shoots and flowers of infected ryegrass have especially high concentrations of lolitrem B, and when livestock eat too much of them, they get perennial ryegrass staggers. At low doses the animals have tremors, and at higher doses they stagger, and at higher yet doses the animals become paralyzed and die. The blood pressure of the animals also goes up. The effect of the lolitrem B comes on slowly and fades out slowly, as it is stored in fat after the ryegrass is eaten. The condition is especially common in New Zealand and Australia, and plant breeders there have been trying to develop strains of fungus that produce toxins only harmful to pests, and not to mammals.
Lolitrem B affects a kind of ion channel called BK channels. These channels normally open temporarily to allow neurons and other electrically sensitive cells, like some heart cells, to "reset" after they fire; lolitrem B blocks them, preventing the neuron or heart cell from firing again. This affects nerve and heart function. The channel is also involved in blood vessel relaxation, and blocking the channel causes blood vessels to constrict, raising blood pressure.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolitrem_B
Muscimol (also known as agarin or pantherine) is one of the principal psychoactive constituents of Amanita muscaria and related species of mushroom. Muscimol is a potent, selective agonist for the GABAA receptors [2] and displays sedative-hypnotic, depressant and hallucinogenic psychoactivity. This colorless or white solid is classified as an isoxazole.
Muscimol went under clinical trial phase I for epilepsy, but the trial was discontinued.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscimol
Patulin is an organic compound classified as a polyketide. It is a white powder soluble in acidic water and in organic solvents. It is a lactone that is heat-stable, so it is not destroyed by pasteurization or thermal denaturation.[2] However, stability following fermentation is lessened.[3] It is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds, in particular, Aspergillus and Penicillium and Byssochlamys. Most commonly found in rotting apples, the amount of patulin in apple products is generally viewed as a measure of the quality of the apples used in production. In addition, patulin has been found in other foods such as grains, fruits, and vegetables. Its presence is highly regulated.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patulin
Phalloidin belongs to a class of toxins called phallotoxins, which are found in the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). It is a rigid bicyclic heptapeptide that is lethal after a few days when injected into the bloodstream. The major symptom of phalloidin poisoning is acute hunger due to the destruction of liver cells. It functions by binding and stabilizing filamentous actin (F-actin) and effectively prevents the depolymerization of actin fibers. Due to its tight and selective binding to F-actin, derivatives of phalloidin containing fluorescent tags are used widely in microscopy to visualize F-actin in biomedical research.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalloidin
Chemical structure of Trichothecenes
Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. Trichothecenes are a class of sesquiterpenes. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus, and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti.
Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments. It has been found that macrocyclic trichothecenes produced by S. chartarum can become airborne and thus contribute to health problems among building occupants.[1][2] A poisonous mushroom in Japan and China, Podostroma cornu-damae, contains six trichothecenes, including satratoxin H, roridin E, and verrucarin.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichothecene
Vomitoxin, also known as deoxynivalenol (DON), is a type B trichothecene, an epoxy-sesquiterpenoid. This mycotoxin occurs predominantly in grains such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and corn, and less often in rice, sorghum, and triticale. The occurrence of deoxynivalenol is associated primarily with Fusarium graminearum (Gibberella zeae) and F. culmorum, both of which are important plant pathogens which cause fusarium head blight in wheat and gibberella or fusarium ear blight in corn.[citation needed] The incidence of fusarium head blight is strongly associated with moisture at the time of flowering (anthesis), and the timing of rainfall, rather than the amount, is the most critical factor. However, increased amount of moisture towards harvest time has been associated with lower amount of vomitoxin in wheat grain due to leaching of toxins.[1] Furthermore, deoxynivalenol contents are significantly affected by the susceptibility of cultivars towards Fusarium species, previous crop, tillage practices, and fungicide use.[2] It occurs abundantly in grains in Norway due to heavy rainfall.[3]
F. graminearum grows optimally at a temperature of 25 °C and at a water activity above 0.88. F. culmorumgrows optimally at 21 °C and at a water activity above 0.87. The geographical distribution of the two species appears to be related to temperature, F. graminearum being the more common species occurring in warmer climates. Deoxynivalenol has been implicated in incidents of mycotoxicoses in both humans and farm animals.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomitoxin
Zeranol (INN, USAN, BAN) (brand names Frideron, Ralabol, Ralgro, Ralone, Zerano; developmental code names MK-188, P-1496), or zearanol, also known as α-zearalanol or simply zearalanol, is a synthetic nonsteroidal estrogen of the resorcylic acid lactone group related to mycoestrogens found in fungi in the Fusarium genus and is used mainly as an anabolic agent in veterinary medicine.[1][2][3]
Zeranol is approved for use as a growth promoter in livestock, including beef cattle, under the brand name Ralgro (by Merck Animal Health) in the United States.[4] In Canada, it is approved for use in beef cattle only.[5] Its application is not approved for use in the European Union. However, it is marketed under the brand name Ralone in Spain.[2]
Although zeranol may increase cancer cell proliferation in already existing breast cancer,[6] dietary exposure from the use of zeranol-containing implants in cattle is insignificant by some scholars.[7] Zeranol may be found as a contaminant in fungus-infected crops. It is 3 to 4 times more potent as an estrogen than the related compound zearalenone.[8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeranol
Zearalenone (ZEN), also known as RAL and F-2 mycotoxin, is a potent estrogenic metabolite produced by some Fusarium and Gibberella species.[1] Particularly, is produced by Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium cerealis, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium verticillioides, and Fusarium incarnatum.
Several Fusarium species produce toxic substances of considerable concern to livestock and poultry producers, namely deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and zearalenone. Zearalenone is the primary toxin, causing infertility, abortion or other breeding problems, especially in swine.
Zearalenone is heat-stable and is found worldwide in a number of cereal crops, such as maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice, and sorghum.[2][3]
In addition to its actions on the classical estrogen receptors, zearalenone has been found to act as an agonist of the GPER (GPR30).[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zearalenone
Gossypol[pronunciation?] is a natural phenol derived from the cotton plant (genus Gossypium). Gossypol is a phenolic aldehyde that permeates cells and acts as an inhibitor for several dehydrogenase enzymes. It is a yellow pigment. The structure exhibits axial chirality, with the two enantiomers having different biochemical properties.[1]
Among other applications, it has been tested as a male oral contraceptive in China. In addition to its putative contraceptive properties, gossypol has also long been known to possess antimalarial properties.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossypol
Helenalin, or (-)-4-Hydroxy-4a,8-dimethyl-3,3a,4a,7a,8,9,9a-octahydroazuleno[6,5-b]furan-2,5-dione, is a toxic sesquiterpene lactone which can be found in several plants such as Arnica montana and Arnica chamissonis subsp. foliosa. Helenalin is responsible for the toxicity of the Arnica spp. Although toxic, helenalin possesses some in vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-neoplastic effects. Helenalin can inhibit certain enzymes, such as 5-lipoxygenase and leukotriene C4 synthase. For this reason the compound or its derivatives may have potential medical applications.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helenalin
Ledol is a poisonous sesquiterpene that can cause cramps, paralysis, and delirium.[citation needed]Caucasian peasants used Rhododendron plants for these effects in shamanistic rituals.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledol
Mimosine or leucenol is a toxic non-protein amino acid chemically similar to tyrosine, that was first isolated from Mimosa pudica. It occurs in a few other Mimosa spp. and all members of the closely related genus Leucaena.
This compound, also known as leucenol, was first isolated from the seeds of Leucaena glauca Benth.,[1][2]and was later investigated by Adams and coworkers.[3][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimosine
Oenanthotoxin is a toxin extracted from hemlock water-dropwort (Oenanthe crocata) and other plants of the genus Oenanthe. It is a central nervous system poison, and acts as a noncompetitive antagonist of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid.[1] A case has been made for the presence of this toxin in local Oenanthe species playing a causative role in euthanasia in ancient Sardinia.[2][3] It was crystallized in 1949 by Clarke and co-workers.[4] It is structurally closely related to the toxins cicutoxin[5] and carotatoxin.[6][7]Oenanthotoxin is a C17 polyacetylene isomer of cicutoxin.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenanthotoxin
Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine,[6] or Devil's Breath,[7] is a natural or synthetically produced tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic drug that is formally used as a medication for treating motion sicknessand postoperative nausea and vomiting.[8][1] It is also sometimes used before surgery to decrease saliva.[1]When used by injection, effects begin after about 20 minutes and last for up to 8 hours.[1] It may also be used orally and as a transdermal patch.[1] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[9]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopolamine
Swainsonine is an indolizidine alkaloid. It is a potent inhibitor of Golgi alpha-mannosidase II, an immunomodulator, and a potential chemotherapy drug.[1] As a toxin in locoweed (likely its primary toxin[2]) it also is a significant cause of economic losses in livestock industries, particularly in North America.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swainsonine
Androctonus australis hector insect toxin also known as AaHIT is a scorpion toxin which affects voltage-gated sodium channels. Four different insect toxins, namely AaHIT1, AaHIT2, AaHIT4 and AaHIT5, can be distinguished. It targets insects, except AaHIT4, which is also toxic to crustaceans and mammals.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androctonus_australis_hector_insect_toxin
Charybdotoxin (CTX) is a 37 amino acid neurotoxin from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus (deathstalker) that blocks calcium-activated potassium channels.[2] This blockade causes hyperexcitability of the nervous system. It is a close homologue of agitoxin and both toxins come from Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus. It is named after Charybdis, a sea monster from Greek myth.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charybdotoxin
Maurotoxin (abbreviated MTX) is a peptide toxin from the venom of the Tunisian chactoid scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus, from which it was first isolated and from which the chemical gets its name. It acts by blocking several types of voltage-gated potassium channel.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurotoxin
Tinyatoxin (TTX or TTN) is an analog of the neurotoxin resiniferatoxin. It occurs naturally in Euphorbia poissonii.[1]
It is a neurotoxin that acts via full agonism of the vanilloid receptors of sensory nerves.[2] Tinyatoxin has a potential for pharmaceutical uses similar to uses of capsaicin. Tinyatoxin is about one third as strong as resiniferatoxin but is still an ultrapotent analogue of capsaicin, with a heat intensity estimate of 300 to 350 times that of capsaicin.[citation needed]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinyatoxin
Tomatine (sometimes called tomatin or lycopersicin) is a glycoalkaloid, found in the stems and leaves of tomato plants, and in the fruits at much lower concentrations. It has fungicidal, antimicrobial, and insecticidal properties.[5] Chemically pure tomatine is a white crystalline solid at standard temperature and pressure.[1][6] Tomatine, as well as the closely related aglycon (or aglycone) derivative tomatidine have been shown to have multiple health benefits.[7]
Tomatine is sometimes confused with the glycoalkaloid solanine, which is found in potatoes.[8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomatine
Toxalbumins are toxic plant proteins that disable ribosomes and thereby inhibit protein synthesis, producing severe cytotoxic effects in multiple organ systems. They are dimers held together by a disulfide bond and comprise a lectin (carbohydrate-binding protein) part which binds to the cell membrane and enables the toxin part to gain access to the cell contents. Toxalbumins are similar in structure to the toxins found in cholera, tetanus, diphtheria and botulinum;[1] and their physiological and toxic properties are similar to those of viperine snake venom.[citation needed]
Toxalbumins were first described in about 1890 by Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and Sigmund Fraenkel (1868–1939), associates of the organic chemist Eugen Baumann. Brieger first used the term toxin.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxalbumin
Birtoxin is a neurotoxin from the venom of the South African Spitting scorpion (Parabuthus transvaalicus). By changing sodium channel activation, the toxin promotes spontaneous and repetitive firing much like pyrethroid insecticides do
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birtoxin
BmKAEP (or anti-epilepsy peptide) is a neurotoxin from the venom of the Manchurian scorpion (Mesobuthus martensii). It is a β-toxin, which shift the activation voltage of sodium channels towards more negative potentials.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BmKAEP
A latrotoxin is a high-molecular mass neurotoxin found in the venom of spiders of the genus Latrodectus (widow spiders) and also found in the venom of spider species, Steatoda nobilis.[1] Latrotoxins are the main active components of the venom and are responsible for the symptoms of latrodectism.
The following latrotoxins have been described: five insecticidal toxins, termed α, β, γ, δ and ε-latroinsectotoxins, one vertebrate-specific neurotoxin, alpha-latrotoxin, and one toxin affecting crustaceans, α-latrocrustatoxin.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrotoxin
CSTX (for "Cupiennius salei toxins") is a name given to a group of closely related neurotoxic peptides present in the venom of the wandering spiderCupiennius salei. There are twenty types so far described for this protein group. However, some are reclassified into cupiennins group of toxin, including CSTX-3, -4, -5, and -6, because of their chemical affinity. The first thirteen were isolated and identified in 1994 by Lucia Kuhn-Nentwig, Johann Schaller, and Wolfgang Nentwig of the Zoological Institute at the University of Bern, Switzerland.[1] The different types are most likely the products of splicing variant of the same gene. They are all L-type calcium channel blockers, and also exhibit cytolytic activity by forming an alpha-helix across the cell membrane in mammalian neurons. They also inhibit voltage-gated calcium channels in insect neurons.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSTX
Cupiennins are a group of small cytolytic peptides from the venom of the wandering spider Cupiennius salei. They are known to have high bactericidal, insecticidal and haemolytic activities. They are chemically cationic α-helical peptides.[1] They were isolated and identified in 2002 as a family of peptides called cupiennin 1. The sequence was determined by a process called Edman degradation, and the family consists of cupiennin 1a, cupiennin 1b, cupiennin 1c, and cupiennin 1d. The amino acid sequences of cupiennin 1b, c, and d were obtained by a combination of sequence analysis and mass spectrometric measurements of comparative tryptic peptide mapping. Even though they are not strong toxins, they do enhance the effect of the spider venom by synergistically enhancing other components of the venom, such CSTX.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupiennin
Phoneutria nigriventer toxin-3 is more commonly referred to as PhTx3.
The PhTx3 neurotoxin is a broad-spectrum calcium channel blocker that inhibits glutamate release, calcium uptake and also glutamate uptake in synaptosomes.[1] Currently, it is known to naturally occur only in the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer, also known as the Brazilian Wandering spider.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneutria_nigriventer_toxin-3
Stromatoxin is a spider toxin that blocks certain delayed-rectifier and A-type voltage-gated potassium channels.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stromatoxin
Eledoisin is an undecapeptide of mollusk origin, belonging to the tachykinin family of neuropeptides.
It was first isolated from the posterior salivary glands of two mollusk species Eledone muschata and Eledone aldovandi, which belong to the octopod order of Cephalopoda. [1]
Other tachykinins from nonmammalian sources include kassinin and physalaemin. The mammalian tachykinins substance P, NKA, and NKB have similar effects as tachykinins of nonmammals and have been more widely studied and characterized. These peptides exhibit a wide and complex spectrum of pharmacological and physiological activities such as vasodilation, hypertension, and stimulation of extravascular smooth muscle.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eledoisin
Onchidal is a naturally occurring neurotoxin produced as a defensive secretion by the mollusc Onchidella binneyi and several other related species in Onchidella, a genus of small, air-breathing sea slugs. It acts as an irreversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, the same mechanism of action as that of the deadly nerve agents, however onchidal is not an organophosphorus or carbamate compound and bears little resemblance to other compounds of this nature.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onchidal
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. Its name derives from Tetraodontiformes, an order that includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, ocean sunfish, and triggerfish; several of these species carry the toxin. Although tetrodotoxin was discovered in these fish and found in several other animals (e.g., in blue-ringed octopus, rough-skinned newts, and moon snails), it is actually produced by certain infecting or symbioticbacteria like Pseudoalteromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio as well as other species found in animals.[1][2]
Tetrodotoxin is a sodium channel blocker. It inhibits the firing of action potentials in neurons by binding to the voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cell membranes and blocking the passage of sodium ions (responsible for the rising phase of an action potential) into the neuron. This prevents the nervous system from carrying messages and thus muscles from contracting in response to nervous stimulation.[3]
Its mechanism of action, selective blocking of the sodium channel, was shown definitively in 1964 by Toshio Narahashi and John W. Moore at Duke University, using the sucrose gap voltage clamptechnique.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrodotoxin
Batrachotoxin (BTX) is an extremely potent cardio- and neurotoxic steroidal alkaloid found in certain species of beetles, birds, and frogs. The name is from the Greek word βάτραχος, bátrachos, 'frog'.[3]Structurally-related chemical compounds are often referred to collectively as batrachotoxins. It is an extremely poisonous alkaloid. In certain frogs, this alkaloid is present mostly on the skin. Such frogs are among those used for poisoning darts. Batrachotoxin binds to, and irreversibly opens, the sodium channelsof nerve cells and prevents them from closing, resulting in paralysis and death. No antidote is known
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachotoxin
Bufotoxins are a family of toxic steroid lactones or substituted Tryptamines of which some may or may not be toxic. They occur in the parotoid glands, skin and venom of many toads (genus Bufo) and other amphibians, and in some plants and mushrooms.[1][2][3] The exact composition varies greatly with the specific source of the toxin. It can contain 5-MeO-DMT, bufagins, bufalin, bufotalin, bufotenin, bufothionine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Some authors have also used the term bufotoxin to describe the conjugate of a bufagin with suberylarginine.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bufotoxin
Epibatidine is a chlorinated alkaloid that is secreted by the Ecuadoran frog Epipedobates anthonyi and poison dart frogs from the Ameerega genus.[1] It was discovered by John W. Daly in 1974, but its structure was not fully elucidated until 1992. Whether epibatidine is the first observed example of a chlorinated alkaloid remains controversial, due to challenges in conclusively identifying the compound from the limited samples collected by Daly. By the time that high-resolution spectrometry was used in 1991, there remained less than one milligram of extract from Daly's samples, raising concerns about possible contamination. Samples from other batches of the same species of frog failed to yield epibatidine. [2]
Epibatidine is toxic. Its toxicity stems from its ability to interact with nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. These receptors are involved in the transmission of painful sensations, and in movement, among other functions. Epibatidine then causes numbness, and, eventually, paralysis. Doses are lethal when the paralysis causes respiratory arrest. Originally, it was thought that epibatidine could be useful as a drug. However, because of its unacceptable therapeutic index, it is no longer being researched for potential therapeutic uses.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epibatidine
Zetekitoxin AB (ZTX) is a guanidine alkaloid found in the Panamanian golden frog Atelopus zeteki. It is an extremely potent neurotoxin.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zetekitoxin_AB
Bungarotoxins are a group of closely related neurotoxic proteins of the three-finger toxin superfamily found in the venom of kraits including Bungarus multicinctus.[1] α-Bungarotoxin inhibits the binding of acetylcholine (ACh) to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; β- and γ-bungarotoxins act presynaptically causing excessive acetylcholine release and subsequent depletion. Both α and β forms have been characterized, the α being similar to the long or Type II neurotoxins from other elapid venoms.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bungarotoxin
Corynebacterium diphtheriae[a] is the pathogenic bacterium that causes diphtheria.[2] It is also known as the Klebs–Löffler bacillus, because it was discovered in 1884 by German bacteriologists Edwin Klebs (1834–1912) and Friedrich Löffler (1852–1915).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corynebacterium_diphtheriae
Rhodococcus equi is a Gram-positive coccobacillus bacterium. The organism is commonly found in dry and dusty soil and can be important for diseases of domesticated animals (horses and goats). The frequency of infection can reach near 60%.[1] R. equi is an important pathogen causing pneumonia in foals. Since 2008, R. equi has been known to infect wild boar and domestic pigs.[2] R. equi can infect humans. At-risk groups are immunocompromised people, such as HIV-AIDS patients or transplant recipients. Rhodococcus infection in these patients resemble clinical and pathological signs of pulmonary tuberculosis. It is facultative intracellular.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodococcus_equi
Pathogenicity islands (PAIs), as termed in 1990, are a distinct class of genomic islands acquired by microorganisms through horizontal gene transfer.[1][2] Pathogenicity islands are found in both animal and plant pathogens.[2] Additionally, PAIs are found in both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.[2] They are transferred through horizontal gene transfer events such as transfer by a plasmid, phage, or conjugative transposon.[3] Therefore, PAIs contribute to microorganisms' ability to evolve.
One species of bacteria may have more than one PAI. For example, Salmonella has at least five.
An analogous genomic structure in rhizobia is termed a symbiosis island.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenicity_island
Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine is a vaccine primarily used against tuberculosis (TB).[4] It is named after its inventors Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin.[5][6] In countries where TB or leprosy is common, one dose is recommended in healthy babies as soon after birth as possible.[4] In areas where TB is not common, only children at high risk are typically immunized, while suspected cases of TB are individually tested for and treated.[4] Adults who do not have TB and have not been previously immunized but are frequently exposed may be immunized as well.[4] BCG also has some effectiveness against Buruli ulcer infection and other nontuberculous mycobacteria infections.[4] Additionally it is sometimes used as part of the treatment of bladder cancer.[7][8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCG_vaccine
Listeriolysin O (LLO) is a hemolysin produced by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, the pathogen responsible for causing listeriosis. The toxin may be considered a virulence factor, since it is crucial for the virulence of L. monocytogenes.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeriolysin_O
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as endotoxins, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The term lipooligosaccharide ("LOS") is used to refer to a low-molecular-weight form of bacterial lipopolysaccharides.
Today, the term endotoxin is mostly used synonymously with LPS,[1] although there are a few endotoxins that are not related to LPS, such as the so-called delta endotoxin proteins secreted by Bacillus thuringiensis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide
Toxoplasma gondii (/ˈtɒksoʊplæzmə ˈɡɒndiaɪ/) is an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan (specifically an apicomplexan) that causes toxoplasmosis.[3] Found worldwide, T. gondii is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals,[4]:1 but felids, such as domestic cats, are the only known definitive hosts in which the parasite may undergo sexual reproduction.[5][6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii
Delta endotoxins (δ-endotoxins) are pore-forming toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis species of bacteria. They are useful for their insecticidal action and are the primary toxin produced by Bt corn. During spore formation the bacteria produce crystals of such proteins (hence the name Cry toxins) that are also known as parasporal bodies, next to the endospores; as a result some members are known as a parasporin. The Cyt (cytolytic) toxin group is a group of delta-endotoxins different from the Cry group.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_endotoxin
An enterotoxin is a protein exotoxin released by a microorganism that targets the intestines.[1]
Enterotoxins are chromosomally encoded or plasmid encoded[2] exotoxins that are produced and secreted from several bacterial organisms. They are heat labile (>60⁰), and are of low molecular weight and water-soluble. Enterotoxins are frequently cytotoxic and kill cells by altering the apical membrane permeability of the mucosal (epithelial) cells of the intestinal wall. They are mostly pore-forming toxins (mostly chloride pores), secreted by bacteria, that assemble to form pores in cell membranes. This causes the cells to die.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterotoxin
Wednesday, August 11, 2021
08-11-2021-0357 - CD30 TNFRSF87654
Non-mycosis fungoides CD30− cutaneous large T-cell lymphoma is a cutaneous condition that usually presents as solitary or generalized plaques, nodules, or tumors of short duration.[1]:738
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-mycosis_fungoides_CD30%E2%88%92_cutaneous_large_T-cell_lymphoma
CD30, also known as TNFRSF8, is a cell membrane protein of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family and tumor marker.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD30
By Nikiya Anton Bettey at August 11, 2021
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Wednesday, August 11, 2021
08-11-2021-0051 - Fungal Leukeamiaes - sp - fungus, fungal derivatives et priming by alkylation agents rads radk immunosups overvac genotox-viral gene transplant-activation of tumor gene-cell signal dysfunction/decay matter/fungai susecept/etc..
Pagetoid reticulosis (also known as "acral mycoses fungoides",[1] "localized epidermotropic reticulosis",[1] "mycosis fungoides palmaris et plantaris",[1] "unilesional mycosis fungoides",[2] and "Woringer–Kolopp disease"[1]) is a cutaneous condition, an uncommon lymphoproliferative disorder, sometimes considered a form of mycosis fungoides.[1]:734
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagetoid_reticulosis
Mycosis fungoides, also known as Alibert-Bazin syndrome or granuloma fungoides,[1] is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. It generally affects the skin, but may progress internally over time. Symptoms include rash, tumors, skin lesions, and itchy skin.
While the cause remains unclear, most cases are not hereditary. Most cases are in people over 20 years of age, and it is more common in men than women. Treatment options include sunlight exposure, ultraviolet light, topical corticosteroids, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.
sp - fungus, fungal derivatives et priming by alkylation agents rads radk immunosups overvac genotox-viral gene transplant-activation of tumor gene-cell signal dysfunction/decay matter/fungai susecept/etc..
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycosis_fungoides
While uncommon in solid tumors, chromosomal translocations are a common cause of these diseases. This commonly leads to a different approach in diagnosis and treatment of haematological malignancies.
A subgroup of them are more severe and are known as haematological malignancies (British English)/hematological malignancies (American English) or blood cancer. They may also be referred to as liquid tumors.[3][4]
Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues (American English) or tumours of the haematopoietic and lymphoid malignancies (British English) are tumors that affect the blood, bone marrow, lymph, and lymphatic system.[1][2]Because these tissues are all intimately connected through both the circulatory system and the immune system, a disease affecting one will often affect the others as well, making myeloproliferation and lymphoproliferation (and thus the leukemiasand the lymphomas) closely related and often overlapping problems.
Hematological malignancies may derive from either of the two major blood cell lineages: myeloid and lymphoid cell lines. The myeloid cell line normally produces granulocytes, erythrocytes, thrombocytes, macrophages and mast cells; the lymphoid cell line produces B, T, NK and plasma cells. Lymphomas, lymphocytic leukemias, and myeloma are from the lymphoid line, while acute and chronic myelogenous leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes and myeloproliferative diseases are myeloid in origin.
A subgroup of them are more severe and are known as haematological malignancies (British English)/hematological malignancies (American English) or blood cancer. They may also be referred to as liquid tumors.[3][4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumors_of_the_hematopoietic_and_lymphoid_tissues
Plasmacytoma is a plasma cell dyscrasia in which a plasma cell tumour grows within soft tissue or within the axial skeleton.
The International Myeloma Working Group lists three types: solitary plasmacytoma of bone (SPB); extramedullary plasmacytoma (EP), and multiple plasmacytomas that are either primary or recurrent.[1] The most common of these is SPB, accounting for 3–5% of all plasma cell malignancies.[2] SPBs occur as lytic lesions within the axial skeleton and extramedullary plasmacytomas most often occur in the upper respiratory tract (85%), but can occur in any soft tissue. Approximately half of all cases produce paraproteinemia. SPBs and extramedullary plasmacytomas are mostly treated with radiotherapy, but surgery is used in some cases of extramedullary plasmacytoma. The skeletal forms frequently progress to multiple myeloma over the course of 2–4 years.[3]
Due to their cellular similarity, plasmacytomas have to be differentiated from multiple myeloma. For SPB and extramedullary plasmacytoma the distinction is the presence of only one lesion (either in bone or soft tissue), normal bone marrow (<5% plasma cells), normal skeletal survey, absent or low paraprotein and no end organ damage.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmacytoma
Lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) refer to a specific class of diagnoses, comprising a group of several conditions, in which lymphocytes are produced in excessive quantities. These disorders primarily present in patients who have a compromised immune system. Due to this factor, there are instances of these conditions being equated with "immunoproliferative disorders"; although, in terms of nomenclature, lymphoproliferative disorders are a subclass of immunoproliferative disorders—along with hypergammaglobulinemia and paraproteinemias.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphoproliferative_disorders
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 or human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-I), also called the adult T-cell lymphoma virus type 1, is a retrovirus of the human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV) family that has been implicated in several kinds of diseases including very aggressive adult T-cell lymphoma (ATL), HTLV-I-associated myelopathy, uveitis, Strongyloides stercoralis hyper-infection and some other diseases. It is thought that about 1–5% of infected persons develop cancer as a result of the infection with HTLV-I over their lifetimes.[1]
Adult T-cell lymphoma (ATL) was discovered in 1977 in Japan. The symptoms of ATL were different from other lymphomas known at the time. It was suggested that ATL is caused by the infection of a retrovirus called ATLV.[2] Strikingly, ATLV had the transforming activity in vitro.[3] These studies established that the retrovirus infection is the cause of ATL. The retrovirus is now generally called HTLV-I because later studies proved that ATLV is the same as the firstly identified human retrovirus called HTLV discovered by Bernard Poiesz and Francis Ruscetti and their co-workers in the laboratory of Robert C. Gallo at the National Cancer Institute.[4] Infection with HTLV-I, like infection with other retroviruses, probably occurs for life. A patient infected with HTLV can be diagnosed when antibodies against HTLV-1 are detected in the serum.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_1
CD30+ cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, also known as primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma, is a cutaneous (skin) condition characterized by solitary or localized skin lesions that have a tendency to ulcerate.[1]:738
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD30%2B_cutaneous_T-cell_lymphoma
CD30, also known as TNFRSF8, is a cell membrane protein of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family and tumor marker.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD30
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL or ATLL) is a rare cancer of the immune system's T-cells[1][2][3] caused by human T cell leukemia/lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1).[4] All ATL cells contain integrated HTLV-1 provirus further supporting that causal role of the virus in the cause of the neoplasm.[4] A small amount of HTLV-1 individuals progress to develop ATL with a long latency period between infection and ATL development. ATL is categorized into 4 subtypes: acute, smoldering, lymphoma-type, chronic. Acute and Lymphoma-type are known to particularity be aggressive with poorer prognosis. [5]
Globally, the retrovirus HTLV-1 is estimated to infect 20 million people with the incidence of ATL approximately 0.05 per 100,000 with endemic regions such as regions of Japan, as high as 27 per 100,000.[6] However, cases have increased in non-endemic regions with highest incidence of HTLV-1 in southern/northern islands of Japan, Caribbean, Central and South America, intertropical Africa, Romania, northern Iran. ATL normally occurs around the age of 62 years but median age at diagnosis does depend on prevalence of the HTLV-1 infection in the geographic location.[7]
Current treatment regiments for ATL are based on clinical subtype and response to initial therapy. Some therapy modalities for treatment may not available in all countries therefore strategies differ across the world. All patients are referred to clinical trials if available. Beyond clinical trials, treatments are centered on multiagent chemotherapy, zidovudine plus interferon a (AZT/IFN), and allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT).[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_T-cell_leukemia/lymphoma
Simian-T-lymphotropic viruses, also Simian T-cell leukemia viruses (STLVs), are retroviruses closely related to the human sexually and breastfeeding transmissible viruses HTLV. They have subtypes 1 through 4 as compared to HTLV 1 through 4, and each subtype has its own serovars.[1] Together they comprise PTLVs (primate T-lymphotropic viruses)[1] A study has shown that STLV-1 Tax and SBZ proteins have similar functions to their counterparts of HTLV-1. STLV-1 is oncogenic in Japanese macaques.[2]
In particular, the HTLV-I/STLV-I history might suggest a simian migration from Asia to Africa not much earlier than 19,500–60,000 years ago.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simian-T-lymphotropic_virus
The oral polio vaccine (OPV) AIDS hypothesis states that the AIDS pandemic originated from live polio vaccines prepared in chimpanzee tissue cultures, accidentally contaminated with SIV virus and then administered to up to one million Africans between 1957 and 1960 in experimental mass vaccination campaigns.
Data analyses in molecular biology and phylogenetic studies contradict the OPV AIDS hypothesis; consequently, scientific consensus regards the hypothesis as disproven.[1][2][3][4] The journal Nature has described the hypothesis as "refuted".[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_polio_vaccine_AIDS_hypothesis
Lymphomatoid granulomatosis
Specialty Hematology and oncology
Lymphomatoid granulomatosis (LYG or LG) is a very rare lymphoproliferative disorder first characterized in 1972.[1]Lymphomatoid means lymphoma-like and granulomatosis denotes the microscopic characteristic of the presence of granulomaswith polymorphic lymphoid infiltrates and focal necrosis within it.
LG most commonly affects middle aged people,[2] but has occasionally been observed in young people.[3] Males are found to be affected twice as often as females.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphomatoid_granulomatosis
Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is the name given to a B-cell proliferation due to therapeutic immunosuppression after organ transplantation. These patients may develop infectious mononucleosis-like lesions or polyclonal polymorphic B-cell hyperplasia. Some of these B-cells may undergo mutations which will render them malignant, giving rise to a lymphoma.[citation needed]
In some patients, the malignant cell clone can become the dominant proliferating cell type, leading to frank lymphoma, a group of B cell lymphomas occurring in immunosuppressed patients following organ transplant.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-transplant_lymphoproliferative_disorder
Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS), is a form of lymphoproliferative disorder (LPDs). It affects lymphocyteapoptosis.[2]
It is a rare genetic disorder of abnormal lymphocyte survival caused by defective Fas mediated apoptosis.[3] Normally, after infectious insult, the immune system down-regulates by increasing Fas expression on activated B and T lymphocytes and Fas-ligand on activated T lymphocytes. Fas and Fas-ligand interact to trigger the caspase cascade, leading to cell apoptosis. Patients with ALPS have a defect in this apoptotic pathway, leading to chronic non-malignant lymphoproliferation, autoimmune disease, and secondary cancers.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_lymphoproliferative_syndrome
08-11-2021-0446 - 938 - Fungal Leukemia
08-11-2021-0051 - Fungal Leukeamiaes - sp - fungus, fungal derivatives et priming by alkylation agents rads radk immunosups overvac genotox-viral gene transplant-activation of tumor gene-cell signal dysfunction/decay matter/fungai susecept/etc..
Pagetoid reticulosis (also known as "acral mycoses fungoides",[1] "localized epidermotropic reticulosis",[1] "mycosis fungoides palmaris et plantaris",[1] "unilesional mycosis fungoides",[2] and "Woringer–Kolopp disease"[1]) is a cutaneous condition, an uncommon lymphoproliferative disorder, sometimes considered a form of mycosis fungoides.[1]:734
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagetoid_reticulosis
Mycosis fungoides, also known as Alibert-Bazin syndrome or granuloma fungoides,[1] is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. It generally affects the skin, but may progress internally over time. Symptoms include rash, tumors, skin lesions, and itchy skin.
While the cause remains unclear, most cases are not hereditary. Most cases are in people over 20 years of age, and it is more common in men than women. Treatment options include sunlight exposure, ultraviolet light, topical corticosteroids, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.
sp - fungus, fungal derivatives et priming by alkylation agents rads radk immunosups overvac genotox-viral gene transplant-activation of tumor gene-cell signal dysfunction/decay matter/fungai susecept/etc..
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycosis_fungoides
While uncommon in solid tumors, chromosomal translocations are a common cause of these diseases. This commonly leads to a different approach in diagnosis and treatment of haematological malignancies.
A subgroup of them are more severe and are known as haematological malignancies (British English)/hematological malignancies (American English) or blood cancer. They may also be referred to as liquid tumors.[3][4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumors_of_the_hematopoietic_and_lymphoid_tissues
08-11-2021-0639 - Petersen et Wade etc. 4825 - Sample Group (2020) Note
Sample Group (2020)
Wade, s. - Examination of black-footed penguins with toxoplasmosis reveals hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, cranial hemorrhage, and necrotic kidneys (Ploeg, et al., 2011). Alveolar and hepatic tissue presents a high number of immune cells like macrophages containing tachyzoites of T. gondii.[76] Histopathological features in other animals affected with toxoplasmosis had tachyzoites in eye structures like the retina which lead to blindness.[76]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii
Petersen, s. - Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as endotoxins, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The term lipooligosaccharide ("LOS") is used to refer to a low-molecular-weight form of bacterial lipopolysaccharides.
Today, the term endotoxin is mostly used synonymously with LPS,[1] although there are a few endotoxins that are not related to LPS, such as the so-called delta endotoxin proteins secreted by Bacillus thuringiensis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide
Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_thuringiensis
Delta endotoxins (δ-endotoxins) are pore-forming toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis species of bacteria. They are useful for their insecticidal action and are the primary toxin produced by Bt corn. During spore formation the bacteria produce crystals of such proteins (hence the name Cry toxins) that are also known as parasporal bodies, next to the endospores; as a result some members are known as a parasporin. The Cyt (cytolytic) toxin group is a group of delta-endotoxins different from the Cry group.
cation-selective channels, which leads to death.[2][1]
A gene mostly found on plasmids,[4] delta-entotoxins sometimes show up in genomes of other species, albeit at a lower proportion than those found in B. thuringiensis.[5] The gene names looks like Cry3Bb, which in this case indicates a Cry toxin of superfamily 3 family B subfamily b.[6]
Cry proteins that are interesting to cancer research are listed under a parasporin (PS) nomenclature in addition to the Cry nomenclature. They do not kill insects, but instead kill leukemia cells.[7][8][9] The Cyt toxins tend to form their own group distinct from Cry toxins.[10] Not all Cry -- crystal-form -- toxins directly share a common root.[11] Examples of non-three-domain toxins that nevertheless have a Cry name include Cry34/35Ab1 and related beta-sandwich binary (Bin-like) toxins, Cry6Aa, and many beta-sandwich parasporins.[12]
In addition, Cry1Ac is effective as a vaccine adjuvant in humans.[14]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_endotoxin
An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Firmicutes.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore
Cry1Ac protoxin is a crystal protein produced by the gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) during sporulation. Cry1Ac is one of the delta endotoxins produced by this bacterium which act as insecticides. Because of this, the genes for these have been introduced into commercially important crops by genetic engineering (such as cotton and corn) in order to confer pest resistance on those plants.[1][2][3]
Transgenic Bt cotton initially expressed a single Bt gene, which codes for Cry1Ac.[4] Subsequently, Bt cotton has added other delta endotoxins.[5] Products such as Bt cotton, Bt brinjal and genetically modified maize have received attention due to a number of issues, including genetically modified food controversies,[6][7][8] and the Séralini affair.[9][10]
Cry1Ac is also a mucosal adjuvant (an immune-response enhancer) for humans.[11][12][13] It has been used in research to develop a vaccine against the amoeba Naegleria fowleri.[14] This amoeba can invade and attack the human nervous system and brain, causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, which is nearly always fatal.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cry1Ac
Toxins
enterotoxin
neurotoxin
hemotoxin
cardiotoxin
phototoxin
Activation of NF-κB: TRADD recruits TRAF2 and RIP. TRAF2 in turn recruits the multicomponent protein kinase IKK, enabling the serine-threonine kinaseRIP to activate it. An inhibitory protein, IκBα, that normally binds to NF-κB and inhibits its translocation, is phosphorylated by IKK and subsequently degraded, releasing NF-κB. NF-κB is a heterodimeric transcription factor that translocates to the nucleus and mediates the transcription of a vast array of proteins involved in cell survival and proliferation, inflammatory response, and anti-apoptotic factors.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor
NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) is a protein complex that controls transcription of DNA, cytokine production and cell survival. NF-κB is found in almost all animal cell types and is involved in cellular responses to stimuli such as stress, cytokines, free radicals, heavy metals, ultraviolet irradiation, oxidized LDL, and bacterial or viral antigens.[1][2][3][5][6] NF-κB plays a key role in regulating the immune response to infection. Incorrect regulation of NF-κB has been linked to cancer, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, septic shock, viral infection, and improper immune development. NF-κB has also been implicated in processes of synaptic plasticity and memory.[7][8][9][10][11][12]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NF-κB
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