Damnatio memoriae is a modern Latin phrase meaning "condemnation of memory", indicating that a person is to be excluded from official accounts. Depending on the extent, it can be a case of historical negationism. There are and have been many routes to damnatio memoriae, including the destruction of depictions, the removal of names from inscriptions and documents, and even large-scale rewritings of history. The term can be applied to other instances of official scrubbing; in history the practice is seen as long ago as the aftermath of the reign of the Egyptian Pharaohs Akhenaten in the 14th century BC.
Etymology
Although the term damnatio memoriae is Latin, the phrase was not used by the ancient Romans, and first appeared in a thesis written in Germany in 1689.[1]
Ancient world
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Today's best known examples of damnatio memoriae from antiquity concern chiselling stone inscriptions or deliberately omitting certain information from them.
Ancient Mesopotamia
According to Stefan Zawadzki, the oldest known examples of such practices come from around 2000–3000 BC. He cites the example of Lagash (an ancient city-state founded by the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia), where preserved inscriptions concerning a conflict with another city-state, Umma, do not mention the ruler of Umma, but describe him as "the man of Umma", which Zawadzki sees as an example of deliberate degradation of the ruler of Umma to the role of an unworthy person whose name and position in history the rulers of Lagash did not want to record for posterity.[2]
Ancient Egypt
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Egyptians also practiced this,[3] as seen in relics from pharaoh Akhenaten’s tomb and elsewhere. Akhenaten’s sole worship of the god Aten, instead of the many gods prior to the time, was considered heretical. During his reign, Akhenaten endeavoured to have all references to the god Amun chipped away and removed.[4] After his reign, temples to the Aten were dismantled and the stones reused to create other temples. Images of Akhenaten had their faces chipped away, and images and references to Amun reappeared. The people blamed their misfortunes on Akhenaten's shift of worship to Atenism, away from the gods they served before him.[5]
Another Egyptian victim of this practice was pharaoh Ay.[3] The campaign of damnatio memoriae against Akhenaten and Ay was initiated by the latter's successor, Horemheb, who decided to erase from history all pharaohs associated with the unpopular Amarna Period; this process was continued by Horemheb's successors.[6]
Ancient Greece
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The practice was known in Ancient Greece.[7] The Athenians frequently destroyed inscriptions which referred to individuals or events that they no longer wished to commemorate.[8] After Timotheus was convicted of treason and removed from his post as general in 373 BC, all references to him as a general were deleted from the previous year's naval catalogue.[9] The most complete example is their systematic removal of all references to the Antigonids from inscriptions in their city, in 200 BC when they were besieged by the Antigonid king Philip V of Macedon during the Second Macedonian War.[10] One decree praising Demetrius Poliorcetes (Philip V's great-grandfather) was smashed and thrown down a well.[11]
At Delphi, an honorific inscription erected between 337 and 327 BC for Aristotle and his nephew Callisthenes, two philosophers who were closely associated with the Macedonians, were smashed and thrown in a well after the death of Alexander of Macedon in 323 BC.[11]
After Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of antiquity, the people of Ephesus banned the mention of his name.
Ancient Rome
_-_Museo_Archeologico,_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_November_11_2016.jpg)
In ancient Rome, the practice of damnatio memoriae was the condemnation of emperors after their deaths. If the Senate or a later emperor did not like the acts of an emperor, they could have his property seized, his name erased and his statues reworked (normally defaced). Because there was an economic incentive to seize property and rework statues, historians and archaeologists have had difficulty determining when official damnatio memoriae actually took place, although it seems to have been quite rare.
Compounding this difficulty is the fact that a completely successful damnatio memoriae results—by definition—in the full and total erasure of the subject from the historical record. In the case of figures such as emperors or consuls it is unlikely that complete success was possible, as even comprehensive obliteration of the person's existence and actions in records and the like would continue to be historically visible without extensive reworking. The impracticality of such a cover-up could be vast—in the case of Emperor Geta, for example, coins bearing his effigy proved difficult to entirely remove from circulation for several years, even though the mere mention of his name was punishable by death.[12]
Difficulties in implementation also arose if there was not full and enduring agreement with the punishment, such as when the Senate's condemnation of Nero was implemented—leading to attacks on many of his statues[13]—but subsequently evaded with the enormous funeral he was given by Vitellius. Similarly, it was often difficult to prevent later historians from "resurrecting" the memory of the sanctioned person.
The impossibility of actually erasing memory of an emperor have led scholars to conclude that this was not actually the goal of damnatio. Instead, they understand damnatio:
not so much as an attempt to obliterate memory entirely as to transform honorific commemoration into a form of visible denigration. That is: the power of an act of damnatio relies, at least in part, on the viewer of a monument being able to supplement the gaps in an inscription with their own knowledge of what those gaps had once contained, and the reasons why the text had been removed
These emperors are known to have been erased from monuments:[15]
| Emperor | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Caligula | 37–41 | Disputed whether per senate decree[16][17] |
| Nero | 54–68 | hostis iudicatio (posthumous trial for treason)[16] |
| Domitian | 81–96 | per senate decree (96)[16] |
| Commodus | 177–192 | per senate decree (192)[16] |
| Clodius Albinus |
|
Usurper |
| Geta | 209–211 |
|
| Macrinus | 217–218 |
|
| Diadumenian | 217–218 |
|
| Elagabalus | 218–222 |
|
| Severus Alexander | 222–235 | Only during the reign of Maximinus Thrax |
| Maximinus Thrax | 235–238 | per senate decree (238)[16] |
| Maximus I |
|
Caesar only |
| Philip the Arab | 244–249 |
|
| Philip II | 247–249 | Philip the Arab's son |
| Decius | 249–251 |
|
| Herennius Etruscus | 251 | Decius' son |
| Hostilian | 251 | Decius' son |
| Aemilianus | 253 |
|
| Gallienus | 253–268 |
|
| Aurelian | 270–275 |
|
| Probus | 276–282 |
|
| Carus | 282–283 |
|
| Carinus | 284–285 |
|
| Numerian | 283–284 |
|
| Diocletian | 284–305 |
|
| Maximian | 286–305 | per senate decree (310)[16] |
| Galerius | 305–311 |
|
| Valerius Severus | 306–307 |
|
| Maximinus II | 308–313 | per senate decree (313)[16] |
| Maxentius | 306–312 |
|
| Licinius | 308–324 |
|
| Constantine II | 337–340 |
|
| Constans | 337–350 |
|
| Magnentius |
|
Usurper |
| Magnus Maximus | 383–388 |
|
Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, heresiarchs could have their memory condemned. The Council of Constance decreed the damnatio memoriae of John Wycliffe.[18]
The practice of replacing pagan beliefs and motifs with Christian, and purposefully not recording the pagan history, has been compared to damnatio memoriae as well.[19]
Modern usage
While complete damnatio memoriae has not been attempted in modern times—naming or writing about a person fallen from favour is not subject to formal punishment—less total examples of damnatio memoriae in modern times include numerous examples from the Soviet Union, retouching photos to remove individuals such as Leon Trotsky,[20] Nikolay Yezhov,[21] and even Stalin.[22] After Stalin ordered the murder of Grigory Kulik's wife Kira Kulik-Simonich, all images of the woman disappeared, and historians have no idea of what she looked like.[23] Following their fall from favour, Lavrentiy Beria and others were removed from articles in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.[24] Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, many communist statues, particularly of Lenin and Stalin, were removed from former Soviet satellite states.[25] Following a 2015 decision, Ukraine successfully dismantled all 1,320 statues of Lenin after its independence, as well as renaming roads and structures named under Soviet authority.[26]
The graphic designer David King had a strong interest in Soviet art and design, and amassed a collection of over 250,000 images. His most striking examples of before-and-after alterations were published as The Commissar Vanishes.
Poland
19th century Polish writers often omitted mentioning two kings from the list of Polish monarchs, Bezprym and Wenceslaus III of Bohemia, which has resulted in their being omitted from many later works as well.[27]
China
The treatment of Chinese politician Zhao Ziyang following his fall from grace inside the Chinese Communist Party is regarded as another modern case of damnatio memoriae.[28]
Germany
The destruction of all copies of The Victory of Faith in order to erase Ernst Röhm is considered an act of National Socialist damnatio memoriae.[29] In the end, two copies survived: one preserved in London and one preserved by the Communist government of East Germany.[30]
North Korea
In December 2013, Jang Song-thaek was abruptly accused of being a counter-revolutionary and was stripped of all his posts and expelled from the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). His photos were removed from official media and his image digitally removed from photos with other North Korean leaders.[31]
Analysis
The term is used in modern scholarship to cover a wide array of official and unofficial sanctions through which the physical remnants and memories of a deceased individual are destroyed.[32][33]
Looking at cases of damnatio memoriae in modern Irish history, Guy Beiner has argued that iconoclastic vandalism only makes martyrs of the "dishonored", thus ensuring that they will be remembered for all time.[34] Nonetheless, Beiner goes on to argue that the purpose of damnatio memoriae—rather than being to erase people from history—was to guarantee only negative memories of those who were so dishonored.[34][35] Pointing out that damnatio memoriae did not erase people from history but in effect kept their memory alive,[35] Beiner concluded that those who partake in the destruction of a monument should be considered agents of memory.[36]
Author Charles Hedrick proposes that a distinction be made between damnatio memoriae (the condemnation of a deceased person) and abolitio memoriae (the actual erasure of another from historical texts).[37]
See also
- Alan Smithee
- Anathema
- Cancel culture
- Censorship in Italy
- Censorship in North Korea
- Censorship of images in the Soviet Union
- Crisis of the Roman Republic
- Denazification/De-Ba'athification/Decommunization/De-Stalinization
- Historical negationism
- Historical revisionism
- Iconoclasm
- Execration texts
- Forced disappearance
- List of condemned Roman emperors
- List of tombs of antipopes
- Memory hole
- Nineteen Eighty-Four, Orwell's 1949 novel
- Nonperson
- Persona non grata
- Proscription
- Shunning
- Slighting
- Yimakh shemo
References
se aplicó una damnatio memoriae sobre el fallecido mandatario y, dado que salía en bastantes escenas de La victoria de la fe, se ordenó la destrucción de todas las copias existentes
- Hedrick, Charles W. Jr. (2000). History and Silence: Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0292718739. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
Bibliography
- Low, Polly (2020). "Remembering, Forgetting, and Rewriting the Past: Athenian Inscriptions and Collective Memory". In Constantakopoulou, C.; Fragoulaki, M. (eds.). Shaping Memory in Ancient Greece: Poetry, Historiography, and Epigraphy (PDF). Histos Supplements. pp. 235–68. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
External links
Media related to Damnatio memoriae at Wikimedia Commons- Damnatio memoriae at Livius.org
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confound
The terms enemy of the people and enemy of the nation are designations for the political opponents and for the social-class opponents of the power group within a larger social unit, who, thus identified, can be subjected to political repression.[1] In political praxis, the term enemy of the people implies that political opposition to the ruling power group renders the people in opposition into enemies acting against the interests of the greater social unit, e.g. the political party, society, the nation, etc.
In the 20th century, the politics of the Soviet Union (1922–1991) much featured the term enemy of the people to discredit any opposition, especially during the régime of Stalin (r. 1924–1953), when it was often applied to Trotsky.[2][3] In the 21st century, the former U.S. president Donald Trump (r. 2017–2021) regularly used the enemy of the people term against critical politicians and journalists.[4][5]
Like the term enemy of the state, the term enemy of the people originated and derives from the Latin: hostis publicus, a public enemy of the Roman Empire. In literature, the term enemy of the people features in the title of the stageplay An Enemy of the People (1882), by Henrik Ibsen, and is a theme in the stageplay Coriolanus (1605), by William Shakespeare.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people
Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient".[2][3][4] Censorship can be conducted by governments,[5] private institutions and other controlling bodies.
Governments[5] and private organizations may engage in censorship. Other groups or institutions may propose and petition for censorship.[6] When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, it is referred to as self-censorship. General censorship occurs in a variety of different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons including national security, to control obscenity, pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel.
Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, and content. Many countries provide strong protections against censorship by law, but none of these protections are absolute and frequently a claim of necessity to balance conflicting rights is made, in order to determine what could and could not be censored. There are no laws against self-censorship.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or being like-minded.[1] Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. People often choose to conform to society rather than to pursue personal desires - because it is often easier to follow the path others have made already, rather than forging a new one. Thus, conformity is sometimes a product of group communication.[2] This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or in society as a whole and may result from subtle unconscious influences (predisposed state of mind), or from direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or when watching television, even if alone.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity
Historical negationism,[1][2] also called denialism, is falsification[3][4] or distortion of the historical record. It should not be conflated with historical revisionism, a broader term that extends to newly evidenced, fairly reasoned academic reinterpretations of history.[5] In attempting to revise the past, illegitimate historical revisionism may use techniques inadmissible in proper historical discourse, such as presenting known forged documents as genuine, inventing ingenious but implausible reasons for distrusting genuine documents, attributing conclusions to books and sources that report the opposite, manipulating statistical series to support the given point of view, and deliberately mistranslating texts.[6]
Some countries, such as Germany, have criminalized the negationist revision of certain historical events, while others take a more cautious position for various reasons, such as protection of free speech; others mandate negationist views, such as California, where schoolchildren have been explicitly prevented from learning about the California genocide.[7][8] Notable examples of negationism include Holocaust denial, Armenian genocide denial, Turkish textbook controversies, denial of Kurds by Turkey, the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, the myth of the clean Wehrmacht, Japanese history textbook controversies, Holodomor denial and historiography in the Soviet Union during the Stalin era.[9][10] Some notable historical negationists include Ilham Aliyev,[11] Arthur Butz, Grover Furr, Shinzo Abe, Shudo Higashinakano, David Irving, Bongbong Marcos, Keith Windschuttle, and Ernst Zundel. In literature, the consequences of historical negationism have been imaginatively depicted in some works of fiction, such as Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Orwell. In modern times, negationism may spread via new media, such as the Internet.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_negationism
In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of a historical account.[1] It usually involves challenging the orthodox (established, accepted or traditional) views held by professional scholars about a historical event or timespan or phenomenon, introducing contrary evidence, or reinterpreting the motivations and decisions of the people involved. The revision of the historical record can reflect new discoveries of fact, evidence, and interpretation, which then results in revised history. In dramatic cases, revisionism involves a reversal of older moral judgments.
At a basic level, legitimate historical revisionism is a common and not especially controversial process of developing and refining the writing of histories. Much more controversial is the reversal of moral findings, whereby what mainstream historians had considered (for example) positive forces are depicted as negative. Such revisionism, if challenged (especially in heated terms) by the supporters of the previous view, can become an illegitimate form of historical revisionism known as historical negationism if it involves inappropriate methods such as the use of forged documents or implausible distrust of genuine documents, attributing false conclusions to books and sources, manipulating statistical data, and deliberately mistranslating texts. This type of historical revisionism can present a re-interpretation of the moral meaning of the historical record.[2] Negationists use the term revisionism to portray their efforts as legitimate historical inquiry; this is especially the case when revisionism relates to Holocaust denial.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_revisionism
Gaslighting is the subjective experience of having one's reality repeatedly questioned by another.[1][2][3] A colloquialism, the term derives from the title of the 1944 American film Gaslight, which was based on the 1938 British theatre play Gas Light by Patrick Hamilton, though the term did not gain popular currency in English until the mid-2010s.[4][5] A 2022 Washington Post report described it as a "trendy buzzword" that is "often used incorrectly by people referring to simple disagreements ... that don’t meet gaslighting’s historical definition", leading to expert concerns about the term becoming diluted.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaslighting
Legacy of the expulsions
With at least[276] 12 million[95][277][278] Germans directly involved, possibly 14 million[259][279] or more,[280] it was the largest movement or transfer of any single ethnic population in European history[278][281][282] and the largest among the post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe (which displaced 20 to 31 million people in total).[277]
The exact number of Germans expelled after the war is still unknown, because most recent research provides a combined estimate which includes those who were evacuated by the German authorities, fled or were killed during the war. It is estimated that between 12 and 14 million German citizens and foreign ethnic Germans and their descendants were displaced from their homes. The exact number of casualties is still unknown and is difficult to establish due to the chaotic nature of the last months of the war. Census figures placed the total number of ethnic Germans still living in Eastern Europe in 1950, after the major expulsions were complete, at approximately 2.6 million, about 12 percent of the pre-war total.[109]
The events have been usually classified as population transfer[283][284] or as ethnic cleansing.[285][286][287][288][289][290][291][292][293][294]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)#Legacy_of_the_expulsions
Population transfer or resettlement is a type of mass migration, often imposed by state policy or international authority and most frequently on the basis of ethnicity or religion but also due to economic development. Banishment or exile is a similar process, but is forcibly applied to individuals and groups. Population transfer differs more than simply technically from individually motivated migration, but at times of war, the act of fleeing from danger or famine often blurs the differences. If a state can preserve the fiction that migrations are the result of innumerable "personal" decisions, the state may be able to claim that it is not to blame for the displacement.
Often the affected population is transferred by force to a distant region, perhaps not suited to their way of life, causing them substantial harm. In addition, the process implies the loss of immovable property and substantial amounts of movable property when rushed. This transfer may be motivated by the more powerful party's desire to make other uses of the land in question or, less often, by disastrous environmental or economic conditions that require relocation.
The first known population transfers date back to Ancient Assyria in the 13th century BCE, with forced resettlement being particularly prevalent during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The single largest population transfer in history was the Partition of India in 1947 that involved up to 12 million people in Punjab Province with a total of up to 20 million people across British India,[1][2][3][4] with the second largest being the flight and expulsion of Germans after World War II, which involved more than 12 million people.
Prior to the forcible deportation of Ukrainians (including thousands of children) to Russia during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,[5][6] the last major population transfer in Europe was the deportation of 800,000 ethnic Albanians during the Kosovo War in 1999.[7] Moreover, some of the largest population transfers in Europe have been attributed to the ethnic policies of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. The best-known recent example caused by economic development is that resulting from the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China.
Historical background
The earliest known examples of population transfers took place in the context of war and empire. As part of Sennacherib's campaign against King Hezekiah of Jerusalem (701 BCE) "200,150 people great and small, male and female" were transferred to other lands in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Similar population transfers occurred under the Persian and Byzantine Empires. Population transfers are considered incompatible with the values of post-Enlightenment European societies, but this was usually limited to the home territory of the colonial power itself, and population transfers continued in European colonies during the 20th century.[8]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_transfer#Changing_status_in_international_law
| Legal status of persons |
|---|
 |
| Birthright |
| Nationality |
| Immigration |
Denaturalization is the loss of citizenship against the will of the person concerned. Denaturalization is often applied to ethnic minorities and political dissidents. Denaturalization can be a penalty for actions considered criminal by the state, often only for errors in the naturalization process such as fraud. Since the 9/11 attacks, the denaturalization of people accused of terrorism has increased. Because of the right to nationality, recognized by multiple international treaties, denaturalization is often considered a human rights violation.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturalization
Penal transportation or transportation was the relocation of convicted criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a colony, for a specified term; later, specifically established penal colonies became their destination. While the prisoners may have been released once the sentences were served, they generally did not have the resources to return home.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_transportation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception
British America comprised the colonial territories of the English Empire, and the successor British Empire, in the Americas from 1607 to 1783. These colonies were formally known as British America and the British West Indies just before the thirteen of the colonies declared their independence in the American Revolution (1765–1791) and formed the United States of America.[2]
After the American Revolutionary War, the term British North America was used to refer to the remainder of Great Britain's possessions in what became Canada, and British West Indies to various islands and what became Belize. The term British North America was used in 1783, but it was more commonly used after the Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839), generally known as the Durham Report.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_America
England transported an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts and political prisoners,[6] as well as prisoners of war from Scotland and Ireland, to its overseas colonies in the Americas from the 1610s until early in the American Revolution in 1776, when transportation to America was temporarily suspended by the Criminal Law Act 1776 (16 Geo. 3 c. 43).[7] The practice was mandated in Scotland by an act of 1785, but was less used there than in England. Transportation on a large scale resumed with the departure of the First Fleet to Australia in 1787, and continued there until 1868.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_transportation
The "Bloody Code" was a series of laws in England, Wales and Ireland in the 18th and early 19th centuries which mandated the death penalty for a wide range of crimes.[1][2][3][4] It was not referred to as such in its own time, but the name was given later owing to the sharply increased number of people given the death penalty, even for crimes considered minor or misdemeanor by 21st century standards.
In 1689, there were 50 capital offenses in England and Wales, increasing to 220 by the end of the 18th century. This period saw the introduction of new laws focused on property defense, which some viewed as class suppression. As capital crimes increased, penal transportation with indentured servitude became a more common punishment. In 1785, Australia was deemed suitable for transporting convicts, and over one-third of all criminals convicted between 1788 and 1867 were sent there. The Bloody Code listed 21 categories of capital crimes in the 18th century. By 1823, the Judgement of Death Act made the death penalty discretionary for most crimes, and by 1861, capital offenses were reduced to five. The last UK execution took place in 1964, and the death penalty was abolished for various crimes in the following years.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Code
| Act of Parliament | |
 | |
| Long title | An Act to amend certain Acts relating to the Crime of Piracy. |
|---|---|
| Citation | 7 Will 4 & 1 Vict c 88 |
| Dates | |
| Royal assent | 17 July 1837 |
| Commencement | 1 October 1837 |
Status: Amended | |
| Text of statute as originally enacted | |
| Revised text of statute as amended | |
The Piracy Act 1837 (7 Will 4 & 1 Vict c 88) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It abolished the death penalty for most offences of piracy, but created a new offence often known as piracy with violence, which was punishable with death. This offence still exists in the United Kingdom and in the Republic of Ireland, but is no longer punishable by death in either country.
Section 2 of the Act creates the offence of piracy with violence:
Whosoever, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, shall assault, with intent to murder, any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel, or shall stab, cut, or wound any such person, or unlawfully do any act by which the life of such person may be endangered, shall be guilty of felony...
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piracy_Act_1837
| Act of Parliament | |
 | |
| Long title | An Act for the better securing and preserving His Majesty's Dock Yards, Magazines, Ships, Ammunition, and Stores |
|---|---|
| Citation | 12 Geo. 3. c. 24 |
| Introduced by | Sir Charles Whitworth[2] |
| Territorial extent | British Empire |
| Dates | |
| Royal assent | 16 April 1772[3] |
| Commencement | 21 January 1772[4] |
| Repealed | 14 October 1971[5] |
| Other legislation | |
| Repealed by | Criminal Damage Act 1971[5] |
Status: Repealed | |
| Text of statute as originally enacted | |
Arson in royal dockyards and armories was a criminal offence in the United Kingdom and the British Empire. It was among the last offences that were punishable by capital punishment in the United Kingdom. The crime was created by the Dockyards etc. Protection Act 1772 (12 Geo. 3. c. 24) passed by the Parliament of Great Britain, which was designed to prevent arson and sabotage against vessels, dockyards, and arsenals of the Royal Navy.
It remained one of the few capital offences after reform of the death penalty in 1861, and remained in effect even after the death penalty was permanently abolished for murder in 1969. However, it was eliminated by the Criminal Damage Act 1971.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arson_in_royal_dockyards
The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It abolished the death penalty for murder in Great Britain (the death penalty for murder survived in Northern Ireland until 1973). The act replaced the penalty of death with a mandatory sentence of imprisonment for life.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_(Abolition_of_Death_Penalty)_Act_1965
In public policy, a sunset provision or sunset clause is a measure within a statute, regulation or other law that provides for the law to cease to be effective after a specified date, unless further legislative action is taken to extend it. Unlike most laws that remain in force indefinitely unless they are amended or repealed, sunset provisions have a specified expiration date. This is not applicable in legal systems where the concept of desuetude applies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_provision
Under the law of the United Kingdom, high treason is the crime of disloyalty to the Crown. Offences constituting high treason include plotting the murder of the sovereign; committing adultery with the sovereign's consort, with the sovereign's eldest unmarried daughter, or with the wife of the heir to the throne; levying war against the sovereign and adhering to the sovereign's enemies, giving them aid or comfort; and attempting to undermine the lawfully established line of succession. Several other crimes have historically been categorised as high treason, including counterfeiting money and being a Catholic priest.[1]
High treason was generally distinguished from petty treason, a treason committed against a subject of the sovereign, the scope of which was limited by statute to the murder of a legal superior. Petty treason comprised the murder of a master by his servant, of a husband by his wife, or of a bishop by a clergyman. Petty treason ceased to be a distinct offence from murder in 1828, and consequently high treason is today often referred to simply as treason.
Considered to be the most serious of offences (more than murder or other felonies), high treason was often met with extraordinary punishment, because it threatened the safety of the state. Hanging, drawing and quartering was the usual punishment until the 19th century. The last treason trial was that of William Joyce, "Lord Haw-Haw", who was executed by hanging in 1946.
Since the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 became law, the maximum sentence for treason in the UK has been life imprisonment.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_treason_in_the_United_Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shell-swap-delusion-populace-deception-break-head-nation-dissolve-fraud
Petty treason or petit treason was an offence under the common law of England in which a person killed or otherwise violated the authority of a social superior, other than the king. In England and Wales, petty treason ceased to be a distinct offence from murder by virtue of the Offences against the Person Act 1828.[1] It was abolished in Ireland in 1829.[2] It never existed in Scotland. It has also been abolished in other common-law countries.[citation needed]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petty_treason
Succession to the British throne is determined by descent, sex,[note 1] legitimacy, and religion. Under common law, the Crown is inherited by a sovereign's children or by a childless sovereign's nearest collateral line. The Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701 restrict succession to the throne to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover who are in "communion with the Church of England".[1] Spouses of Catholics were disqualified from 1689 until the law was amended in 2015. Protestant descendants of those excluded for being Roman Catholics are eligible.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_to_the_British_throne
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/covid_wattle-bat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/weaponist
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/malaria-syphllis-leprosy
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| Haemophilia | |
|---|---|
| Other names | Hemophilia |
 | |
| A drawing of clotting factor VIII | |
| Pronunciation | |
| Specialty | Haematology |
| Symptoms | Easy and prolonged bleeding[1] |
| Usual onset | At birth[2] |
| Causes | Usually genetic[3] |
| Diagnostic method | Blood test[4] |
| Prevention | Preimplantation screening[4] |
| Treatment | Replace missing blood clotting factors[3] |
| Frequency | 1 in 7,500 males (haemophilia A), 1 in 40,000 males (haemophilia B)[2][5] |
Haemophilia, or hemophilia[6] (from Ancient Greek αἷμα (haîma) 'blood', and φιλία (philía) 'love of'),[7] is a mostly inherited genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to make blood clots, a process needed to stop bleeding.[2][3] This results in people bleeding for a longer time after an injury, easy bruising, and an increased risk of bleeding inside joints or the brain.[1] Those with a mild case of the disease may have symptoms only after an accident or during surgery.[1] Bleeding into a joint can result in permanent damage while bleeding in the brain can result in long term headaches, seizures, or a decreased level of consciousness.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA
Hemarthrosis is a bleeding into joint spaces. It is a common feature of hemophilia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemarthrosis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/disabled
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary
The Akhal-Teke (/ˌækəlˈtɛk/ or /ˌækəlˈtɛki/; from Turkmen Ahalteke, [axalˈteke]) is a Turkmen horse breed.[1] They have a reputation for speed and endurance, intelligence, and a distinctive metallic sheen. The shiny coat of the breed led to their nickname, "Golden Horses".[2] These horses are adapted to severe climatic conditions and are thought to be one of the oldest existing horse breeds.[3] There are currently about 6,600 Akhal-Tekes in the world, mostly in Turkmenistan, although they are also found throughout Europe and North America.[4] Akhal is the name of the line of oases along the north slope of the Kopet Dag mountains in Turkmenistan. It has been inhabited by the Tekke tribe of Turkmens.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhal-Teke
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/oil
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhal-Teke-RSS-SIB-SF-1970
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