Friday, May 19, 2023

Poseidon (left) holding a trident, with the island Nisyros on his shoulder, battling a Giant (probably Polybotes), red-figure cup c. 500–450 BC (Cabinet des Medailles 573)^[1]

In Greek and Roman mythology, the Giants, also called Gigantes (Greek: Γίγαντες, Gígantes, singular: Γίγας, Gígas), were a race of great strength and aggression, though not necessarily of great size. They were known for the Gigantomachy (or Gigantomachia), their battle with the Olympian gods.^[2] According to Hesiod, the Giants were the offspring of Gaia (Earth), born from the blood that fell when Uranus (Sky) was castrated by his Titan son Cronus.^[3]

Archaic and Classical representations show Gigantes as man-sized hoplites (heavily armed ancient Greek foot soldiers) fully human in form.^[4] Later representations (after c. 380 BC) show Gigantes with snakes for legs.^[5] In later traditions, the Giants were often confused with other opponents of the Olympians, particularly the Titans, an earlier generation of large and powerful children of Gaia and Uranus.

The vanquished Giants were said to be buried under volcanoes and to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Origins

The name "Gigantes" is usually taken to imply "earth-born",^[6] and Hesiod's Theogony makes this explicit by having the Giants be the offspring of Gaia (Earth). According to Hesiod, Gaia, mating with Uranus, bore many children: the first generation of Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Hundred-Handers.^[7] However, Uranus hated his children and, as soon as they were born, he imprisoned them inside of Gaia, causing her much distress. Therefore, Gaia made a sickle of adamant which she gave to Cronus, the youngest of her Titan sons, and hid him (presumably still inside Gaia's body) to wait in ambush.^[8] When Uranus came to lie with Gaia, Cronus castrated his father, and "the bloody drops that gushed forth [Gaia] received, and as the seasons moved round she bore ... the great Giants."^[9] From these same drops of blood also came the Erinyes (Furies) and the Meliai (ash tree nymphs), while the severed genitals of Uranus falling into the sea resulted in a white foam from which Aphrodite grew. The mythographer Apollodorus also has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Uranus, though he makes no connection with Uranus' castration, saying simply that Gaia "vexed on account of the Titans, brought forth the Giants".^[10]

There are three brief references to the Gigantes in Homer's Odyssey, though it's not entirely clear that Homer and Hesiod understood the term to mean the same thing.^[11] Homer has Giants among the ancestors of the Phaiakians, a race of men encountered by Odysseus, their ruler Alcinous being the son of Nausithous, who was the son of Poseidon and Periboea, the daughter of the Giant king Eurymedon.^[12] Elsewhere in the Odyssey, Alcinous says that the Phaiakians, like the Cyclopes and the Giants, are "near kin" to the gods.^[13] Odysseus describes the Laestrygonians (another race encountered by Odysseus in his travels) as more like Giants than men.^[14] Pausanias, the 2nd century AD geographer, read these lines of the Odyssey to mean that, for Homer, the Giants were a race of mortal men.^[15]

The 6th–5th century BC lyric poet Bacchylides calls the Giants "sons of the Earth".^[16] Later the term "gegeneis" ("earthborn") became a common epithet of the Giants.^[17] The first century Latin writer Hyginus has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus, another primordial Greek deity.^[18]

Confusion with Titans and others

Though distinct in early traditions,^[19] Hellenistic and later writers often confused or conflated the Giants and their Gigantomachy with an earlier set of offspring of Gaia and Uranus, the Titans and their war with the Olympian gods, the Titanomachy.^[20] This confusion extended to other opponents of the Olympians, including the huge monster Typhon,^[21] the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus, whom Zeus finally defeated with his thunderbolt, and the Aloadae, the large, strong and aggressive brothers Otus and Ephialtes, who piled Pelion on top of Ossa in order to scale the heavens and attack the Olympians (though in the case of Ephialtes there was probably a Giant with the same name).^[22] For example, Hyginus includes the names of three Titans, Coeus, Iapetus, and Astraeus, along with Typhon and the Aloadae, in his list of Giants,^[23] and Ovid seems to conflate the Gigantomachy with the later siege of Olympus by the Aloadae.^[24]

Ovid also seems to confuse the Hundred-Handers with the Giants, whom he gives a "hundred arms".^[25] So perhaps do Callimachus and Philostratus, since they both make Aegaeon the cause of earthquakes, as was often said about the Giants (see below).^[26]

Descriptions

Homer describes the Giant king Eurymedon as "great-hearted" (μεγαλήτορος), and his people as "insolent" (ὑπερθύμοισι) and "froward" (ἀτάσθαλος).^[27] Hesiod calls the Giants "strong" (κρατερῶν) and "great" (μεγάλους) which may or may not be a reference to their size.^[28] Though a possible later addition, the Theogony also has the Giants born "with gleaming armour, holding long spears in their hands".^[29]

Other early sources characterize the Giants by their excesses. Pindar describes the excessive violence of the Giant Porphyrion as having provoked "beyond all measure".^[30] Bacchylides calls the Giants arrogant, saying that they were destroyed by "Hybris" (the Greek word hubris personified).^[31] The earlier seventh century BC poet Alcman perhaps had already used the Giants as an example of hubris, with the phrases "vengeance of the gods" and "they suffered unforgettable punishments for the evil they did" being possible references to the Gigantomachy.^[32]

Homer's comparison of the Giants to the Laestrygonians is suggestive of similarities between the two races. The Laestrygonians, who "hurled ... rocks huge as a man could lift", certainly possessed great strength, and possibly great size, as their king's wife is described as being as big as a mountain.^[33]

Over time, descriptions of the Giants make them less human, more monstrous and more "gigantic". According to Apollodorus the Giants had great size and strength, a frightening appearance, with long hair and beards and scaly feet.^[34] Ovid makes them "serpent-footed" with a "hundred arms",^[35] and Nonnus has them "serpent-haired".^[36]

The Gigantomachy

The most important divine struggle in Greek mythology was the Gigantomachy, the battle fought between the Giants and the Olympian gods for supremacy of the cosmos.^[37] It is primarily for this battle that the Giants are known, and its importance to Greek culture is attested by the frequent depiction of the Gigantomachy in Greek art.

Early sources

Athena (left) fighting the Giant Enceladus (inscribed retrograde) on an Attic red-figure dish, c. 550–500 BC (Louvre CA3662).^[38]

The references to the Gigantomachy in archaic sources are sparse.^[39] Neither Homer nor Hesiod mention anything about the Giants battling the gods.^[40] Homer's remark that Eurymedon "brought destruction on his froward people" might possibly be a reference to the Gigantomachy^[41] and Hesiod's remark that Heracles performed a "great work among the immortals"^[42] is probably a reference to Heracles' crucial role in the gods' victory over the Giants.^[43] The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women (or the Ehoia) following mentions of his sacks of Troy and of Kos, refers to Heracles having slain "presumptious Giants".^[44] Another probable reference to the Gigantomachy in the Catalogue has Zeus produce Heracles to be "a protector against ruin for gods and men".^[45]

There are indications that there might have been a lost epic poem, a Gigantomachia, which gave an account of the war: Hesiod's Theogony says that the Muses sing of the Giants,^[46] and the sixth century BC poet Xenophanes mentions the Gigantomachy as a subject to be avoided at table.^[47] The Apollonius scholia refers to a "Gigantomachia" in which the Titan Cronus (as a horse) sires the centaur Chiron by mating with Philyra (the daughter of two Titans), but the scholiast may be confusing the Titans and Giants.^[48] Other possible archaic sources include the lyric poets Alcman (mentioned above) and the sixth-century Ibycus.^[49]

The late sixth early fifth century BC lyric poet Pindar provides some of the earliest details of the battle between the Giants and the Olympians. He locates it "on the plain of Phlegra" and has Teiresias foretell Heracles killing Giants "beneath [his] rushing arrows".^[50] He calls Heracles "you who subdued the Giants",^[51] and has Porphyrion, who he calls "the king of the Giants", being overcome by the bow of Apollo.^[52] Euripides' Heracles has its hero shooting Giants with arrows,^[53] and his Ion has the chorus describe seeing a depiction of the Gigantomachy on the late sixth century Temple of Apollo at Delphi, with Athena fighting the Giant Enceladus with her "gorgon shield", Zeus burning the Giant Mimas with his "mighty thunderbolt, blazing at both ends", and Dionysus killing an unnamed Giant with his "ivy staff".^[54] The early 3rd century BC author Apollonius of Rhodes briefly describes an incident where the sun god Helios takes up Hephaestus, exhausted from the fight in Phlegra, on his chariot.^[55]

Apollodorus

Dionysus (left) with ivy crown, and thyrsus attacking a Giant, Attic red-figure pelike, c. 475–425 BC (Louvre G434).^[56]

The most detailed account of the Gigantomachy^[57] is that of the (first or second-century AD) mythographer Apollodorus.^[58] None of the early sources give any reasons for the war. Scholia to the Iliad mention the rape of Hera by the Giant Eurymedon,^[59] while according to the scholia to Pindar's Isthmian 6, it was the theft of the cattle of Helios by the Giant Alcyoneus that started the war.^[60] Apollodorus, who also mentions the theft of Helios' cattle by Alcyoneus,^[61] suggests a mother's revenge as the motive for the war, saying that Gaia bore the Giants because of her anger over the Titans (who had been vanquished and imprisoned by the Olympians).^[62] Seemingly, as soon as the Giants are born they begin hurling "rocks and burning oaks at the sky".^[63]

There was a prophecy that the Giants could not be killed by the gods alone, but they could be killed with the help of a mortal.^[64] Hearing this, Gaia sought for a certain plant (pharmakon) that would protect the Giants. Before Gaia or anyone else could find this plant, Zeus forbade Eos (Dawn), Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) to shine, harvested all of the plant himself and then he had Athena summon Heracles.

According to Apollodorus, Alcyoneus and Porphyrion were the two strongest Giants. Heracles shot Alcyoneus, who fell to the ground but then revived, for Alcyoneus was immortal within his native land. So Heracles, with Athena's advice, dragged him beyond the borders of that land, where Alcyoneus then died (compare with Antaeus).^[65] Porphyrion attacked Heracles and Hera, but Zeus caused Porphyrion to become enamoured of Hera, whom Porphyrion then tried to rape, but Zeus struck Porphyrion with his thunderbolt and Heracles killed him with an arrow.^[66]

Other Giants and their fates are mentioned by Apollodorus. Ephialtes was blinded by an arrow from Apollo in his left eye, and another arrow from Heracles in his right. Eurytus was killed by Dionysus with his thyrsus, Clytius by Hecate with her torches and Mimas by Hephaestus with "missiles of red-hot metal" from his forge.^[67] Athena crushed Enceladus under the Island of Sicily and flayed Pallas, using his skin as a shield. Poseidon broke off a piece of the island of Kos called Nisyros, and threw it on top of Polybotes (Strabo also relates the story of Polybotes buried under Nisyros but adds that some say Polybotes lies under Kos instead).^[68] Hermes, wearing Hades' helmet, killed Hippolytus, Artemis killed Gration, and the Moirai (Fates) killed Agrius and Thoas with bronze clubs. The rest of the giants were "destroyed" by thunderbolts thrown by Zeus, with each Giant being shot with arrows by Heracles (as the prophecy seemingly required).

Ovid

The Latin poet Ovid gives a brief account of the Gigantomachy in his poem Metamorphoses.^[69] Ovid, apparently including the Aloadae's attack upon Olympus as part of the Gigantomachy, has the Giants attempt to seize "the throne of Heaven" by piling "mountain on mountain to the lofty stars" but Jove (i.e. Jupiter, the Roman Zeus) overwhelms the Giants with his thunderbolts, overturning "from Ossa huge, enormous Pelion".^[70] Ovid tells that (as "fame reports") from the blood of the Giants came a new race of beings in human form.^[71] According to Ovid, Earth [Gaia] did not want the Giants to perish without a trace, so "reeking with the copious blood of her gigantic sons", she gave life to the "steaming gore" of the blood soaked battleground. These new offspring, like their fathers the Giants, also hated the gods and possessed a bloodthirsty desire for "savage slaughter".

Later in the Metamorphoses, Ovid refers to the Gigantomachy as: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven".^[72] Here Ovid apparently conflates the Giants with the Hundred-Handers,^[73] who, though in Hesiod fought alongside Zeus and the Olympians, in some traditions fought against them.^[74]

Other late sources

Eratosthenes records that Dionysus, Hephaestus and several satyrs mounted on donkeys and charged against the Giants. As they drew closer and before the Giants had spotted them, the donkeys brayed, scaring off some Giants who ran away in terror of the unseen enemies, for they had never heard a donkey's bray before.^[75] Dionysus placed the donkeys in the skies in gratitude, and in vase paintings from the classical period, satyrs and Maenads can sometimes be seen confronting their gigantic opponents.^[76]

A late Latin grammarian of the fifth century AD, Servius, mentions that during the battle, the eagle of Zeus (who once had been the boy Aëtos before his metamorphosis) assisted his master by placing the lightning bolts on his hands.^[77]

Location

Various places have been associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy. As noted above Pindar has the battle occur at Phlegra ("the place of burning"),^[78] as do other early sources.^[79] Phlegra was said to be an ancient name for Pallene (modern Kassandra)^[80] and Phlegra/Pallene was the usual birthplace of the Giants and site of the battle.^[81] Apollodorus, who placed the battle at Pallene, says the Giants were born "as some say, in Phlegrae, but according to others in Pallene". The name Phlegra and the Gigantomachy were also often associated, by later writers, with a volcanic plain in Italy, west of Naples and east of Cumae, called the Phlegraean Fields.^[82] The third century BC poet Lycophron, apparently locates a battle of gods and Giants in the vicinity of the volcanic island of Ischia, the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples, where he says the Giants (along with Typhon) were "crushed" under the island.^[83] At least one tradition placed Phlegra in Thessaly.^[84]

According to the geographer Pausanias, the Arcadians claimed that battle took place "not at Pellene in Thrace" but in the plain of Megalopolis where "rises up fire".^[85] Another tradition apparently placed the battle at Tartessus in Spain.^[86] Diodorus Siculus presents a war with multiple battles, with one at Pallene, one on the Phlegraean Fields, and one on Crete.^[87] Strabo mentions an account of Heracles battling Giants at Phanagoria, a Greek colony on the shores of the Black Sea.^[88] Even when, as in Apollodorus, the battle starts at one place. Individual battles between a Giant and a god might range farther afield, with Enceladus buried beneath Sicily, and Polybotes under the island of Nisyros (or Kos). Other locales associated with Giants include Attica, Corinth, Cyzicus, Lipara, Lycia, Lydia, Miletus, and Rhodes.^[89]

The presence of volcanic phenomena, and the frequent unearthing of the fossilized bones of large prehistoric animals throughout these locations may explain why such sites became associated with the Giants.^[90]

In art

Sixth century BC

A depiction of the Gigantomachy showing a typical central group of Zeus, Heracles and Athena. black-figure amphora in the style of the Lysippides Painter, c. 530-520 BC (British Museum B208).^[91]

From the sixth century BC onwards, the Gigantomachy was a popular and important theme in Greek art, with over six hundred representations cataloged in the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC).^[92]

The Gigantomachy was depicted on the new peplos (robe) presented to Athena on the Acropolis of Athens as part of the Panathenaic festival celebrating her victory over the Giants, a practice dating from perhaps as early as the second millennium BC.^[93] The earliest extant indisputable representations of Gigantes are found on votive pinakes from Corinth and Eleusis, and Attic black-figure pots, dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (this excludes early depictions of Zeus battling single snake-footed creatures, which probably represent his battle with Typhon, as well as Zeus' opponent on the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis on Kerkyra (modern Corfu) which is probably not a Giant).^[94]

Though all these early Attic vases^[95] are fragmentary, the many common features in their depictions of the Gigantomachy suggest that a common model or template was used as a prototype, possibly Athena's peplos.^[96] These vases depict large battles, including most of the Olympians, and contain a central group which appears to consist of Zeus, Heracles, Athena, and sometimes Gaia.^[97] Zeus, Heracles and Athena are attacking Giants to the right.^[98] Zeus mounts a chariot brandishing his thunderbolt in his right hand, Heracles, in the chariot, bends forward with drawn bow and left foot on the chariot pole, Athena, beside the chariot, strides forward toward one or two Giants, and the four chariot horses trample a fallen Giant. When present, Gaia is shielded behind Herakles, apparently pleading with Zeus to spare her children.

On either side of the central group are the rest of the gods engaged in combat with particular Giants. While the gods can be identified by characteristic features, for example Hermes with his hat (petasos) and Dionysus his ivy crown, the Giants are not individually characterized and can only be identified by inscriptions which sometimes name the Giant.^[99] The fragments of one vase from this same period (Getty 81.AE.211)^[100] name five Giants: Pankrates against Heracles,^[101] Polybotes against Zeus,^[102] Oranion against Dionysus,^[103] Euboios and Euphorbos fallen^[104] and Ephialtes.^[105] Also named, on two other of these early vases, are Aristaeus battling Hephaestus (Akropolis 607), Eurymedon and (again) Ephialtes (Akropolis 2134). An amphora from Caere from later in the sixth century, gives the names of more Giants: Hyperbios and Agasthenes (along with Ephialtes) fighting Zeus, Harpolykos against Hera, Enceladus against Athena and (again) Polybotes, who in this case battles Poseidon with his trident holding the island of Nisyros on his shoulder (Louvre E732).^[106] This motif of Poseidon holding the island of Nisyros, ready to hurl it at his opponent, is another frequent feature of these early Gigantomachies.^[107]

Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, North frieze (c. 525 BC). Detail showing gods facing right and Giants facing left.

The Gigantomachy was also a popular theme in late sixth century sculpture. The most comprehensive treatment is found on the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi (c. 525 BC), with more than thirty figures, named by inscription.^[108] From left to right, these include Hephaestus (with bellows), two females fighting two Giants; Dionysus striding toward an advancing Giant; Themis^[109] in a chariot drawn by a team of lions which are attacking a fleeing Giant; the archers Apollo and Artemis; another fleeing Giant (Tharos or possibly Kantharos);^[110] the Giant Ephialtes lying on the ground;^[111] and a group of three Giants, which include Hyperphas^[112] and Alektos,^[113] opposing Apollo and Artemis. Next comes a missing central section presumably containing Zeus, and possibly Heracles, with chariot (only parts of a team of horses remain). To the right of this comes a female stabbing her spear^[114] at a fallen Giant (probably Porphyrion);^[115] Athena fighting Eriktypos^[116] and a second Giant; a male stepping over the fallen Astarias^[117] to attack Biatas^[118] and another Giant; and Hermes against two Giants. Then follows a gap which probably contained Poseidon and finally, on the far right, a male fighting two Giants, one fallen, the other the Giant Mimon (possibly the same as the Giant Mimas mentioned by Apollodorus).^[119]

The Gigantomachy also appeared on several other late sixth century buildings, including the west pediment of the Alkmeonid Temple of Apollo at Delphi, the pediment of the Megarian Treasury at Olympia, the east pediment of the Old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis of Athens, and the metopes of Temple F at Selinous.^[120]

Fifth century BC

The theme continued to be popular in the fifth century BC. A particularly fine example is found on a red-figure cup (c. 490–485 BC) by the Brygos Painter (Berlin F2293). On one side of the cup is the same central group of gods (minus Gaia) as described above: Zeus wielding his thunderbolt, stepping into a quadriga, Heracles with lion skin (behind the chariot rather than on it) drawing his (unseen) bow and, ahead, Athena thrusting her spear into a fallen Giant. On the other side are Hephaestus flinging flaming missiles of red-hot metal from two pairs of tongs, Poseidon, with Nisyros on his shoulder, stabbing a fallen Giant with his trident and Hermes with his petasos hanging in back of his head, attacking another fallen Giant. None of the Giants are named.^[121]

Phidias used the theme for the metopes of the east façade of the Parthenon (c. 445 BC) and for the interior of the shield of Athena Parthenos.^[122] Phidias' work perhaps marks the beginning of a change in the way the Giants are presented. While previously the Giants had been portrayed as typical hoplite warriors armed with the usual helmets, shields, spears and swords, in the fifth century the Giants begin to be depicted as less handsome in appearance, primitive and wild, clothed in animal skins or naked, often without armor and using boulders as weapons.^[123] A series of red-figure pots from c. 400 BC, which may have used Phidas' shield of Athena Parthenos as their model, show the Olympians fighting from above and the Giants fighting with large stones from below.^[124]

Fourth century BC and later

In the Gigantomachy from a 1st-century AD frieze in the agora of Aphrodisias, the Giants are depicted with scaly coils, like Typhon

Winged Giant (usually identified as Alcyoneus), Athena, Gaia (rising from the ground), and Nike, detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, Berlin

With the beginning of the fourth century BC probably comes the first portrayal of the Giants in Greek art as anything other than fully human in form, with legs that become coiled serpents having snake heads at the ends in place of feet.^[125] Such depictions were perhaps borrowed from Typhon, the monstrous son of Gaia and Tartarus, described by Hesiod as having a hundred snake heads growing from his shoulders.^[126] This snake-legged motif becomes the standard for the rest of antiquity, culminating in the monumental Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BC Pergamon Altar. Measuring nearly 400 feet long and over seven feet high, here the Gigantomachy receives its most extensive treatment, with over one hundred figures.^[127]

Although fragmentary, much of the Gigantomachy frieze has been restored. The general sequence of the figures and the identifications of most of the approximately sixty gods and goddesses have been more or less established.^[128] The names and positions of most Giants remain uncertain. Some of the names of the Giants have been determined by inscription,^[129] while their positions are often conjectured on the basis of which gods fought which Giants in Apollodorus' account.^[130]

The same central group of Zeus, Athena, Heracles and Gaia, found on many early Attic vases, also featured prominently on the Pergamon Altar. On the right side of the East frieze, the first encountered by a visitor, a winged Giant, usually identified as Alcyoneus, fights Athena.^[131] Below and to the right of Athena, Gaia rises from the ground, touching Athena's robe in supplication. Flying above Gaia, a winged Nike crowns the victorious Athena. To the left of this grouping a snake-legged Porphyrion battles Zeus^[132] and to the left of Zeus is Heracles.^[133]

On the far left side of the East frieze, a triple Hecate with torch battles a snake-legged Giant usually identified (following Apollodorus) as Clytius.^[134] To the right lays the fallen Udaeus, shot in his left eye by an arrow from Apollo,^[135] along with Demeter who wields a pair of torches against Erysichthon.^[136]

The Giants are depicted in a variety of ways. Some Giants are fully human in form, while others are a combination of human and animal forms. Some are snake-legged, some have wings, one has bird claws, one is lion-headed, and another is bull-headed. Some Giants wear helmets, carry shields and fight with swords. Others are naked or clothed in animal skins and fight with clubs or rocks.^[137]

The large size of the frieze probably necessitated the addition of many more Giants than had been previously known. Some, like Typhon and Tityus, who were not strictly speaking Giants, were perhaps included. Others were probably invented.^[138] The partial inscription "Mim" may mean that the Giant Mimas was also depicted. Other less-familiar or otherwise unknown Giant names include Allektos, Chthonophylos, Eurybias, Molodros, Obrimos, Ochthaios and Olyktor.^[139]

In post-classical art

Detail of the Sala dei Giganti in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua, c. 1530, Giulio Romano

The subject was revived in the Renaissance, most famously in the frescos of the Sala dei Giganti in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua. These were painted around 1530 by Giulio Romano and his workshop, and aimed to give the viewer the unsettling idea that the large hall was in the process of collapsing. The subject was also popular in Northern Mannerism around 1600, especially among the Haarlem Mannerists, and continued to be painted into the 18th century.^[140]

Symbolism, meaning and interpretations

Historically, the myth of the Gigantomachy (as well as the Titanomachy) may reflect the "triumph" of the new imported gods of the invading Greek speaking peoples from the north (c. 2000 BC) over the old gods of the existing peoples of the Greek peninsula.^[141] For the Greeks, the Gigantomachy represented a victory for order over chaos—the victory of the divine order and rationalism of the Olympian gods over the discord and excessive violence of the earth-born chthonic Giants. More specifically, for sixth and fifth century BC Greeks, it represented a victory for civilization over barbarism, and as such was used by Phidias on the metopes of the Parthenon and the shield of Athena Parthenos to symbolize the victory of the Athenians over the Persians. Later the Attalids similarly used the Gigantomachy on the Pergamon Altar to symbolize their victory over the Galatians of Asia Minor.^[142]

The attempt of the Giants to overthrow the Olympians also represented the ultimate example of hubris, with the gods themselves punishing the Giants for their arrogant challenge to the gods' divine authority.^[143] The Gigantomachy can also be seen as a continuation of the struggle between Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky), and thus as part of the primal opposition between female and male.^[144] Plato compares the Gigantomachy to a philosophical dispute about existence, wherein the materialist philosophers, who believe that only physical things exist, like the Giants, wish to "drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth".^[145]

A Giant fighting Artemis. Illustration of a Roman relief in the Vatican Museum.^[146]

In Latin literature, in which the Giants, the Titans, Typhon and the Aloadae are all often conflated, Gigantomachy imagery is a frequent occurrence.^[147] Cicero, while urging the acceptance of aging and death as natural and inevitable, allegorizes the Gigantomachy as "fighting against Nature".^[148] The rationalist Epicurean poet Lucretius, for whom such things as lightning, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions had natural rather than divine causes, used the Gigantomachy to celebrate the victory of philosophy over mythology and superstition. In the triumph of science and reason over traditional religious belief, the Gigantomachy symbolized for him Epicurus storming heaven. In a reversal of their usual meaning, he represents the Giants as heroic rebels against the tyranny of Olympus.^[149] Virgil—reversing Lucretius' reversal—restores the conventional meaning, making the Giants once again enemies of order and civilization.^[150] Horace makes use of this same meaning to symbolize the victory of Augustus at the Battle of Actium as a victory for the civilized West over the barbaric East.^[151]

Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, describes mankind's moral decline through the ages of gold, silver, bronze and iron, and presents the Gigantomachy as a part of that same descent from natural order into chaos.^[152] Lucan, in his Pharsalia, which contains many Gigantomachy references,^[153] makes the Gorgon's gaze turn the Giants into mountains.^[154] Valerius Flaccus, in his Argonautica, makes frequent use of Gigantomachy imagery, with the Argo (the world's first ship) constituting a Gigantomachy-like offense against natural law, and example of hubristic excess.^[155]

Claudian, the fourth-century AD court poet of emperor Honorius, composed a Gigantomachia that viewed the battle as a metaphor for vast geomorphic change: "The puissant company of the giants confounds all differences between things; islands abandon the deep; mountains lie hidden in the sea. Many a river is left dry or has altered its ancient course....robbed of her mountains Earth sank into level plains, parted among her own sons."^[156]

Association with volcanoes and earthquakes

Various locations associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy were areas of volcanic and seismic activity (e.g. the Phlegraean Fields west of Naples), and the vanquished Gigantes (along with other "giants") were said to be buried under volcanos. Their subterranean movements were said to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.^[157]

The Giant Enceladus was thought to lay buried under Mount Etna, the volcano's eruptions being the breath of Enceladus, and its tremors caused by the Giant rolling over from side to side beneath the mountain^[158] (the monster Typhon^[159] and the Hundred-Hander Briareus^[160] were also said to be buried under Etna). The Giant Alcyoneus along with "many giants" were said to lie under Mount Vesuvius,^[161] Prochyte (modern Procida), one of the volcanic Phlegraean Islands was supposed to sit atop the Giant Mimas,^[162] and Polybotes was said to lie pinned beneath the volcanic island of Nisyros, supposedly a piece of the island of Kos broken off and thrown by Poseidon.^[163]

Describing the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Cassius Dio relates accounts of the appearance of many Giant-like creatures on the mountain and in the surrounding area followed by violent earthquakes and the final cataclysmic eruption, saying "some thought that the Giants were rising again in revolt (for at this time also many of their forms could be discerned in the smoke and, moreover, a sound as of trumpets was heard)".^[164]

Named Giants

Names for the Giants can be found in ancient literary sources and inscriptions. Vian and Moore provide a list with over seventy entries, some of which are based upon inscriptions which are only partially preserved.^[165] Some of the Giants identified by name are:

Aezeius: father of Lycaon, possibly the maternal grandfather of Lycaon, the King of Arcadia.^[166]^[167]
Agrius: According to Apollodorus, he was killed by the Moirai (Fates) with bronze clubs.^[168]
Alcyoneus: According to Apollodorus, he was (along with Porphyrion), the greatest of the Giants. Immortal while fighting in his native land, he was dragged from his homeland and killed by Heracles.^[169] According to Pindar, he was a herdsman and, in a separate battle from the Gigantomachy, he was killed by Heracles and Telamon, while they were traveling through Phlegra.^[170] Representations of Heracles fighting Alcyoneus are found on many sixth century BC and later works of art.^[171]
Alektos/Allektos: Named on the late sixth century Siphnian Treasury (Alektos),^[172] and the second century BC Pergamon Altar (Allektos).^[173]
Aristaeus: According to the Suda, he was the only Giant to "survive".^[174] He is probably named on an Attic black-figure dinos by Lydos (Akropolis 607) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, fighting Hephaestus.^[175]
Astarias [See Asterius below]
Aster [See Asterius below]
Asterius ("Bright One" or "Glitterer"):^[176] A Giant (also called Aster), killed by Athena whose death, according to some accounts, was celebrated by the Panathenaea.^[177] Probably the same as the Giant Astarias named on the late sixth century Siphnian Treasury.^[178] Probably also the same as Asterus, mentioned in the epic poem Meropis, as an invulnerable warrior killed by Athena.^[179] In the poem, Heracles, while fighting the Meropes, a race of Giants, on the Island of Kos, would have been killed but for Athena's intervention.^[180] Athena kills and flays Asterus and uses his impenetrable skin for her aegis. Other accounts name others whose hide provided Athena's aegis:^[181] Apollodorus has Athena flay the Giant Pallas,^[182] while Euripides' Ion has Gorgon, here considered to be a Giant, as Athena's victim.^[183]
Asterus [See Asterius above]
Clytius: According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Hecate with her torches.^[184]

Gilt-bronze Enceladus by Gaspar Mercy in the Bosquet de l'Encélade in the gardens of Versailles

Damysus: The fastest of the Giants. Chiron exhumed his body, removed the ankle and incorporated it into Achilles burnt foot.^[185]
Enceladus: A Giant named Enceladus, fighting Athena, is attested in art as early as an Attic Black-figure pot dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (Louvre E732).^[186] Euripides has Athena fighting him with her "Gorgon shield" (her aegis).^[187] According to Apollodorus, he was crushed by Athena under the Island of Sicily.^[188] Virgil has him struck by Zeus' lightning bolt, and both Virgil and Claudian have him buried under Mount Etna^[189] (other traditions had Typhon or Briareus buried under Etna). For some Enceladus was instead buried in Italy.^[190]
Ephialtes (probably different from the Aload Giant who was also named Ephialtes):^[191] According to Apollodorus he was blinded by arrows from Apollo and Heracles.^[192] He is named on three Attic black-figure pots (Akropolis 2134, Getty 81.AE.211, Louvre E732) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC.^[193] On Louvre E732 he is, along with Hyperbios and Agasthenes, opposed by Zeus, while on Getty 81.AE.211 his opponents are apparently Apollo and Artemis.^[194] He is also named on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury,^[195] where he is probably one of the opponents of Apollo and Artemis, and probably as well on what might be the earliest representation of the Gigantomachy, a pinax fragment from Eleusis (Eleusis 349).^[196] He is also named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531), shown battling Apollo.^[197] Although the usual opponent of Poseidon among the Giants is Polybotes, one early fifth century red-figure column krater (Vienna 688) has Poseidon attacking Ephialtes.^[198]
Euryalus: He is named on a late sixth century red-figure cup (Akropolis 2.211) and an early fifth century red-figure cup (British Museum E 47) fighting Hephaestos.^[199]
Eurymedon: According to Homer, he was a king of the Giants and father of Periboea (mother of Nausithous, king of the Phaeacians, by Poseidon), who "brought destruction on his froward people".^[200] He was possibly the Eurymedon who raped Hera producing Prometheus as offspring (according to an account attributed to the Hellenistic poet Euphorion).^[201] He is probably named on Akropolis 2134.^[202] He is possibly mentioned by the Latin poet Propertius as an opponent of Jove.^[203]
Eurytus: According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Dionysus with his thyrsus.^[204]
Gration: According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Artemis.^[205] His name may have been corrupted text, as various emendations have been suggested, including Aigaion (Αἰγαίων - "goatish", "stormy"), Eurytion (Εὐρυτίων - "fine flowing", "widely honored") and Rhaion (Ῥαίων - "more adaptable", "more relaxed").^[206]
Hopladamas or Hopladamus: Possibly named (as Hoplodamas) on two vases dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, on one (Akropolis 607) being speared by Apollo, while on the other (Getty 81.AE.211) attacking Zeus.^[207] Mentioned (as Hopladamus) by the geographer Pausanias as being a leader of Giants enlisted by the Titaness Rhea, pregnant with Zeus, to defend herself from her husband Cronus.^[208]
Hippolytus: According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Hermes, who was wearing Hades' helmet^[209] which made its wearer invisible.^[210]
Lion or Leon: Possibly a Giant, he is mentioned by Photius (as ascribed to Ptolemy Hephaestion) as a giant who was challenged to single combat by Heracles and killed.^[211] Lion-headed Giants are shown on the Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BC Pergamon Altar.^[212]
Mimas: According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Hephaestus.^[213] Euripides has Zeus burning him "to ashes" with his thunderbolt.^[214] According to others he was killed by Ares.^[215] "Mimos"—possibly in error for "Mimas"—is inscribed (retrograde) on Akropolis 607.^[216] He was said to be buried under Prochyte.^[217] Mimas is possibly the same as the Giant named Mimon on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury, as well as on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531) shown fighting Ares.^[218] Several depictions in Greek art, though, show Aphrodite as the opponent of Mimas.^[219]
Mimon [See Mimas above]
Mimos [See Mimas above]

Poseidon attacks Polybotes in the presence of Gaia, red-figure cup late fifth century BC (Antikensammlung Berlin F2531)^[220]

Pallas: According to Apollodorus, he was flayed by Athena, who used his skin as a shield.^[221] Other accounts name others whose hyde provided Athena's aegis:^[222] the epic poem Meropis has Athena kill and flay the Giant Asterus (see Asterius above) while Euripides' Ion has Gorgon, here considered to be a Giant, as Athena's victim.^[223] Claudian names him as one of several Giants turned to stone by Minerva's Gorgon shield.^[224]
Pelorus: According to Claudian, he was killed by Mars, the Roman equivalent of Ares.^[225]
Picolous: A Giant who fled the battle and came to Circe's island and attempted to chase her away, only to be killed by Helios. It is said that the legendary moly plant first sprang forth from Picolous' blood as it seeped into the ground.^[226]
Polybotes: According to Apollodorus, he was crushed under Nisyros, a piece of the island of Kos broken off and thrown by Poseidon.^[227] He is named on two sixth century BC pots, on one (Getty 81.AE.211) he is opposed by Zeus, on the other (Louvre E732) he is opposed by Poseidon carrying Nisyros on his shoulder.^[228]
Porphyrion: According to Apollodorus, he was (along with Alcyoneus), the greatest of the Giants. He attacked Heracles and Hera but Zeus "smote him with a thunderbolt, and Hercules shot him dead with an arrow."^[229] According to Pindar, who calls him "king of the Giants", he was slain by an arrow from the bow of Apollo.^[230] He is named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531), where he is battling with Zeus.^[231] He was also probably named on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury.^[232]
Thoas (or Thoon?): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by the Moirai (Fates) with bronze clubs.^[233]

Notes

Beazley Archive 204546; Cook, Plate III, A.

Hansen, pp. 177–179; Gantz, pp. 445–454. As for their size: Hansen p. 177: "Hesiod describes them as being "great," referring perhaps to their stature, but the Giants are not always represented as being huge. Although the word giants derives ultimately from the Greek Gigantes, the most persistent traits of the Gigantes are strength and hubristic aggression."

Hesiod, Theogony 185. Hyginus, Fabulae Preface gives Tartarus as the father of the Giants. A parallel to the Giants' birth is the birth of Aphrodite from the similarly fertilized sea.

Gantz, pp. 446, 447.

Gantz, p. 453; Hanfmann 1992, The Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. "Giants"; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.3 "That the giants have serpents instead of feet" pp. 315–316.

Hard, p. 86; Gantz, p. 16; Merry, Homer's Odyssey 7.59; Douglas Harper mentions that a Pre-Greek origin has also been proposed ("giant". Online Etymology Dictionary).

Hesiod, Theogony 132–153

Hesiod, Theogony 154–175; Gantz, p. 10.

Hesiod, Theogony 176 ff.

Apollodorus, 1.6.1; Hansen, p. 178.

Gantz, p. 446. Ogden, p. 82 n. 74 says that the "Odyssey's Giants stand a little outside the remainder of the tradition, in so far as they are ethnologized into a wild, arrogant, and doomed race, formerly presided over by a king Eurymedon." Hanfmann 1937, p. 175, sees in the "conflicting" descriptions of Homer and Hesiod, "two different local traditions".

Homer, Odyssey 7.56–63. Alcaeus and Acusilaus make the Phaiakians, like the Giants, offspring of the castration of Uranus, Gantz, p. 16.

Homer, Odyssey 7.199–207.

Homer, Odyssey 10.119–120.

Pausanias, 8.29.1–4. Smith, William, "Gigantes" and Hanfmann 1992, The Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. "Giants", following Pausanias, both assert that, for Homer, the Giants were a "savage race of men". For the mythographer Diodorus Siculus, the Giants were also a race of men, see 4.21.5, Gantz, p. 449.

Bacchylides, 15.63; Castriota, pp. 233–234.

"Gegeneis", Brills New Pauly; Crusius, p.93; Batrachomyomachia 7 (pp. 542–543); Sophocles, Women of Trachis 1058; Euripides, The Phoenician Women 1131; Lycophron, Alexandra 127 (pp. 504–505), 1408 (pp. 610–611).

Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. Latin

Gantz, p. 450.

Smith, William, "Gigantes"; Gantz, p. 447; Hansen p. 178, Grimal, p. 171; Tripp, p. 250; Morford, pp. 82–83. A probable early confusion (or at least a possible cause of later confusion) can be seen in Euripides' Iphigenia in Tauris 221–224 and Hecuba 466–474, see Torrance, p. 155 n. 74. Later examples include Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) 173 ff. (pp. 98–99) (see Vian and Moore 1988 p. 193; Mineur, p. 170).

Rose, The Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. "Typhon, Typhoeus"; Fontenrose, p. 80.

Gantz, pp. 450–451.

Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. For other examples of Typhon as a Giant, see Horace, Odes 3.4.53, (which has Typhon battling Athena, alongside the Giants Mimas, Porphyrion, and Enceladus); Manilius, Astronomica 2.874–880 (pp. 150–151); Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.176 (I pp. 16–17), 1.220 (I pp. 18–19), 1.244 (I pp. 20–21), 1.263 (I pp. 22–23), 1.291 (I pp. 24–25).

Hansen, p. 178; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.151–162. See also Horace, Odes 3.4.42 ff., with Lyne p. 51. Plato had already associated the Aloadae with the Giants, Symposium 190b–c.

Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.182–184: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven" (see Anderson, p. 170, note to line 184 "centum with bracchia"), Fasti 4.593, with Fazer's note.

Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) 141–146; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 4.6.

Homer, Odyssey 7.58–60. The translations given are A.T. Murray's. Richard Lattimore translates ὑπερθύμοισι as "high-hearted" and ἀτάσθαλος as "recklessly daring". See also Liddell and Scott, μεγαλήτωρ ("greathearted"), ὑπέρθυμος ("overweening"), and ἀτάσθαλος ("reckless, presumptuous, wicked").

Hesiod, Theogony 50, 185; Liddell and Scott κρατερός, μέγας; Hansen, p. 177.

Gantz, p. 446.

Pindar, Pythian 8.12–18.

Bacchylides, 15.50 ff.; Castriota, p. 139, pp. 233–234.

Alcman fragment 1 Poetarum melicorum Graecorum fragmenta, see Cairns, p. 310; Wilkinson, p. 142; Ferrari, pp. 28, 109, 151 ff.; Hanfmann 1937, pp. 475–476.

According to Gantz, p. 446: "In all, the account rather suggests that the huge bulk of Antiphates' wife is not typical of the Laistrygones as a whole. But they are clearly thought of as good-sized, although whether it is in this respect that they are like the Gigantes and unlike men we cannot say; the Odyssey's emphasis might be thought to fall more on their uncivilized behjavior"

Apollodorus, 1.6.1.

Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.182–184: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven"; Newlands, p. 81. Here Ovid has apparently conflated the Giants with the Hundred-Handers, see Anderson, p. 170, note to line 184 "centum with bracchia". Compare with Fasti 5.35–37, where Ovid says "Earth brought forth the Giants, a fierce brood, enormous monsters, who durst assault Jove's mansion; she gave them a thousand hands, and snakes for legs".

Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.18 (I, pp. 4–5).

Moore 1985, p. 21.

Beazley Archive 200059, LIMC 29890 (Gigantes 342).

Gantz, p. 15. For a survey of literary sources see Gantz, pp. 445–450, Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 191–196.

Gantz, p. 446.

A scholion to Odyssey 7.59 asserts that Homer does not know that the Giants fought against the gods, Gantz, p. 447.

Hesiod, Theogony 954; for the translation used here see Most 2006, p. 79.

Gantz, p. 446.

Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW, see Most 2007, p. 143. Gantz, p. 446, says that this line "with no link to what precedes or follows, might easily be an interpolation".

Hesiod fragment 195.28–29 MW, Most 2007, p. 5; Gantz, p. 446.

Hesiod, Theogony 50–52.

Xenophanes, 1.21 (Lesher, pp. 12, 13); Gantz, p. 446.

Since Chiron did apparently figure in a lost poem about the Titanomachy, and there is no obvious role for the centaur in a poem about the Gigantomachy, see Gantz, p. 447.

Wilkinson pp. 141–142; Gantz p. 447.

Pindar, Nemean 1.67–69.

Pindar, Nemean 7.90.

Pindar, Pythian 8.12–18.

Euripides, Heracles 177–180; Gantz, p. 448.

Euripides, Ion 205–218.

Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3. 221

Beazley Archive 207774.

Tripp, p. 252.

Apollodorus, 1.6.1–2.

Gantz, pp. 16, 57, 448–449; Hard p. 88. According to Gantz, p. 449, it is possible but unlikely, that this is the incident being referred to in Odyssey 7, noting that the story of the rape of Hera by Eurymedon may be a later invention to explain Homer's remark.

Gantz, pp. 419, 448–449; Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Odes 6.47.

According to Apollodorus, Alcyoneus stole Helios' cattle from Erytheia, where the cattle of Geryon are usually found.

Gantz, p. 449; Grimal, p. 171; Tripp, p. 251. The late 4th century AD Latin poet Claudian expands on this notion in his Gigantomachia 1–35 (pp. 280–283) with Gaia, "jealous of the heavenly kingdoms and in pity for the ceasless woes of the Titans" (1–2), gave birth to the Giants, urging them to war saying "Up, army of avengers, the hour is come at last, free the Titans from their chains; defend your mother." (27–28)

Compare with Hesiod, Theogony 185–186 which seems to have the Giants born, like Athena and the Spartoi, fully grown and armed for battle (Apollodorus, 1.3.6, 1.3.6). Also compare with Plato, Sophist 246a, where comparing materialist philosophers with the Giants, says they "drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth, actually grasping rocks and trees with their hands".

Compare with Pindar, Nemean 1.67–69 (mentioned above) where Teiresias prophesies that Heracles will aid the gods in their battle with the Giants.

Antaeus, another offspring of Gaia who was an opponent of Heracles, was immortal as long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles killed Antaeus by crushing him while holding him off the ground. For Pindar, Hearacles' battle with Alcyoneus (whom he calls a herdsman) and the Gigantomachy were separate events, see: Isthmian 6.30–35, Nemean 4.24–30.

As noted above Pindar has Apollo kill Porphyrion.

As noted above, Euripides has Zeus kill Mimas; other accounts have Mimas killed by Ares: Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277); Claudian, Gigantomachia 85–91 (pp. 286–287).

Strabo, 10.5.16. The mention of a millstone, in the poem fragment by Alcman (mentioned above) may be an early reference to the island of Nisyros, see Hanfmann 1937, pp. 476; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 192.

Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.151–162.

Ovid also refers to Giants piling up Pelion on top of Ossa elsewhere, see Amores 2.1.11–18, Fasti 1.307–308, 3.437–442; Green, p. 143.

Compare with Lycophron, Alexandra 1356–1358 (pp. 606–607), who has the Pelasgian race born from the "blood of the Sithonian giants", Sithonia being the middle spur of Chalcidice just north of the southern spur of Pallene, the traditional home of the Giants.

Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.182 ff..

Anderson, p. 170, note to line 184 "centum with bracchia". Ovid's Amores 2.1.11–18, see Knox, p. 209, likewise associates the Gigantomachy with the Hundred-Hander "Gyas", while in Fasti 5.35–37, Ovid has the Giants have a "thousand hands". This same conflation may already occur in Euphorion, fragment 169 (Lightfoot) (Lightfoot, pp. 394–395), see Vian and Moore 1988, p. 193.

Hesiod, Theogony 617–736, 815–819. For the Hundred-Handers as opponents of Zeus, see for example Virgil, Aeneid 10.565–568; O'Hara, p. 99.

Hard 2015, p. 66.

Hard 2015, p. 68.

Kerenyi 1951, p. 95.

Singleton, p. 235.

Aeschylus, Eumenides 294; Euripides, Heracles 1192–1194; Ion 987–997; Aristophanes, The Birds 824; Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.232–234 (pp. 210–211), 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277). See also Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW (Most 2007, p. 143, Gantz, p. 446)

Herodotus, 7.123.1; Strabo, 7 Fragment 25, 27; Philostratus, On Heroes 8.16 (p. 14); Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Παλλήνη (Hunter p. 81), Φλέγρα; Liddell and Scott, Φλέγρα

Gantz, p. 419; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.1 "the legendary battle of the gods and the giants" pp. 314–315; Lycophron, Alexandra 115–127 (pp. 504–505), 1356–1358 (pp. 606–607), 1404–1408 (pp. 610–611); Diodorus Siculus, 4.15.1; Pausanias, 1.25.2, 8.29.1; AT-scholia to Iliad 15.27 (Hunter p. 81).

Strabo, 5.4.4, 5.4.6, 6.3.5; Diodorus Siculus, 4.21.5–7, 5.71.4.

Lycophron, Alexandra 688–693 (pp. 550–551).

Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil 3.578; Leigh, p. 122.

Pausanias, 8.29.1.

Scholiast A on Iliad 8.479 (Brown, p. 125).

Diodorus Siculus, 4.15.1, 4.21.5–7, 5.71.2–6.

Strabo, 11.2.10.

Hanfmann 1937, p. 475 n. 52.

Mayor, p. 197 ff.; Apollodorus 1.6.1 n. 3; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.1 "the legendary battle of the gods and the giants" pp. 314–315; Pausanias, 8.32.5; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp. 498–501), On Heroes 8.15–16 (p. 14).

Schefold, p. 56; Beazley Archive 302261; LIMC 27185 (Gigantes 120).

Vian and Moore 1988; Schefold, p. 51, p. 64; Ogden, p. 82; See also Vian 1951; 1952; Morford, p. 72.

Barber 1992, pp. 103–104, 112, 117; Barber 1991, pp. 361–362, 380–381; Simon, p. 23; Euripides, Hecuba, 466–474, Iphigenia in Tauris 222–224; Aristophanes, The Birds 823–831, The Knights 565; Plato, Euthyphro 6b–c; Republic 2.378c; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 210 no. 32. For the importance of the Gigantomachy to the Athenian Acropolis see Hurwit, pp. 30–31.

Gantz, p. 450; Moore 1985, p. 21; Schefold, pp. 51–52; Robertson, Martin, pp. 16–17.

Akropolis 607 (Beazley Archive 310147, LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105)); Akropolis 1632 (Beazley Archive 15673, LIMC 4867 (Gigantes 110)); Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive 301942, LIMC 26166 (Gigantes 106)); Akropolis 2211 (Beazley Archive 3363, LIMC 20013 (Gigantes 104)).

Moore 1985, p. 21; Schefold, p. 55, 57; Neils, p. 228.

Gantz, p. 451; Moore 1979, pp. 81–84, ILL. 1. & 2.; Moore 1985, p. 21; Schefold, 57; Beazley, pp. 38–39; Day, p. 163. Several examples from later in the sixth century BC depict a similar central group of Zeus, Heracles and Athena. Moore 1979, p. 83 n. 36 lists as examples: Tarquina 623 (Beazley Archive 310411, LIMC 29174 (Gigantes 114)), Munich 1485 (Beazley Archive 302287), British Museum B208 (Beazley Archive 302261; LIMC 27185 (Gigantes 120)). Arafat, p. 14 n. 12, in addition to British Museum B208, also gives as examples Vatican 422 (Beazley Archive 302040, LIMC 29187 (Gigantes 123)) and Vatican 365 (Beazley Archive 301601), however Moore says that Zeus is not present in Vatican 365. For British Museum B208, see also Schefold, p. 56. Euripides, perhaps referring to archaic vase paintings or to Athena's peplos, locates Heracles and Athena fighting near Zeus in the Gigantomachy, see Heracles 177–179; Ion 1528–1529; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 192.

Rightward was conventionally the "direction of victory", see Schefold, p. 62; Stewart, p. 128.

Schefold, pp. 56–57; Gantz p. 451; Moore 1985, p. 21

Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171).

Moore 1985, p. 28.

Moore 1985, pp. 30–31.

Moore 1985, p. 32.

Moore 1985, pp. 34–36.

Moore 1985, pp. 34–35.

Gantz, p. 451; Arafat, p. 16; Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170).

Gantz, p. 453; Moore 1985, p. 32; Cook, pp. 14–18; Frazer 1898a, note to Pausanias 1.2.4 "Poseidon on horseback hurling a spear at the giant Polybotes" pp. 48–49.

Gantz, pp. 451–452; Stewart, pp. 128–129, plates 195–198; Schefold, pp. 59–62; Morford, p. 73; Drawing: J.Boardman, Greek Sculpture Archaic Period fig.212.1; Perseus: Delphi, Siphnian Treasury Frieze--North (Sculpture); LIMC 5020 (Gigantes 2).

Brinkmann, N17 p. 101. According to Schefold, p. 62, Themis "appears here in the guise of Kybele".

Brinkmann, N5 p. 92, reads only Tharos.

Brinkmann, N7 p. 94.

Brinkmann, N6 p. 92, others have read Hypertas.

Brinkmann, N8 p. 94.

Possibly Aphrodite, has been identified as Hera, but Brinkmann, p. 94 finds no trace of that name.

Brinkmann, N22 p. 103, only the last four letters: ριον can be read.

Brinkmann, N10 p. 96; others have read Berektas.

Brinkmann, N12 p. 103; others have read Astartas.

Brinkmann, N11 p. 96.

Brinkmann, N14 pp. 98, 124–125. The fallen Giant Mimon against Ares is also named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531): Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Mimon and Ares; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.

Gantz, p. 452. For the Temple of Apollo see: Schefold, p 64; Shapiro, p. 247; Stewart, pp. 86–87; Euripides, Ion 205–218; LIMC 18960 (Gigantes 3). For the Megarian Treasury see: Pollitt 1990, pp. 22–23; Pausanias, 6.19.12–14; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 6.19.12 "The people of Megara — built a treasury" pp 65–67, note to 6.19.13 "In the gable — is wrought in relief the war of the giants" pp 67–69; ASCA Digital Collections, Megarian Treasury. For the Old Temple of Athena see: Schefold, pp. 64–67.

Arafat, pp 12–15; Cohen, pp. 177–178; Gantz p. 452; Beazley Archive 203909; LIMC 11564 (Gigantes 303).

For the Parthenon Gigantomachy metopes see Schwab, pp. 168–173, for the statue of Athena see Lapatin, pp. 262–263, for both see Kleiner, pp. 136—137.

Dwyer, p. 295; Gantz, pp. 446, 447, 452–453; Hard, p. 90. For an example of a particularly "handsome" Giant see Schefold, p. 67: British Museum E 8 (Beazley Archive 302261, LIMC 11609 (Gigantes 365), image 1 of 2), for Giants with animal skins fighting with boulders see a calyx krater from Ruvo, c. 400: Naples 81521 (Beazley Archive 217517, LIMC 10553 (Gigantes 316), image 2 of 5.

Robertson, Martin, pp. 106–107; Dwyer, p. 295; Cook, p. 56; Arafat, p. 25; Louvre MNB810 (Beazley Archive 217568, LIMC 11533 (Gigantes 322); Naples 81521 (Beazley Archive 217517, LIMC 10553 (Gigantes 316)).

Ogden, pp. 82–83, Gantz, p. 453; Berlin V.I. 3375 (Beazley Archive 6987, LIMC 30005 (Gigantes 389)). Snake-legged Giants may exist in earlier Etruscan art, for example a winged and snake-footed monster depicted on a late sixth century Etruscan hydria (British Museum B62, LIMC 2639 (Typhon 30)), might be a Giant, see de Grummond, p. 259, compare with Ogden, p. 71. For more on snake-legged Giants see Ogden, pp. 82–86, and Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 253–254.

Pollitt 1986, p. 109; Ogden, p. 83; Hesiod, Theogony 820 ff.. The similarities between Typhon and the Giants are several, both "monstrous children produced by Earth in a spirit of revenge, with the mission to attack and overthrow the gods in heaven, and whose fate they share, blasted by thunderbolts and, in Enceladus' case buried under Sicily." (Ogden, p. 83).

Kleiner, pp. 155–156; Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 33; Smith, R. R. R. 1991, p. 159; Queyrel, p. 49; Pergamon Altar (LIMC 617 (Gigantes 24)).

Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005. The names of the gods and goddesses were inscribed on the upper molding of the frieze, with the exception of Gaia whose name was inscribed on the background next to her head, see Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 32. For the total number of gods and goddesses, see Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 54 n. 35.

The names of the Giants were inscribed on the lower molding or, for the walls flanking the stairs where the moulding was omitted, on the background of the frieze between the figures, see Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 32, p. 54 n. 34. Queyrel, p. 52, lists the names of 27 Giants fully or partly preserved in the inscriptions which have so far been found. For Queyrel's identification of the various figures, see Fig. 33, pp. 50–51.

Pollitt 1986, p. 109.

Cunningham, p. 113; Kleiner, p. 156 FIG. 5-79; Queyrel, pp. 52–53; Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 39, pp. 59–60 n. 59. Supporting the identification of this Giant as Alcyoneus, is the fragmentary inscription "neus", that may belong to this scene, for doubts concerning this identification, see Ridgway.

Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 54 n. 35; Queyrel, pp. 53–54.

Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005. Though virtually nothing of Heracles remains, only part of a linonskin, and a left hand holding a bow, the location of the hero is identified by inscription, see Queyrel, pp. 54–55.

Queyrel, pp. 56–58; Ling, p. 50; Apollodorus 1.6.2.

Queyrel, pp. 55–56. This figure, now identified by inscription as Udaeus, was previously supposed to be Ephialtes, who Apollodorus, 1.6.2 has Apollo shoot in the left eye. Udaeus (earthy) was also the name of one of the Spartoi, who were sometimes called Gegeneis or Gigantes, see Fontenrose, p. 316; Apollodorus; 3.4.1; Pausanias, 9.5.3; Hyginus, Fabulae 178. Pelorus (monstrous), the name of another Spartoi, is a possible restoration of the fragmentary inscription "oreus" listed by Queyrel, p. 52.

Queyrel, p. 55; Moore 1977, p. 324 n. 70; McKay, p. 93; Callimachus, Hymn 6 (to Demeter) 25 ff. (pp. 126 ff.).

Pollitt 1986, p. 109; Smith, R. R. R. p. 162.

Pollitt 1986, p. 109.

Queyrel, p. 52.

Hall, James, Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, p. 140, 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray, ISBN 0719541476

Morford, pp. 82–83.

Morford, p. 72; Schefold, p. 50; Kleiner, p. 118, p. 136, p. 156; Lyne, p. 50; Castriota, p. 139; Dwyer, p. 295.

Castriota, p. 139; Dwyer, p. 295; Gale, p. 121; Wilkinson, p. 142; Cairns, p. 310; Commager, pp. 119, 199.

Schefold, p. 51.

Plato, Sophist 246a–c; Chaudhuri, pp.60–61.

Peck, Gigantes.

Lovatt, pp. 115 ff..

Cicero, De Senectute 5; Powell, p. 110 "Gigantum modo bellare"; Chaudhuri, p. 7 n. 22.

Chaudhuri, pp. 58–63; Hardie 2007, p. 116; Gale, pp. 120–121, p. 140; Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 1.62–79, 5.110–125.

Gale, pp. 140–141; Gee, pp. 56–57.

Lyne, pp. 52–54, pp. 167–168; Commager, p. 199; Horace, Odes 3.4.42 ff..

Wheeler, pp. 23–26; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.151–162.

Hardie 2014, p. 101.

Dinter, p. 296; Lucan, Pharsalia 9.654–658.

Zissos, pp. 79 ff.; For more on the use of Gigantomachy imagery in the Argonautica see Stover, pp. 5–6, 71–73, 79–150.

Mayor, p. 195; Claudian, Gigantomachia 62–73 (pp. 284–287).

It has been common for cultures (including the ancient Greeks) to attribute earthquakes and volcanoes to the movements of buried "giants", see Andrews, "Earthquakes" pp. 62–63, "Giants" p. 81, "Volcanoes" pp. 218–219; Cook, n. 5 pp. 2–3; Frazer 1914, p. 197: "The people of Timor, in the East Indies, think that the earth rests on the shoulders of a mighty giant, and that when he is weary of bearing it on one shoulder he shifts it to the other and so causes the ground to quake"; pp. 200–201: "The Tongans think that the earth is supported on the prostrate form of the god Móooi. When he is tired of lying in one posture, he tries to turn himself about, and that causes an earthquake"; Hanfmann 1937, p. 475; Lemprière "MYCŎNOS" p. 456; Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201).

Callimachus, fragment 117 (382) (pp. 342–343); Statius, Thebaid 11.8 (pp. 390–391); Aetna (perhaps written by Lucilius Junior), 71–73 (pp. 8–9); Apollodorus, 1.6.2; Virgil, Aeneid 3.578 ff. (with Conington's note to 3.578); Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp. 498–501); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 1.153–159 (pp. 304–305), 2.151–162 (pp. 328–331), 3.186–187 (pp. 358–359); Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica (or Fall of Troy) 5.641–643 (pp. 252–253), 14.582–585 (pp. 606–607). Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201) has Enceladus buried in Italy rather than Sicily.

Pindar, Pythian 1.15–29, Olympian 4.6–7; Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 353–374; Nicander, apud Antoninus Liberalis 28; Ovid, Fasti 4.491–492 (pp. 224–225), Metamorphoses 5.346 ff. (which has Typhon buried under all of Sicily, with his left and right hands under Pelorus and Pachynus, his feet under Lilybaeus, and his head under Etna); Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 2.23 ff. Archived 2016-09-09 at the Wayback Machine; Manilius, Astronomica 2.874–880 (pp. 150–151); Seneca, Hercules Furens 46–62 (pp. 52–53), Thyestes 808–809 (pp. 298–299) (where the Chorus asks if Typhon has thrown the mountain (presumably Etna) off "and stretched his limbs"); Apollodorus, 1.6.3; Hyginus, Fabulae 152; b scholia to Iliad 2.783 (Kirk, Raven, and Schofield. pp. 59–60 no. 52); Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp. 498–501); Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201); Nonnus Dionysiaca 2.622–624 (I pp. 90–91) (buried under Sicily). Typhon was also said to be buried under the volcanic island of Ischia the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples, see Lycophron, Alexandra 688–693 (pp. 550–551); Virgil, Aeneid 9.715–716 (calling the island "Inarime"); Strabo, 5.4.9 (calling the island "Pithecussae"); Ridgway, David, pp. 35–36; Silius Italicus, Punica 8.540–541 (I pp. 432–422); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.183–184 (pp. 358–359).

Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) 141–146 (pp. 96–97); Mineur. p. 153.

Philostratus, On Heroes 8.15–16 (p. 14); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.183–184 (pp. 358–359).

Silius Italicus, Punica 12.143–151 (II pp. 156–159), which also has the Titan Iapetus buried under Inarime.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Cassius Dio 66.22–23.

Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 268–269.

Juríková, Erika (2017-06-11). "Antiquitates Romanae - Ancient History Textbook of the Jesuit Trnava University". Historica Olomucensia. 52 (vol. 52): 71–85. doi:10.5507/ho.2017.003. ISSN 1803-9561.

"Dionysius of Halicarnassus", Wikipedia, 2023-03-23, retrieved 2023-05-06

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Apollodorus, 1.6.1.

Pindar, Isthmian 6.30–35, Nemean 4.24–30.

Gantz, p. 420.

Brinkmann, N8 p. 94.

Queyrel, p. 52.

Suda s.v. Ἀρισταῖος, Αἰτναῖος κάνθαρος

Gantz, p. 451; Beazley, p. 39; Richards, pp. 287, 383; Schefold, p. 57; Beazley Archive 310147; LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105), image 13 of 14).

Barber 1991 p. 381.

Parker 2011, p. 201; Parker 2006, p. 255; Connelly, p. 47; Scheid, pp. 18–19, p. 178 n. 48. Pausanias, 1.35.6 tells of Asterius, a son of Anax the "son of Earth", buried on the island of Asterius, near the Island of Lade, off the coast of Miletus, having bones ten cubits in length, see also Pausanius 7.2.5.

Brinkmann p. 128 n. 194.

Robertson, Noel, p. 42, pp. 43–44; Yasumura, pp. 50, 173 n. 44; Janko, pp. 191–192 (14.250–61).

For Heracles' expedition to Kos see Homer, Iliad 14.250–256; Pindar, Isthmian 6.31–35, Nemean 4.24–30; Apollodorus, 2.7.1. For the Meropes as Giants see Yasumura, p. 50; Janko, p. 191; Philostratus, On Heroes 8.14 (pp. 13–14).

Robertson, Noel, p. 42.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Euripides, Ion 987–997.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 6 "Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; six were born; when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed and tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot and confided him to Chiron. The latter exhumed the body of the giant Damysos who was buried at Pallene -- Damysos was the fastest of all the giants -- removed the 'astragale' and incorporated it into Achilles' foot using 'ingredients'. This 'astragale' fell when Achilles was pursued by Apollo and it was thus that Achilles, fallen, was killed. It is said, on the other hand, that he was called Podarkes by the Poet, because, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arce and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arce."

Gantz, pp. 450–451; Arafat, p. 16; Beazley 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170), image 4 of 4.

Euripides, Ion 205–218.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Virgil, Aeneid 3.578 ff. (with Conington's note to 3.578); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 1.153–159 (pp. 304–305), 2.151–162 (pp. 328–331), 3.186–187 (pp. 358–359)

Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201).

Gantz, 450–451.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Gantz, p. 451; Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive 9922, LIMC 26166 (Gigantes 106)); Getty 81.AE.211 (Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171)); Louvre E732 (Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170)).

Moore 1985, p. 34.

Gantz, pp. 451–452; Brinkmann, N7 p. 94; LIMC 5020 (Gigantes 2).

Schefold, p. 52, Beazley Archive 1409; Gantz p. 450 notes that the pinax might represent Ares encounter with the Aloadae in Iliad 5.

Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Ephialtes with shield and spear v. Apollo with sword and bow; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.

Beazley Archive 202916; LIMC 11561 (Gigantes 361); Cook, pp. 14–18, p. 17 fig. 5.

Arafat, pp.16, 183, 184; Akropolis 2.211 (Beazley Archive 200125; LIMC Gigantes 299 Archived 2016-10-07 at the Wayback Machine); British Museum E 47 (Beazley Archive 203256; LIMC 4663 (Gigantes 301)).

Homer, Odyssey 7.54 ff..

Gantz, pp. 16, 57; Hard, p. 88; Scholia on Homer's Iliad 14.295.

Gantz, p. 451; Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive 9922, LIMC 26166 (Gigantes 106)).

Propertius, Elegies 3.9.47–48 (pp. 266–267); Keith, p. 135; Heyworth, pp. 325–326.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Frazer 1921, note 1 to Apollodorus 1.6.2, p. 46: "Γρατίωνα probably corrupt. Various emendations have been suggested, as Αἰγαίωνα (Heyne, M. Mayer, op. cit. pp. 201 sq.), Εὐρυτίωνα, Ῥαίωνα (Hercher)."

Moore 1985, p. 31; Beazley, p. 39; Akropolis 607 (Beazley Archive 310147, LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105)); Getty 81.AE.211 (Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171)).

Pausanias, 8.32.5, 8.36.2.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Apollodorus, 1.6.2 n. 6; Homer, Iliad 2.5.844 ff.; Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 226 ff..

Photius, Bibliotheca Codex 190.

Pollitt 1986, p. 105; Pergamon Altar image viewer Archived 2013-11-26 at the Wayback Machine. See also Akropolis 1632 (Beazley Archive 15673, LIMC 4867 (Gigantes 110)).

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Euripides, Ion 205–218; Stewart, pp. 86–87.

Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277); Claudian, Gigantomachia 85–91 (pp. 286–287).

Beazley, p. 39; Beazley Archive 310147; LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105), image 1 of 14.

Silius Italicus, Punica 12.143–151 (II pp. 156–159).

Siphnian Treasury: Brinkmann, N14 pp. 98, 124–125; Vulci cup: Arafat, p. 16; Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Mimon and Ares; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.

Giuliani, Luca. Schefold, Karl. Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art. Cambridge University Press. Dec. 3, 1992. pgs. 57-59.

Beazley Archive 220533; Arafat, pp. 24, 25, 186; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI; LIMC 10641 (Gigantes 318), image 3 of 4; Perseus Berlin F 2531 (Vase)

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Robertson, Noel, p. 42.

Euripides, Ion 987–997.

Claudian, Gigantomachia 91–103 (pp. 286–289).

Claudian, Gigantomachia 75–84 (pp. 286–287).

Rahner, pp. 203–204; Eustathius, Ad Odysseam 10.305 (Zucker and Le Feuvre: "Alexander of Paphos reports the following tale: Picoloos, one of the Giants, by fleeing from the war led against Zeus, reached Circe’s island and tried to chase her away. Her father Helios killed him, protecting his daughter with his shield;"); Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 4 (Photius, Bibliotheca 190.32: "The plant moly of which Homer speaks; this plant had, it is said, grown from the blood of the giant killed in the isle of Circe; it has a white flower; the ally of Circe who killed the giant was Helios; the combat was hard (mâlos) from which the name of this plant."

Apollodorus, 1.6.2.

Getty 81.AE.211 (Moore 1985, pp. 30–31, Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171)); Louvre E732 (Gantz, p. 451, Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170), image 4 of 4).

Apollodorus, 1.6.2. Compare with Aristophanes, The Birds 1249 ff.: "a single Porphyrion gave him [Zeus] enough to do."

Pindar, Pythian 8.12–18.

Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Zeus v. Porphyrion; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.

Brinkmann, N22 p.103, which finds traces of "rion"; Stewart, plate 196.

Parada, s.v. Thoas 5; Grant, pp. 519–520; Smith, s.v. Thoon; Apollodorus, 1.6.2. Frazer translates Apollodorus 1.6.2 Θόωνα as "Thoas". Citing only Apollodorus 1.6.2, Parada names the Giant "Thoas" (Θόας), and Smith names the Giant "Thoon (Θόων)". Grant, citing no sources, names the Giant "Thoas", but says "he was also called Thoon".

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External links

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giants_(Greek_mythology)

Stephanus or Stephen of Byzantium (Latin: Stephanus Byzantinus; Greek: Στέφανος Βυζάντιος, Stéphanos Byzántios; fl. 6th century AD), was a Byzantine grammarian and the author of an important geographical dictionary entitled Ethnica (Ἐθνικά). Only meagre fragments of the dictionary survive, but the epitome is extant, compiled by one Hermolaus, not otherwise identified.

Life

The Byzantine Empire during Stephanus' lifetime, with Justinian's conquests in green

Nothing is known about the life of Stephanus, except that he was a Greek grammarian^[1] who was active in Constantinople, and lived after the time of Arcadius and Honorius, and before that of Justinian II. Later writers provide no information about him, but they do note that the work was later reduced to an epitome by a certain Hermolaus, who dedicated his epitome to Justinian; whether the first or second emperor of that name is meant is disputed, but it seems probable that Stephanus flourished in Byzantium in the earlier part of the sixth century AD, under Justinian I.^[2]

The Ethnica

Even as an epitome, the Ethnica is of enormous value for geographical, mythological, and religious information about ancient Greece. Nearly every article in the epitome contains a reference to some ancient writer, as an authority for the name of the place. From the surviving fragments, we see that the original contained considerable quotations from ancient authors, besides many interesting particulars, topographical, historical, mythological, and others. Stephanus cites Artemidorus, Polybius, Aelius Herodianus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Strabo and other writers.^[3]

The chief fragments remaining of the original work are preserved by Constantine Porphyrogennetos, De administrando imperio, ch. 23 (the article Ίβηρίαι δύο) and De thematibus, ii. 10 (an account of Sicily); the latter includes a passage from the comic poet Alexis on the Seven Largest Islands. Another respectable fragment, from the article Δύμη to the end of Δ, exists in a manuscript of the Fonds Coislin, the library formed by Pierre Séguier.^[4]

The first modern printed edition of the work was that published by the Aldine Press in Venice, 1502. The complete standard edition is still that of Augustus Meineke (1849, reprinted at Graz, 1958), and by convention, references to the text use Meineke's page numbers. A new completely revised edition in German, edited by B. Wyss, C. Zubler, M. Billerbeck, J.F. Gaertner, was published between 2006 and 2017, with a total of 5 volumes.^[5]

Editions

Aldus Manutius (pr.), 1502, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων (Peri poleōn) = Stephanus. De urbibus ("On cities") (Venice). Google Books
Guilielmus Xylander, 1568, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων = Stephanus. De urbibus (Basel).
Thomas de Pinedo, 1678, Στέφανος. Περὶ πόλεων = Stephanus. De urbibus (Amsterdam). Contains parallel Latin translation. Google Books
Claudius Salmasius (Claude Saumaise) and Abraham van Berkel, 1688, Στεφάνου Βυζαντίου Ἐθνικὰ κατ' ἐπιτομήν Περὶ πόλεων = Stephani Byzantini Gentilia per epitomen, antehac De urbibus inscripta (Leiden). Contains parallel Latin translation. Google Books
Lucas Holstenius, 1692, Notae & castigationes in Stephanum Byzantium De urbibus (Leiden). Google Books
Thomas de Pinedo, 1725, Stephanus de urbibus (Amsterdam). Google Books
Karl Wilhelm Dindorf, 1825, Stephanus Byzantinus. Opera, 4 vols, (Leipzig). Incorporating notes by L. Holsteinius, A. Berkelius, and T. de Pinedo. Google Books
Anton Westermann, 1839, Stephani Byzantii ethnikon quae supersunt (Leipzig). Google Books
Augustus Meineke, 1849, Stephani Byzantii ethnicorum quae supersunt (Berlin). Google Books
Margarethe Billerbeck et al. (edd), Stephani Byzantii Ethnica. 5 volumes: 2006–2017. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 43/1)^[5]^[6]^[7]

References

Browning, Robert (2016-03-07). "Stephanus of Byzantium". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6074. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved 2021-10-02.

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stephanus Byzantinus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 880.

J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae: Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC: "In four places, the lexicographer Stephanus of Byzantium refers to towns and ... Artemidorus as source, and in three of the four examples cites Polybius.; From political architecture to Stephanus Byzantius

Chisholm 1911, p. 880.

de Gruyter

Reviewed by C. Neri in

Reviewed by Martin L. West

References

Adela Fernández (1992). Los Dioses Prehispánicos de México (in Spanish). Editorial Panorama. p. 159. ISBN 968-38-0306-7.

Cecilio A. Robelo (1905). Diccionario de Mitología Nahoa (in Spanish). Editorial Porrúa. pp. 121, 122, 123. ISBN 970-07-3149-9.

Guilhem Olivier (2015). Cacería, Sacrificio y Poder en Mesoamérica: Tras las Huellas de Mixcóatl (in Spanish). Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 978-607-16-3216-6.

This article relating to a myth or legend from Mesoamerica is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories:

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulmecatl}

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Horned Serpent design is a common theme on pottery from Casas Grandes (Paquimé)

A Horned Serpent in a Barrier Canyon Style pictograph, Western San Rafael Swell region of Utah.

The Horned Serpent appears in the mythologies of many cultures including Native American peoples,^[1] European, and Near Eastern mythology. Details vary among cultures, with many of the stories associating the mystical figure with water, rain, lightning, thunder, and rebirth. Horned Serpents were major components of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex of North American prehistory.^[2]^[3]

In Native American cultures

Rock art depicting a Horned Serpent, at Pony Hills and Cook's Peak, New Mexico

Horned serpents appear in the oral history of numerous Native American cultures, especially in the Southeastern Woodlands and Great Lakes.

Muscogee Creek traditions include a Horned Serpent and a Tie-Snake, estakwvnayv in the Muscogee Creek language. These are sometimes interpreted as being the same creature and sometimes different—similar, but the Horned Serpent is larger than the Tie-Snake. To the Muscogee people, the Horned Serpent is a type of underwater serpent covered with iridescent, crystalline scales and a single, large crystal in its forehead. Both the scales and crystals are prized for their powers of divination.^[4] The horns, called chitto gab-by, were used in medicine.^[5] Jackson Lewis, a Muscogee Creek informant to John R. Swanton, said, "This snake lives in the water has horns like the stag. It is not a bad snake. ... It does not harm human beings but seems to have a magnetic power over game."^[6] In stories, the Horned Serpent enjoyed eating sumac, Rhus glabra.^[7]

Alabama people call the Horned Serpent tcinto såktco or "crawfish snake", which they divide into four classifications based on its horns' colors, which can be blue, red, white, or yellow.^[6]

Yuchi people made effigies of the Horned Serpent as recently as 1905. An effigy was fashioned from stuffed deerhide, painted blue, with the antlers painted yellow. The Yuchi Big Turtle Dance honors the Horned Serpent's spirit, which was related to storms, thunder, lightning, disease, and rainbows.^[5]

Among Cherokee people, a Horned Serpent is called an uktena. Anthropologist James Mooney, describes the creature:

Those who know say the Uktena is a great snake, as large around as a tree trunk, with horns on its head, and a bright blazing crest like a diamond on its forehead, and scales glowing like sparks of fire. It has rings or spots of color along its whole length, and can not be wounded except by shooting in the seventh spot from the head, because under this spot are its heart and its life. The blazing diamond is called Ulun'suti—"Transparent"—and he who can win it may become the greatest wonder worker of the tribe. But it is worth a man's life to attempt it, for whoever is seen by the Uktena is so dazed by the bright light that he runs toward the snake instead of trying to escape. As if this were not enough, the breath of the Uktena is so pestilential, that no living creature can survive should they inhale the tiniest bit of the foul air expelled by the Uktena. Even to see the Uktena asleep is death, not to the hunter himself, but to his family.

Tie-snakes on a Mississippian sandstone plate from the Moundville Archaeological Site

According to Sioux belief, the Unhcegila (Ųȟcéǧila) are dangerous reptilian water monsters which lived in ancient times. They were of various shapes. In the end the Thunderbirds destroyed them, except for small species like snakes and lizards. This belief may have been inspired by finds of dinosaur fossils in Sioux tribal territory. The Thunderbird may have been inspired partly by finds of pterosaur skeletons.^[8]

Other known names

Sisiutl— Kwakwaka'wakw
Awanyu—Tewa
Djodi'kwado'—Iroquois
Misi-kinepikw ("great snake")—Cree
Msi-kinepikwa ("great snake")—Shawnee
Misi-ginebig ("great snake")—Oji-Cree
Mishi-ginebig ("great snake")—Ojibwe
Gitaskog ("great snake")—Abenaki
Sishtahollo' ("holy snake")—Chickasaw
Sinti Lapitta—Choctaw
Unktehi or Unktehila—Dakota
ʔU·lahkaha·p ("white snake")—Natchez
Uktena—Aniyunwiya
mazacoatl - Nahuatl

Outside the Americas

In Europe

In Celtic iconography

The antlered deity of the Gundestrup cauldron, commonly identified with Cernunnos, holding a ram-horned serpent and a torc.

The ram-horned serpent was a cult image found in north-west Europe before and during the Roman period. It appears three times on the Gundestrup cauldron, and in Romano-Celtic Gaul was closely associated with the horned or antlered god Cernunnos, in whose company it is regularly depicted. This pairing is found as early as the fourth century BC in Northern Italy, where a huge antlered figure with torcs and a serpent was carved on the rocks in Val Camonica.^[9]

A bronze image at Étang-sur-Arroux and a stone sculpture at Sommerécourt depict Cernunnos' body encircled by two horned snakes which feed from bowls of fruit and corn-mash balanced in the god's lap. Also at Sommerécourt is a sculpture of a goddess holding a cornucopia and a pomegranate, with a horned serpent eating from a bowl of food. At Yzeures-sur-Creuse a carved youth has a ram-horned snake twined around his legs, with its head at his stomach. In a relief at a museum in Cirencester, Gloucestershire, Cernunnos' legs are depicted as two ram-horned snakes which rear up on each side of his head and are eating fruit or corn.

Relief of Cernunnos with two ram-horned snakes in the Corinium Museum.

According to Miranda Green, the snakes reflect the peaceful nature of the god, associated with nature and fruitfulness, and perhaps accentuate his association with regeneration.^[9]

Other deities occasionally accompanied by ram-horned serpents include "Celtic Mars" and "Celtic Mercury". The horned snake, and also conventional snakes, appear together with the solar wheel, apparently as attributes of the sun or sky god.^[9]

In Northern and Central Europe

Variations on the horned serpent appear throughout the folklores of Northern and Central Europe. For example, there are the many incarnations of the Lindworm. There are tales of a serpent in Icelandic folklore known as the Lagarfljót Worm. While in Southern Sweden, there are claims of a huge water snake, the sight of which was deadly, called Storsjöodjuret .^[10] This latter characteristic is reminiscent of the basilisk.

Greek

The cerastes is a creature described in Greek mythology as a snake with either two large ram-like horns or four pairs of smaller horns. Isidore of Seville described it as hunting by burying itself in sand while leaving its horns visible, and attacking creatures that came to investigate them.^[11]

In Mesopotamia

In Mesopotamian mythology, Ningishzida is sometimes depicted as a serpent with horns. In other depictions, he is shown as human but is accompanied by bashmu, mushussu, and ushumgal (three horned snakes in Akkadian mythology). Ningishzida shares the epithet, ushumgal, "great serpent", with several other Mesopotamian gods.^[12]

Notes

Horned serpent, feathered serpent

Townsend, Richard F. (2004). Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10601-7.

F. Kent Reilly; James Garber, eds. (2004). Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms. University of Texas Press. pp. 29–34. ISBN 978-0-292-71347-5.

Grantham 24-5

Grantham 52

Grantham 25

Grantham 26

Morell, Virginia (December 2005). "Sea Monsters". National Geographic, pages 74–75.

Green, Miranda. Animals in Celtic Life and Myth. pp. 227–8. Celtic Mars: carving at the curative sanctuary at Mavilly (Cote d'Ôr). Celtic Mercury: carving at Beauvais (Oise) and Néris-les-Bains (Allier). Association with the solar wheel: Gundestrup cauldron, altar at Lypiatt (Gloucestershire).

"3 sightings may shed light on Sweden 'lake monster'". Deseret News. 1999-08-29. Retrieved 2021-12-24.

"Cerastes". Medieval Bestiary. 2011-01-15. Retrieved 2018-01-04.

Eden's Serpent: Its Mesopotamian Origins. Walter Mattfeld. pp. 63, line 10.

References

Grantham, Bill. Creation Myths and Legends of the Creek Indians. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8130-2451-6.
Willoughby, Charles C. (1936). "The Cincinnati Tablet: An Interpretation". The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly Vol. 45:257–264.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Horned serpent.

Categories:

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horned_Serpent}

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Seven fires prophecy is an Anishinaabe prophecy that marks phases, or epochs, in the life of the people on Turtle Island, the original name given by the indigenous peoples of the now North American continent. The seven fires of the prophecy represent key spiritual teachings for North America, and suggest that the different colors and traditions of the human beings can come together on a basis of respect. It contains information for the future lives of the Anishinaabe which are still in the process of being fulfilled.^[1]

In 1988, Edward Benton-Banai documented the prophecy in The Mishomis Book.^[2]

Overview

Originally, the prophecy and the Ojibwa migration story were closely linked.^{[citation needed]} However, the last half of the prophecy appears to apply to all peoples in contact with the Anishinaabeg. Consequently, with the growth of the Pan-Indian Movement in the 1960s and the 1970s, concepts of the Seven fires prophecy merged with other similar prophetical teaching found among Indigenous peoples of North America forming a unified environmental, political, and socio-economic voice towards Canada and the United States. The Seven fires prophecy was originally taught among the practitioners of Midewiwin.^{[citation needed]}

William Commanda, an Algonquin elder and former chief of the Kitigàn-zìbì Anishinàbeg First Nation, was the wampum belt keeper for the seven fires prophecy.^[3] He died on August 3, 2011.^[4]

Seven fires

Originally, the prophecies were given by eight prophets in seven different time periods. According to oral tradition, the Mi'kmaq Nation heard the first Prophet.^[5] The remaining seven prophets appeared before and were recorded by the Anishinaabeg. A prophecy of each of these seven periods were then called a "fire". The teachings of the Seven fires prophecy also state that when the world has been befouled and the waters turned bitter by disrespect, human beings will have two options to choose from, materialism or spirituality. If they chose spirituality, they will survive, but if they chose materialism, it will be the end of it.

First

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In the time of the First Fire, the Anishinabe nation will rise up and follow the sacred shell of the Midewiwin Lodge. The Midewiwin Lodge will serve as a rallying point for the people and its traditional ways will be the source of much strength. The Sacred Megis will lead the way to the chosen ground of the Anishinabe. You are to look for a turtle shaped island that is linked to the purification of the earth. You will find such an island at the beginning and end of your journey. There will be seven stopping places along the way. You will know the chosen ground has been reached when you come to a land where food grows on water. If you do not move you will be destroyed.^[2]

In heeding this prophecy, the Anishinaabe peoples, after receiving guarantees of the safety of their "Fathers" (the Abenaki peoples) and their "allied brothers" (Mi'kmaq) of having the Anishinaabeg move inland, away from the Atlantic coast, mass migration of the Anishinaabeg took place, proceeding to the "First Stopping Place" known as Mooniyaang, known today as Montreal, Quebec. There, the Nation found a "turtle-shaped island" marked by miigis (cowrie) shells.

The Nation grew to a large number and spread up both Ottawa River and the St. Lawrence River. The second of the "turtle-shaped island" marked by miigis shells was at Niagara Falls.

Second

You will know the Second Fire because at this time the nation will be camped by a large body of water. In this time the direction of the Sacred Shell will be lost. The Midewiwin will diminish in strength. A girl will be born to point the way back to the traditional ways. She will show the direction to the stepping stones to the future of the Anishinabe people.^[2]

The oral traditions of the members of Council of Three Fires say that the realization of the Second fire came about the "Third Stopping Place" located somewhere near what now is Detroit, Michigan. The Anishinaabeg had divided between those who went up Ottawa River and those that went up the St. Lawrence River. After leaving the area about Niagara Falls, this group proceeded to the "Round Lake" (Lake St. Clair) and found the third "turtle-shaped island" marked by miigis shells. They continued westward until arriving along the southern shores of Lake Michigan but by this time, the evidence of the miigis shells were lost, and the southern Anishinaabeg became "lost" both physically in their journey as well as spiritually in their journey. The southern group of Anishinaabeg disintegrated into what today are the Ojibwa, Odawa and the Potawatomi. The northern group along the Ottawa River divided into Algonquin, Nipissing and the Mississaugas, but they maintained cohesion that was not maintained by the southern group.

Eventually, a Potawatomi girl had a dream and pointed the southern group back towards and past the "Round Lake". The southern group rejoined not as a single Anishinaabe peoplehood but rather as a unified alliance called Council of Three Fires. Travelling east and north, and then west, the Council crossed a series of small islands known as "the stepping stones" until they arrived onto Manitoulin island, described as the "Fourth Stopping Place" of the "turtle-shaped island" marked by miigis shell. There on the island, the Council met up with the Mississaugas, who then spiritually fully re-aligned the formerly lost southern group with the northern group who were never lost. The Odawa facilitated the "healing" and the island became synonymous as the "Odawa's Island" in the Anishinaabe language.

Third

In the Third Fire the Anishinabe will find the path to their chosen ground, a land in the west to which they must move their families. This will be the land where food grows upon the waters.^[2]

From the cultural center on Manitoulin Island, the Ojibwe moved to the area about Sault Ste. Marie, where there was the next "turtle-shaped island" marked by miigis shell. Baawating or "The Rapids" of the Saint Marys River became the "Fifth Stopping Place" of the Ojibwe. From this spot, the Ojibwe and the rapids became synonymous with each other, with the Ojibwe known by the Dakota peoples as Iyo-ḣaḣatoŋwaŋ ("cascading-waterfalls people") and later by the French as Saulteurs ("cascaders") and Saulteaux ("cascades"). From here, the Ojibwe moved west, dividing into two groups, each travelling along the shores of Lake Superior, searching for the "land where food grows upon the waters".

Fourth

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The Fourth fire prophecy was delivered by a pair of prophets. The first prophet said,

You will know the future of our people by the face the light skinned race wears. If they come wearing the face of brotherhood then there will come a time of wonderful change for generations to come. They will bring new knowledge and articles that can be joined with the knowledge of this country. In this way, two nations will join to make a mighty nation. This new nation will be joined by two more so that four will form the mightiest nation of all. You will know the face of the brotherhood if the light skinned race comes carrying no weapons, if they come bearing only their knowledge and a hand shake.^[2]

The other prophet said,

Beware if the light skinned race comes wearing the face of death. You must be careful because the face of brotherhood and the face of death look very much alike. If they come carrying a weapon ... beware. If they come in suffering ... They could fool you. Their hearts may be filled with greed for the riches of this land. If they are indeed your brothers, let them prove it. Do not accept them in total trust. You shall know that the face they wear is one of death if the rivers run with poison and fish become unfit to eat. You shall know them by these many things.^[2]

While at the "Fifth Stopping Place", the light-skinned people in big wooden boats, known as the French arrived. Consequently, the French were called Wemitigoozhii ("wooden-boat people"). Though the French Crown was interested in colonialism, as far as the Anishinaabeg were concerned, the French appeared only interested in commerce and trade through mercantilism. Together with the French, the Anishinaabeg formed trade alliances, which not only extended French colonial powers into the heart of North America, but strengthened the political and military might of the Anishinaabeg.

After the French came the Zhaaganaash ("Off-shore ones") of Great Britain. But out of the Zhaaganaash came the Gichi-mookomaan ("Big-knives")—the Virginians (i.e. Americans).

Fifth

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In the time of the Fifth Fire there will come a time of great struggle that will grip the lives of all native people. At the waning of this Fire there will come among the people one who holds a promise of great joy and salvation. If the people accept this promise of a new way and abandon the old teachings, then the struggle of the Fifth Fire will be with the people for many generations. The promise that comes will prove to be a false promise. All those who accept this promise will cause the near destruction of the people.^[2]

Sixth

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In the time of the Sixth Fire it will be evident that the promise of the Fifth Fire came in a false way. Those deceived by this promise will take their children aways from the teachings of the Elders. Grandsons and granddaughters will turn against the Elders. In this way the Elders will lose their reason for living ... they will lose their purpose in life. At this time a new sickness will come among the people. The balance of many people will be disturbed. The cup of life will almost become the cup of grief.^[2]

Seventh

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The Seventh Prophet that came to the people long ago was said to be different from the other prophets. This prophet was described as "young and had a strange light in his eyes" and said:

In the time of the Seventh Fire New People will emerge. They will retrace their steps to find what was left by the trail. Their steps will take them to the Elders who they will ask to guide them on their journey. But many of the Elders will have fallen asleep. They will awaken to this new time with nothing to offer. Some of the Elders will be silent because no one will ask anything of them. The New People will have to be careful in how they approach the Elders. The task of the New People will not be easy.
If the New People will remain strong in their quest the Water Drum of the Midewiwin Lodge will again sound its voice. There will be a rebirth of the Anishinabe Nation and a rekindling of old flames. The Sacred Fire will again be lit.

It is this time that the light skinned race will be given a choice between two roads. One road will be green and lush, and very inviting. The other road will be black and charred, and walking it will cut their feet. In the prophecy, the people decide to take neither road, but instead to turn back, to remember and reclaim the wisdom of those who came before them. If they choose the right road, then the Seventh Fire will light the Eighth and final Fire, an eternal fire of peace, love, brotherhood and sisterhood. If the light skinned race makes the wrong choice of the roads, then the destruction which they brought with them in coming to this country will come back at them and cause much suffering and death to all the Earth's people.^[2]

Notes

Bell, Nicole. Journey from the Heart: Sharing the Anishnaabe (Ojibway) Culture With the Public School System. April 2000, Queen's University.

Benton-Banai

McFadden, S. (2005). Legend of the Rainbow Warriors. iUniverse. p. 85. ISBN 9781469785851. Retrieved 2015-04-13.

Toensing, Gale Courey. "Political Party! Celebrating UNDRIP and Indigenous Culture in Montreal". Indian Country Today. 13 Sept 2011 (retrieved 27 Sept 2011)

"MAWQATMUTI'KW (We all live together)" (PDF). IKANAWTIKET Environmental Incorporated. 5 May 2011. Retrieved 2015-04-13.

References

Benton-Banai, Edward, The Mishomis Book - The Voice of the Ojibway (St. Paul: Red School House Publishers, 1988).
Buffalohead, Roger and Priscilla Buffalohead, Against the Tide of American History: The Story of Mille Lacs Anishinabe. Minnesota Chippewa Tribe (Cass Lake, MN: 1985).
Warren, William W. (1851), History of the Ojibway People.
McFadden, Steven (1991), Profiles in Wisdom: Native Elders Speak About the Earth, Harlem Writers Guild Press.
Christmas, Kevin (2011), "Aboriginal Consultation", MAWQATMUTI’KW, Winter/Spring Issue.
Robin Wall Kimmerer (2013), "Braiding Sweetgrass - Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants", www.milkweed.org.

External links

"Prayer Vigil for the Earth: Seven Fires Prophecy". oneprayer.org. Retrieved April 13, 2015.
"Seven Fires Prophecy". wabanaki.com. Retrieved November 17, 2020.
"Think-AboutIt - Helping People THINK is OUR Passion!". think-aboutit.com. Archived from the original on 2013-04-06. Retrieved 2015-04-13.

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_fires_prophecy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Great Smoky Mountains
The Smoky Mountains viewed from atop Mount Le Conte in April 2007
Highest point
Peak	Clingmans Dome
Elevation	6,643 ft (2,025 m)
Coordinates	35°33′46″N 83°29′55″WCoordinates: 35°33′46″N 83°29′55″W
Geography
Appalachian Mountain system
Country	United States
States	Tennessee and North Carolina
Parent range	Blue Ridge Mountains
Borders on	Bald Mountains, Unicoi Mountains and Plott Balsams
Geology
Orogeny	Alleghanian

The Great Smoky Mountains (Cherokee: ᎡᏆ ᏚᏧᏍᏚ ᏙᏓᎸ, Equa Dutsusdu Dodalv) are a mountain range rising along the Tennessee–North Carolina border in the southeastern United States. They are a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains, and form part of the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province. The range is sometimes called the Smoky Mountains and the name is commonly shortened to the Smokies. The Great Smokies are best known as the home of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, which protects most of the range. The park was established in 1934, and, with over 11 million visits per year, it is the most visited national park in the United States.^[1]

The Great Smokies are part of an International Biosphere Reserve. The range is home to an estimated 187,000 acres (76,000 ha) of old growth forest, constituting the largest such stand east of the Mississippi River.^[2]^[3] The cove hardwood forests in the range's lower elevations are among the most diverse ecosystems in North America, and the Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest that coats the range's upper elevations is the largest of its kind.^[4] The Great Smokies are also home to the densest black bear population in the Eastern United States and the most diverse salamander population outside of the tropics.^[5]

Along with the Biosphere reserve, the Great Smokies have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The U.S. National Park Service preserves and maintains 78 structures within the national park that were once part of the numerous small Appalachian communities scattered throughout the range's river valleys and coves. The park contains five historic districts and nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places.

The name "Smoky" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog is caused by the vegetation emitting volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.^[6]

Geography

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The Great Smoky Mountains near Gatlinburg, Tennessee

The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the Pigeon River in the northeast to the Little Tennessee River in the southeast. The northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the "Foothills," the outermost of which include Chilhowee Mountain and English Mountain. The range is roughly bounded on the south by the Tuckasegee River and to the southeast by Soco Creek and Jonathan Creek. The Great Smokies comprise parts of Blount County, Sevier County, and Cocke County in Tennessee and Swain County and Haywood County in North Carolina.

The sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the Little Pigeon River, the Oconaluftee River, and Little River. Streams in the Smokies are part of the Tennessee River watershed and are thus entirely west of the Eastern Continental Divide. The largest stream entirely within the park is Abrams Creek, which rises in Cades Cove and empties into the Chilhowee Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River near Chilhowee Dam.

Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby, and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg. The Little Tennessee River passes through five impediments along the range's southwestern boundary, namely Tellico Lake, Chilhowee Lake, Calderwood Lake, Cheoah Lake, and Fontana Lake.

Notable peaks

The highest point in the Smokies is Clingmans Dome, the tallest mountain in Tennessee, which rises to an elevation of 6,643 feet (2,025 m).^[7] It has the range's highest topographical prominence at 4,503 feet (1,373 m). Mount Le Conte is the tallest (i.e., from immediate base to summit) mountain in the range, rising 5,301 feet (1,616 m) from its base in Gatlinburg to its 6,593-foot (2,010 m) summit.^[8]

Mountain	Elevation	Prominence	General location	Named after
Clingmans Dome	6,643 ft/2,025 m	4,503 ft/1,373 m	Central Smokies	Thomas Lanier Clingman (1812–1897), surveyor
Mount Guyot	6,621 ft/ 2,018m	1,581 ft/482 m	Eastern Smokies	Arnold Guyot (1807–1884), surveyor
Mount Le Conte	6,593 ft/2,010 m	1,360 ft/415 m	Central Smokies	Joseph Le Conte or John Le Conte, scientists
Mount Chapman	6,431 ft/1,960 m	577 ft/176 m	Eastern Smokies	David Chapman (1876–1944), park promoter
Old Black	6,360 ft/1,939 m	170 ft/52 m	Eastern Smokies	Spruce-fir stand at summit
Luftee Knob	6,215 ft/1,894 m	314 ft/96 m	Eastern Smokies	Oconaluftee River
Mount Kephart	6,218 ft/1,895 m	657 ft/200 m	Central Smokies	Horace Kephart (1862–1931), author
Mount Collins	6,197 ft/1,888 m	465 ft/142 m	Central Smokies	Robert Collins, mountain guide
Marks Knob	6,162 ft/1,878 m	appx. 249 ft/76 m	Eastern Smokies
Tricorner Knob	6,145 ft/1,873 m	160 ft/48 m	Eastern Smokies	Intersection of Balsam crest and Great Smokies crest
Mount Hardison	6,145 ft/1,873 m	134 ft/41 m	Eastern Smokies	James Archibald Hardison (1867–1930)
Andrews Bald	5,909 ft/1,801 m	160 ft/48 m	Central Smokies	possibly Andres Thompson, early settler
Mount Sterling	5,842 ft/1,781 m	663 ft/202 m	Eastern Smokies	possibly lead at mountain's base mistaken for silver
Silers Bald	5,597 ft/1,706 m	337 ft/102 m	Western Smokies	Jesse Siler, who used the mountain for grazing
Thunderhead Mountain	5,528 ft/1,684 m	1087 ft/332 m	Western Smokies	constant cloud cover
Gregory Bald	4,949 ft/1,508 m	1,107 ft/337 m	Western Smokies	Russell Gregory (1805–1863), Cades Cove resident
Mount Cammerer	4,928 ft/1,502 m	8 ft/2 m	Eastern Smokies	Arno B. Cammerer (1883–1941), NPS director
Chimney Tops	4,725 ft/1,440m	appx. 200 ft/61 m	Central Smokies	resemblance to cabin chimneys
Blanket Mountain	4,607 ft/1,404 m	appx. 500 ft/152 m	Western Smokies	blanket left atop mountain by surveyor Return Meigs for a reference point
Shuckstack	4,020 ft/1,225 m	300 ft/91 m	Western Smokies

Climate

The Smokies rise prominently above the surrounding low terrain. For example, Mount Le Conte (6,593 feet [2,010 m]) rises more than a mile (1.6 km) above its base. Because of their prominence, the Smokies receive a heavy annual amount of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50 to 80 in (1,300 to 2,000 mm),^[9] and snowfall in the winter can be heavy, especially on the higher slopes.^[10] For comparison, the surrounding terrain has annual precipitation of around 40 to 50 in (1,000 to 1,300 mm). Flash flooding often occurs after heavy rain.^[9]

In 2004, the remnants of Hurricane Frances caused major flooding, landslides, and high winds, which were soon followed by Hurricane Ivan, making the situation worse.^[10] Other post-hurricanes, including Hurricane Hugo in 1989, have caused similar damage in the Smokies.

As for temperatures, the average temperature difference between the mountains (Newfound Gap around 5,000 feet (1,500 m) MSL and the valleys (Park Headquarters around 1,600 feet (490 m) MSL in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is between 10 and 13 °F (6 and 7 °C) with highs and between 3 and 6 °F (2 and 3 °C) with lows. The difference between high temperatures is similar to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (3.3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 ft), while the smaller difference between low temperatures is the result of frequent temperature inversions developing in the morning, especially during autumn.^[11]

Strong damaging winds (80 to 100 mph (130 to 160 km/h), or sometimes greater) are observed a few times each year around the Smoky Mountains during the cool season (October through April), as a result of a phenomenon known as mountain waves.^[12] These mountain wave winds are strongest in a narrow area along the foothills, and can create extensive areas of fallen trees and roof damage, especially around Cades Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Camp Creek community.^[13] Strong winds created by mountain waves were a contributing factor with the devastating Gatlinburg fire on November 28, 2016 during the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires.^[14] Damaging winds can also be generated by strong thunderstorms, with tornadoes and strong thunderstorm complexes (also known as mesoscale convective systems) occasionally affecting the Smoky Mountains. ^[15]

The climate of Clingmans Dome is hemiboreal (Köppen Dfb, Trewartha Dcb^[16]). As with much of the southern Blue Ridge, the area qualifies as part of the Appalachian Rainforest.^[17] On the other hand, Gatlinburg's climate is four-season subtropical (Cfa) under Köppen (oceanic Do under Trewartha), typical of Tennessee.^[17]

Climate data for Clingmans Dome ^[17]

Climate data for Gatlinburg, Tennessee ^[17]

180-degree panoramic view of the Smokies

Geology

The Alum Cave Bluffs

Most of the rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains consist of Late Precambrian rocks that are part of a formation known as the Ocoee Supergroup. The Ocoee Supergroup consists primarily of slightly metamorphosed sandstones, phyllites, schists, and slate. Early Precambrian rocks, which include the oldest rocks in the Smokies, comprise the dominant rock type in the Raven Fork Valley (in the Oconaluftee valley) and lower Tuckasegee River between Cherokee and Bryson City. They consist primarily of metamorphic gneiss, granite, and schist. Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found among the outer reaches of the Foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves such as Cades Cove.^[18]

The Precambrian gneiss and schists—the oldest rocks in the Smokies—formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock in a primordial ocean. In the Late Precambrian period, this ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from accumulations of the eroding land mass onto the ocean's continental shelf.^[19]

By the end of the Paleozoic era, the ancient ocean had deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rocks such as limestone. During the Ordovician period, the North American and African plates collided, destroying the ancient ocean and initiating the Alleghenian orogeny—the mountain-building epoch that created the Appalachian range. The Mesozoic era saw the rapid erosion of the softer sedimentary rocks from the new mountains, re-exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup formations.^[19]

Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached the Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range. Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations and were replaced by tundra vegetation. Spruce-fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately 4,950 feet (1,510 m). The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at the base of large mountain slopes.^[20]

Between 16,500 and 12,500 years ago, the glaciers to the north retreated and mean annual temperatures rose. The tundra vegetation disappeared, and the spruce-fir forests retreated to the highest elevations. Hardwood trees moved into the region from the coastal plains, replacing the spruce-fir forests in the lower elevations. The temperatures continued warming until around 6,000 years ago, when they began to gradually grow cooler.^[20]

Flora

Heavy logging in the late 19th century and early 20th century devastated much of the forests of the Smokies, but the National Park Service estimates 187,000 acres (760 km²) of old growth forest remains,^[3] comprising the largest old growth stand in the Eastern United States. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest. The range's 1,600 species of flowering plants include over 100 species of native trees and 100 species of native shrubs. The Great Smokies are also home to over 450 species of non-vascular plants, and 2,000 species of fungi.^[21]^[22]

The forests of the Smokies are typically divided into three zones:

The cove hardwood forests in the stream valleys, coves, and lower mountain slopes
The northern hardwood forests on the higher mountain slopes
The spruce-fir or boreal forest at the very highest elevations

Appalachian balds—patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse—are interspersed through the mid-to-upper elevations in the range. Balds include grassy balds, which are highland meadows covered primarily by thick grasses, and heath balds, which are dense thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel typically occurring on narrow ridges. Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on the south-facing North Carolina side of the range.^[23] Stands dominated by the Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) are occasionally found along streams and broad slopes above 3,500 feet (1,100 m).^[24]

Cove hardwood forest

Cove hardwood forest along Cosby Creek

Cove hardwood forests, which are native to Southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although some 72,000 acres (290 km²) are still old-growth.^[3] The Albright Grove along the Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible old-growth forest with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range.^[25]

Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies. The dominant species include yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), basswood (Tilia americana), yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera; commonly called "tulip poplar"), silverbells (Halesia carolina), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), cucumber magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis).^[26] The American chestnut (Castanea dentata), which was arguably the most beloved tree of the range's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced Chestnut blight in the 1920s.

The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines. Dominant species in the Smokies include the Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), and smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens).^[27]

Northern hardwood forest

The autumn colors of the northern hardwood canopy near Newfound Gap give way to the dark-green spruce-fir canopy as altitude increases

The mean annual temperatures in the higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States. The northern hardwood forests of the Smokies constitute the highest broad-leaved forest in the eastern United States.^[28] About 28,600 acres (116 km²) of the northern hardwood forest are old-growth.^[3]

In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). White basswood (Tilia heterophylla), mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum), and yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava) are also present. The northern hardwood understory is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, Rugels ragwort, bloodroot, hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns.^[29]

One unique community in the northern hardwoods of the Smokies is the beech gap, or beech orchard. Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees. The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps. Why other tree types such as the red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown.^[30]

Spruce-fir forest

Spruce fir stand near the summit of Clingmans Dome

The spruce-fir forest—also called the "boreal" or "Canadian" forest—is a relict of the ice ages, when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest. While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce-fir forest has managed to survive on the harsh mountain tops, typically above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). About 10,600 acres (43 km²) of the spruce-fir forest are old-growth.^[3]

The spruce-fir forest consists primarily of two conifer species—red spruce (Picea rubens) and Fraser fir (Abies fraseri). The Fraser Firs, which are native to Southern Appalachia, once dominated elevations above 6,200 feet (1,900 m) in the Great Smokies. Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of the balsam wooly adelgid, which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s. Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range's spruce-fir forest. Large stands of dead Fraser Firs remain atop Clingmans Dome and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black. While much of the red spruce stands in the Smokies were logged during World War I, the tree is still common throughout the range above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). Some of the red spruce trees in the Smokies are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over 100 feet (30 m).^[31]

The main difference between the spruce-fir forests of Southern Appalachia and the spruce-fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad-leaved understory of the former. The spruce-fir understories of the Smokies are home to catawba rhododendron, mountain ash, pin cherry, thornless blackberry, and hobblebush. The herbaceous and litter layers of the spruce-fir forests are poorly lit year-round, and are thus dominated by shade-tolerant plants such as ferns, namely mountain wood fern and northern lady fern, and over 280 species of mosses.^[32]

Wildflowers

Rhododendron atop the Ben Parton Lookout

Many wildflowers grow in mountains and valleys of the Great Smokies, including bee balm, Solomon's seal, Dutchman's breeches, various trilliums, the Dragon's Advocate and even hardy orchids. There are two native species of rhododendron in the area. The Catawba rhododendron has purple flowers in May and June, while the rosebay rhododendron has longer leaves and blooms white or a light pink in June and July.

The orange- to sometimes red-flowered and deciduous flame azalea closely follows along with the Catawbas. The closely related mountain laurel blooms in between the two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations. The reverse is true in autumn, when nearly bare mountaintops covered in rime ice (frozen fog) can be separated from green valleys by very bright and varied leaf colors. The rhododendrons are broadleafs, whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy snows that come through the region during winter.

Fauna

A black bear in the Great Smokies

The Great Smoky Mountains are home to 66 species of mammals, over 240 species of birds, 43 species of amphibians, 60 species of fish, and 40 species of reptiles. The range has the densest black bear population east of the Mississippi River. The black bear has come to symbolize wildlife in the Smokies, and the animal frequently appears on the covers of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park's literature. Most of the range's adult eastern black bears weigh between 100 pounds (45 kg) and 300 pounds (140 kg), although some grow to more than 500 pounds (230 kg).^[33]

These elk are part of a herd which was transplanted to Cataloochee in 2001, in an attempt to reintroduce the species to the Appalachians in North Carolina

Other mammals in the Great Smokies include the white-tailed deer, the population of which drastically expanded with the creation of the national park. The bobcat is the range's only remaining wild cat species, although sightings of cougars, which once thrived in the area, are still occasionally reported.^[34] The coyote is not believed to be native to the range, but has moved into the area in recent years and is treated as a native species. Wolf packs do not roam this region due to extirpation. They modernly reside in Alaska, portions of the Great Lakes region, all northwestern American states and Canada.^[35] Two species of fox (red fox and the gray fox) are found within the Smokies, with red foxes being documented at all elevations.^[36]

European boar, introduced as game animals in the early 20th century, thrive in Southern Appalachia but are considered a nuisance due to their tendency to root up and destroy plants.^[37] The boars are seen as taking food resources away from bears as well, and the park service has sponsored a program that pays individuals to hunt and kill boars and leave their bodies in locations frequented by bears.^[38]

The Smokies are home to over two dozen species of rodents, including the endangered northern flying squirrel, and 10 species of bats, including the endangered Indiana bat.^[39] The National Park Service has successfully reintroduced river otters and elk into the Great Smokies. An attempt to reintroduce the red wolf in the early 1990s ultimately failed. These wolves were removed from the park and relocated to the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in North Carolina.^[40]

Brook trout are native to the Great Smoky Mountains.

The Smokies are home to a diverse bird population due to the presence of multiple forest types. Species that thrive in southern hardwood forests, such as the red-eyed vireo, wood thrush, wild turkey, northern parula, ruby-throated hummingbird, and tufted titmouse, are found throughout the range's lower elevations and cove hardwood forests. Species more typical of cooler climates, such as the raven, winter wren, black-capped chickadee, yellow-bellied sapsucker, dark-eyed junco, and Blackburnian, chestnut-sided, and Canada warblers, are found in the range's spruce-fir and northern hardwood zones.^[41]

Ovenbirds, whip-poor-wills, and downy woodpeckers live in the drier pine-oak forests and heath balds.^[42] Bald eagles and golden eagles have been spotted at all elevations in the park.^[43] Peregrine falcon sightings are also not uncommon, and a peregrine falcon eyrie is known to have existed near Alum Cave Bluffs throughout the 1930s.^[44] Red-tailed hawks, the most common hawk species, have been sighted at all elevations in the range. Owl species residing in the Smokies include the barred owl, eastern screech-owl, and northern saw-whet owl.^[45]

A black rat snake on a trail near Greenbriar

Timber rattlesnakes—one of two venomous snake species in the Smokies—are found at all elevations in the range. The other venomous snake, the copperhead, is typically found at lower elevations. Other reptiles include the eastern box turtle, the eastern fence lizard, the black rat snake, and the northern water snake.^[46]

A redcheeked salamander

The Great Smokies are home to one of the world's most diverse salamander populations. Five of the world's nine families of salamanders are found in the range, consisting of up to thirty-one species.^[47] A type of Jordan's salamander known as the redcheeked salamander is found only in the Smokies.^[48] The imitator salamander is found only in the Smokies and the nearby Plott Balsams and Great Balsam Mountains.^[49]

Two other species—the southern gray-cheeked salamander and the Southern Appalachian salamander—occur only in the general region.^[50] Other species include the shovelnose salamander, blackbelly salamander, eastern red-spotted newt, and spotted dusky salamander.^[51] The legendary hellbender inhabits the range's swifter streams.^[52] Other amphibians include the American toad and the American bullfrog, wood frog, upland chorus frog, northern green frog, and spring peeper.^[53]

Fish inhabiting the streams of the Smokies include trout, lamprey, darter, shiner, bass, and sucker. The brook trout is the only trout species native to the range, although northwestern rainbow trout and European brown trout were introduced in the first half of the 20th century. The larger rainbow and brown trout outcompete the native brook trout for food and habitat at lower elevations. As such, most of the brook trout found in the park today are in streams above 3,000 feet in elevation. Trout in the Smokies are generally smaller than other members of their species in different locales. Protected fish species in the range include the smoky and yellowfin madtom, the spotfin chub, and the duskytail darter.^[54]

The lightning-bug firefly Photinus carolinus, whose synchronized flashing light displays occur in mid-June, is native to the Smoky Mountains with a population epicenter near Elkmont, Tennessee.^[55]

Ecosystem threats

Dead Fraser firs on the slopes of Old Black

Air pollution is contributing to increased Red Spruce tree mortality at higher elevations and oak decline at lower elevations, while invasive hemlock woolly adelgids attack Hemlocks and balsam woolly adelgids attack Fraser firs. Pseudoscymnus tsugae, a type of beetle in the ladybug family, Coccinellidae, has been introduced in an attempt to control the pests.^[56]

Visibility now is dramatically reduced by smog from both the Southeastern United States and the Midwest, and smog forecasts are prepared daily by the Environmental Protection Agency for both nearby Knoxville, Tennessee and Asheville, North Carolina.

Environmental threats are the concern of many non-profit environmental stewardship groups, especially The Friends of the Smokies. Formed in 1993, the friends group assists the National Park Service in its mission to preserve and protect the Great Smoky Mountains National Park by raising funds and public awareness, and providing volunteers for needed projects.^[57]

History

Prehistory

Native Americans have likely been hunting in the Great Smoky Mountains for 14,000 years. Numerous Archaic period (c. 8000–1000 B.C.) artifacts have been found within the national park's boundaries, including projectile points uncovered along likely animal migration paths.^[58] Woodland period (c. 1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) sites found within the park contained 2000+-year-old ceramics and evidence of primitive agriculture.^[59]

The increasing reliance upon agriculture during the Mississippian period (c. 900–1600 A.D.) lured Native Americans away from the game-rich forests of the Smokies and into the fertile river valleys on the outer fringe of the range. Substantial Mississippian-period villages were uncovered at Citico and Toqua (named after the Cherokee villages that later thrived at these sites) along the Little Tennessee River in the 1960s.^[60] Fortified Mississippian-period villages have been excavated at the McMahan Indian Mounds in Sevierville and more recently in Townsend.^[61]^[62]

Most of these villages were part of a minor chiefdom centered on a large village known as Chiaha, which was located on an island now submerged by Douglas Lake. The 1540 expedition of Hernando de Soto and the 1567 expedition of Juan Pardo passed through the French Broad River valley north of the Smokies, both spending a considerable amount of time at Chiaha. The Pardo expedition followed a trail across the flanks of Chilhowee Mountain to the Mississippian-period villages at Chilhowee and Citico (Pardo's notary called them by their Muskogean names, "Chalahume" and "Satapo").^[63]

The Cherokee

By the time the first English explorers arrived in Southern Appalachia in the late 17th century, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Great Smoky Mountains lay at the center of their territory. One Cherokee legend tells of a magical lake hidden deep within the range, but inaccessible to humans.^[64] Another tells of a captured Shawnee medicine man named Aganunitsi who, in exchange for his freedom, travels to the remote sections of the range in search of the Uktena.^[65] The Cherokee called Gregory Bald Tsitsuyi ᏥᏧᏱ, or "rabbit place," and believed the mountain to be the domain of the Great Rabbit.^[66] Other Cherokee place names in the Smokies included Duniskwalgunyi ᏚᏂᏍᏆᎫᏂ, or "forked antlers", which referred to the Chimney Tops, and kuwahi ᎫᏩᎯ, or "mulberry place", which referred to Clingmans Dome.^[67]

Most Cherokee settlements were located in the river valleys on the outer fringe of the Great Smokies range. The Smokies, along with the Unicois, provided the main bulwark dividing the Overhill Cherokee villages in modern Tennessee from the Cherokee Middle towns in modern North Carolina. The Overhill town of Chilhowee was situated at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee, and the Overhill town of Tallassee was located just a few miles upstream near modern Calderwood (both village sites are now under Chilhowee Lake). A string of Overhill villages, including Chota and Tanasi, dotted the Little Tennessee valley north of Chilhowee.^[68]

The Cherokee Middle towns included the village of Kittowa (which the Cherokee believed to be their oldest village) along the Tuckasegee River near Bryson City. The village of Oconaluftee, which was situated along the Oconaluftee River near the modern Oconaluftee Visitor Center, was the only known permanent Cherokee village located within the national park's boundaries. Sporadic or seasonal settlements were located in Cades Cove and the Hazel Creek valley.^[69]

European settlement

Communities past and present of the Great Smoky Mountains. The green areas denote the modern national park.

European explorers and settlers began arriving in Western North Carolina and East Tennessee in the mid-18th century. The influx of settlers at the end of the French and Indian War brought conflict with the Cherokee, who still held legal title to much of the land. When the Cherokee aligned themselves with the British at the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1776, American forces launched an invasion of Cherokee territory.^[70]

The Middle towns, including Kittuwa, were burned by General Griffith Rutherford, and several of the Overhill towns were burned by John Sevier. By 1805, the Cherokee had ceded control of the Great Smokies to the U.S. government. Although much of the tribe was forced west along the Trail of Tears in 1838, a few—largely through the efforts of William Holland Thomas—managed to retain their land on the Qualla Boundary and today comprise the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.^[70]

In the 1780s, several frontier outposts had been established along the outskirts of the Smokies, namely Whitson's Fort in what is now Cosby and Wear's Fort in what is now Pigeon Forge. Permanent settlers began arriving in these areas in the 1790s. In 1801, the Whaley brothers, William and John, moved from North Carolina to become the first settlers in what is now the Greenbrier section of the park.^[71]

In 1802, Edgefield, South Carolina resident William Ogle (1751–1803) arrived in White Oak Flats where he cut and prepared logs for cabin construction. Although Ogle died shortly after returning to Edgefield, his wife, Martha Jane Huskey, eventually returned with her family and several other families to White Oak Flats, becoming the first permanent settlers in what would eventually become Gatlinburg. Their children and grandchildren spread out southward into the Sugarlands and Roaring Fork areas.^[72]

Cades Cove was settled largely by families who had purchased lots from land speculator William "Fighting Billy" Tipton. The first of these settlers, John and Lucretia Oliver, arrived in 1818.^[73] Two Cades Cove settlers, Moses and Patience Proctor, crossed over to the North Carolina side of the Smokies in 1836 to become the first Euro-American settlers in the Hazel Creek area.^[74] The Cataloochee area was first settled by the Caldwell family, who migrated to the valley in 1834.^[75]

Like most of Southern Appalachia, the early 19th-century economy of the Smokies relied on subsistence agriculture. The average farm consisted of roughly 50 acres (0.20 km²), part of which was cultivated and part of which was woodland. Early settlers lived in 16 feet (4.9 m) x 20 feet (6.1 m) log cabins, although these were replaced by more elaborate log houses and eventually, as lumber became available, by modern frame houses. Most farms included at least one barn, a springhouse (used for refrigeration), a smokehouse (used for curing meat), a chicken coop (protected chickens from predators), and a corn crib (kept corn dry and protected it from rodents). Some of the more industrious farmers operated gristmills, general stores, and sorghum presses.^[76] Religion was a central theme in the lives of the early residents of the Smokies, and community life was typically centered on churches. Christian Protestantism—especially Primitive Baptists, Missionary Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians; dominated the religious culture of the region.

American Civil War

While both Tennessee and North Carolina joined the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Union sentiment in the Great Smoky Mountains was much stronger relative to other regions in these two states. Generally, the communities on the Tennessee side of the Smokies supported the Union, while communities on the North Carolina side supported the Confederates. On the Tennessee side, 74% of Cocke Countians, 80% of Blount Countians, and 96% of Sevier Countians voted against secession.^[77] In the North Carolina Smokies—Cherokee, Haywood, Jackson, and Macon counties—about 46% of the population favored secession.^[78]

While no major engagements took place in the Smokies, minor skirmishes were fairly common. Cherokee chief William Holland Thomas formed a Confederate legion made up mostly of Cherokee soldiers.^{[citation needed]} Thomas' Legion crossed the Smokies in 1862 and occupied Gatlinburg for several months to protect saltpeter mines atop Mount Le Conte. Residents of predominantly Union Cades Cove and predominantly Confederate Hazel Creek routinely crossed the mountains to steal one another's livestock.^[79] Residents of Cosby and Cataloochee did likewise. One notable Civil War incident in the Smokies was the murder of long-time Cades Cove resident Russell Gregory (for whom Gregory Bald is named), which was carried out by bushwhackers in 1864 shortly after Gregory had led an ambush that routed a band of Confederates seeking to wreak havoc in the cove.^[80] Another incident was George Kirk's raid on Cataloochee, in which Kirk killed or wounded 15 Union soldiers recovering at a makeshift hospital.^[81]

Logging

The Champion Fibre Company plant in Canton, North Carolina, 1910

While selective logging occurred in the Great Smoky Mountains throughout the 19th century, the general inaccessibility of the range's forests prevented major logging operations, and lumber firms relied on the lowland forests in the northeastern United States and the Mississippi Delta in the southeast. As timber resources in these regions became exhausted, and as the demand for lumber skyrocketed after the Civil War, entrepreneurs began looking for ways to reach the virgin forests of Southern Appalachia. The first logging operations in the Smokies, which began in the 1880s, used splash dams or booms to float logs down rivers to lumber mills in nearby cities. Notable splash dam and boom operations included the English Lumber Company on Little River, the Taylor and Crate operations along Hazel Creek, and the ambitious operations of Alexander Arthur on the Pigeon River. All three of these operations failed within their first few years, however, after their dams and boom systems were destroyed by floods.^[82]^[83]^[84]

Innovations in logging railroads and band saw technology in the late 19th century made large-scale logging possible in the mountainous areas of Southern Appalachia. The largest logging operation in the Smokies was the Little River Lumber Company, which logged the Little River watershed between 1901 and 1939. The company also established company towns at Townsend (named for the company's chief owner and manager, Wilson B. Townsend), Elkmont, and Tremont.^[85]

The second-largest operation was the Ritter Lumber Company, which logged the Hazel Creek watershed between 1907 and 1928. Ruins of Ritter's lumbering operations are still visible along the Hazel Creek Trail.^[86] Other lumbering operations included Three M Lumber and Champion Fibre, both of which logged the Oconaluftee watershed.^[87] By the time all operations ceased in the 1930s, logging firms had removed two-thirds of the virgin forests of the Smokies.^{[citation needed]} According to the National Park Service, 80% of the Smokies was clear cut in the 1900's.^[88]

The National Park

Wilson B. Townsend, the head of Little River Lumber, began advertising Elkmont as a tourist destination in 1909. Within a few years, the Wonderland Hotel and the Appalachian Club had been established to cater to elite Knoxvillians seeking summer mountain getaways.^[89] In the early 1920s, several Appalachian Club members, among them Knoxville businessman Colonel David Chapman, began seriously considering a movement to establish a national park in the Great Smokies. As head of the Great Smoky Mountains Park Commission, Chapman was largely responsible for raising funds for land purchases and coordinating park efforts between local, state, and federal entities.^[90]

The creation of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park proved much more complex than the creation of its predecessors, such as Yellowstone and Yosemite, which were already federally owned. Along with convincing logging firms to sell lucrative lumber rights, the Park Commission had to negotiate the purchase of thousands of small farms and remove entire communities. The commission also had to deal with the Tennessee and North Carolina legislatures, which at times were opposed to spending taxpayer money on park efforts.^[91] In spite of these difficulties, the Park Commission had completed most major land purchases by 1932. The national park officially opened in 1934, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt presiding over the opening ceremony at Newfound Gap.

Culture and tourism

The Great Smoky Mountains National Park in autumn

The culture of the area is that of Southern Appalachia, and previously the Cherokee people. Tourism is key to the area's economy, particularly in cities like Pigeon Forge and Gatlinburg in Tennessee,^[92] and Cherokee, North Carolina. In 2006, the Great Smoky Mountains Heritage Center opened in Townsend, Tennessee, with the mission of preserving various aspects of the region's culture.^[93]

The Tennessee Smokies baseball team plays in Sevierville, Tennessee and is named for the mountain range.^[94]

The Great Smoky Mountains are also home to The Gatlinburg SkyLift and SkyBridge.^[95]

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Great Smoky Mountains.

Official website
Species Mapper
Great Smoky Mountains Association—official nonprofit partner of the park, maps, guides, photos, and videos
National Weather Service Southern Appalachian Precipitation study (NWS Morristown, TN)
Great Smoky Mountains Institute at Tremont
Cornell University study on invasive balsam woolly adelgid control
Geologic Map of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park Region, Tennessee and North Carolina United States Geological Survey
History and maps
The Great Smoky Mountains Regional Project—a collection of documents and early photographs regarding the Great Smokies and surrounding communities
Southern Appalachian English: Transcripts—sound file samples of interviews of long-time residents of the Great Smokies conducted in 1939
Smokies Road Trip, circa 1938

Categories:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Smoky_Mountains

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_obsolescence

Authority control
International	FAST ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 WorldCat
National	Norway Spain France BnF data Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Sweden Greece Netherlands Poland Portugal 2 Vatican
People	Deutsche Biographie
Other	IdRef

Blog Archive

Friday, May 19, 2023

05-19-2023-1540 - Category:Lost films

Category:Lost films

Subcategories

A

C

D

F

H

L

M

R

S

W

Pages in category "Lost films"

I

M

Origins

Confusion with Titans and others

Descriptions

The Gigantomachy

Early sources

Apollodorus

Ovid

Other late sources

Location

In art

Sixth century BC

Fifth century BC

Fourth century BC and later

In post-classical art

Symbolism, meaning and interpretations

Association with volcanoes and earthquakes

Named Giants

See also

Notes

References

External links

Life

The Ethnica

Editions

References

Further reading

References

In Native American cultures

Other known names

Outside the Americas

In Europe

In Celtic iconography

In Northern and Central Europe

Greek

In Mesopotamia

See also

Notes

References

External links

Overview

Seven fires

First

Second

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

Seventh

Notes

References

External links

Geography

Notable peaks

Climate

Geology

Flora

Cove hardwood forest

Northern hardwood forest

Spruce-fir forest

Wildflowers

Fauna

Ecosystem threats