05-18-2023-2132 - Charity ; Philanthropy

Charity may refer to:

Giving

• Charitable organization or charity, a non-profit organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being of persons
• Charity (practice), the practice of being benevolent, giving and sharing
• Charity (Christian virtue), the Christian religious concept of unlimited love and kindness
• Principle of charity, in philosophy and rhetoric

Places

• Charity, Missouri, a community in the United States
• Charity, Guyana, a small township
• Mount Charity, Antarctica
• Charity Glacier, Livingston Island, Antarctica
• Charity Lake, British Columbia, Canada
• Charity Island (Michigan), United States
• Charity Island (Tasmania), Australia
• Little Charity Island, Lake Huron, Michigan
• Charity Creek, Sydney, Australia

Entertainment

• Charity (play), an 1874 play by W. S. Gilbert
• Charity (novel), third in the Faith, Hope, Charity espionage trilogy of novels by Len Deighton
• "Charity" (Dilbert episode)
• "Charity" (Malcolm in the Middle Episode)

Music

• "Charity", in the List of songs written by Cole Porter
• "Charity" (Courtney Barnett song)
• "Charity" (song), a 1995 single by Skunk Anansie

Paintings

• Charity (Piero del Pollaiolo)
• Charity (Reni, Florence)
• Charity (Reni, New York)

Sports

• Charity (horse) (1830–?), winner of the 1841 Grand National
• Charity Golf Classic, a tournament on the LPGA Tour from 1973 to 1975
• Charity Cup, an annual association football competition in New Zealand
• Charity Cup, an Australian soccer competition held between 1903 and 1961 - see Football West State Cup
• Charity Bowl, a one-time postseason college football bowl game, played in 1937

People

• Charity (name), an English feminine given name (including a list of people with the name)
• Amy Charity (born 1976), American racing cyclist
• Nicole Matthews (born 1987), professional wrestler under the ring name Charity

Other uses

• HMS Charity, several British Royal Navy ships
• MV Charity, a Cypriot cargo ship briefly in service during September 1972
• Charity Hospital (disambiguation)

See also

Wikiquote has quotations related to Charity.

• Faith, Hope and Charity (disambiguation)
• All pages with titles beginning with Charity

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Charity.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories:

• Disambiguation pages
• Place name disambiguation pages
• Charity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity

 

The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994
Parliament of India

Long title An Act to provide for the regulation of removal, storage and transplantation of human organs and tissues for therapeutic purposes and for the prevention of commercial dealings in human organs and tissues and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Citation	Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994
Enacted by	Parliament of India
Enacted	8 July 1994
Commenced	4 February 1995
Introduced by	Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Status: In force

The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994 is the Law enacted by the Parliament of India and introduced by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare dated 4 February 1994, which deals with the transplantation and donation of 11 human organs and tissues of an alive donor or deceased person.^[1] This act is applicable to only those Indian administered states where the act has been adopted or enforced by the state governments. But it applies to all Union territories.^[2][3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantation_of_Human_Organs_and_Tissues_Act,_1994}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitation_Act_1980}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitation_Act_1623}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitation_Act_1963}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitations}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering}

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset}

 

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_global_issues}

 

An artificial organ is a human made organ device or tissue that is implanted or integrated into a human — interfacing with living tissue — to replace a natural organ, to duplicate or augment a specific function or functions so the patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible.^[1] The replaced function does not have to be related to life support, but it often is. For example, replacement bones and joints, such as those found in hip replacements, could also be considered artificial organs.^[2][3]

Implied by definition, is that the device must not be continuously tethered to a stationary power supply or other stationary resources such as filters or chemical processing units. (Periodic rapid recharging of batteries, refilling of chemicals, and/or cleaning/replacing of filters would exclude a device from being called an artificial organ.)^[4] Thus, a dialysis machine, while a very successful and critically important life support device that almost completely replaces the duties of a kidney, is not an artificial organ. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_organ

An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm cell. The resulting fusion of these two cells produces a single-celled zygote that undergoes many cell divisions that produce cells known as blastomeres. The blastomeres are arranged as a solid ball that when reaching a certain size, called a morula, takes in fluid to create a cavity called a blastocoel. The structure is then termed a blastula, or a blastocyst in mammals.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Builds

Humans (Homo sapiens) are the most common and widespread species of primate. A great ape characterized by their bipedalism and high intelligence, humans' large brain and resulting cognitive skills have allowed them to thrive in a variety of environments and develop complex societies and civilizations. Humans are highly social and tend to live in complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship networks to political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and rituals, each of which bolsters human society. The desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity's development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other conceptual frameworks. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human

 

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up illicit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Illicit may refer to:

• Illicit antiquities
• Illicit cigarette trade
• Illicit drug trade
  • Illicit drug use
  • Illicit Drug Anti-Proliferation Act
• Illicit financial flows
• Illicit major
• Illicit minor
• Illicit trade
• Illicit work
• Illicit Streetwear clothing company
• Illicit (Dance music group)
• Illicit (film), a 1931 film starring Barbara Stanwyck
• Illicit (album), a 1992 album by Tribal Tech

See also

• Valid but illicit

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Illicit.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illicit

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up illegal, illegally, or unlawful in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Illegal, or unlawful, typically describes something that is explicitly prohibited by law, or is otherwise forbidden by a state or other governing body.

Illegal may also refer to:

Law

• Violation of law
• Crime, the practice of breaking the criminal law
• An illegal immigrant, a person that performed illegal immigration

Entertainment

• The Illegal (novel) (2015), by Canadian writer Lawrence Hill

Films

• Illegal (1932 film), British
• Illegal (1955 film), American
• Illegal (2010 film), Belgian
• The Illegal (2019), film starring Suraj Sharma

Music

• Illegal (group), a 1990s rap group
• "Illegal" (song), a track from pop singer Shakira's 2005 release, Oral Fixation Vol. 2

See also

• All pages with titles beginning with Illegal
• Illegal agent, also known as Operational cover
• Illegals Program, Russian spies arrested in the United States in 2010
• The Illegal (disambiguation)
• Illegalism, an anarchist philosophy which openly embraced criminality as a lifestyle

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Illegal.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/violation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/infarction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/expungement

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/remediation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/simple

 

A fine or mulct (the latter synonym typically used in civil law) is a penalty of money that a court of law^[1] or other authority decides has to be paid as punishment for a crime or other offense.^[2][3][4][5] The amount of a fine can be determined case by case, but it is often announced in advance.^[6]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_(penalty)}

In philosophy and rhetoric, the principle of charity or charitable interpretation requires interpreting a speaker's statements in the most rational way possible and, in the case of any argument, considering its best, strongest possible interpretation.^[1] In its narrowest sense, the goal of this methodological principle is to avoid attributing irrationality, logical fallacies, or falsehoods to the others' statements, when a coherent, rational interpretation of the statements is available. According to Simon Blackburn,^[2] "it constrains the interpreter to maximize the truth or rationality in the subject's sayings." 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_charity

The practice of charity is the voluntary giving of help to those in need, as a humanitarian act, unmotivated by self-interest. There are a number of philosophies about charity, often associated with religion.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_(practice)

Charity was a racehorse who won the 1841 Grand National at the second attempt, defeating ten rivals in a time of 13 minutes 25 seconds. William Vevers was the official trainer of Charity. The owner of the horse was William Craven, 2nd Earl of Craven.

Charity had previously taken part in the 1839 Grand National, falling at the wall, which was sited roughly where the water jump is situated on the modern course. The mare was remounted by her rider A Powell only to fall again before reaching the Becher's Brook for the second time.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_(horse)

Map showing places where it is illegal to die, where it used to be illegal to die, and where there are attempts to make it illegal to die.

Prohibition of dying is a political social phenomenon and taboo in which a law is passed stating that it is illegal to die, usually specifically in a certain political division or in a specific building.

The earliest case of prohibition of death occurred in the 5th century BC, on the Greek island of Delos; dying on Delos was prohibited on religious grounds.

Today, in most cases, the prohibition of death is a satirical response to the government's failure to approve the expansion of municipal cemeteries. In Spain, one town has prohibited death;^[1] in France, there have been several settlements which have had death prohibited;^[2][3][4][5] while in Biritiba Mirim, in Brazil, an attempt to prohibit death took place in 2005.^[6][7]

There is a falsely rumoured prohibition on recording deaths in royal palaces in the United Kingdom, for rather different reasons^[8][9]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_of_dying

Charity fraud is the act of using deception to get money from people who believe they are making donations to a charity. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_fraud

Charity

"Caritas"
Gender	Female
Origin
Word/name	English via Latin
Meaning	Charity
Region of origin	English-speaking countries

Charity is an English feminine given name derived from the English word charity. It was used by the Puritans as a virtue name. An earlier form of the name, Caritas, was an early Christian name in use by Romans.^[1]

Charity is also the usual English form of the name of Saint Charity, an early Christian child martyr, who was tortured to death with her sisters Faith and Hope. She is known as Agape in Biblical Greek and as Caritas in Church Latin and her name is translated differently in other languages.

Faith, Hope and Charity, the three theological virtues, are names traditionally given to triplet girls, just as Faith and Hope remain common names for twin girls. One example were the American triplets Faith, Hope and Charity Cardwell, who were born in 1899 in Texas and were recognized in 1994 by the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's longest lived triplets.^[2]

Charity has never been as popular a name in the United States as Faith or Hope. It ranked in the top 500 names for American girls between 1880 and 1898 and in the top 1,000 between 1880 and 1927, when it disappeared from the top 1,000 names until it reemerged among the top 1,000 names in 1968 at No. 968. It was most popular between 1973 and 1986, when it ranked among the top 300 names in the United States. It has since declined in popularity and was ranked at No. 852 in 2011.^[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_(name)

 

Part of a series on the
Divine Mercy
Divine Mercy by Eugeniusz Kazimirowski, 1934
Forms
Divine Mercy Sunday Chaplet of the Divine Mercy Divine Mercy image
People
Faustina Kowalska Michał Sopoćko Józef Andrasz Eugeniusz Kazimirowski Adolf Hyła John Paul II
Places
Kraków–Łagiewniki Vilnius Płock Głogowiec–Świnice Warckie Białystok Rome Stockbridge Manila–Marilao El Salvador
Other
O Blood and Water Dives in misericordia Misericordiae Vultus World Apostolic Congress on Mercy Congregation of the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy Congregation of the Sisters of Merciful Jesus Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy
v t e

Part of a series on
Love

Types of love

Social views

Concepts

v t e

Allegorical personification of Charity as a mother with three infants by Anthony van Dyck

In Christian theology, charity (Latin: caritas) is considered one of the seven virtues and is understood by Thomas Aquinas as "the friendship of man for God", which "unites us to God". He holds it as "the most excellent of the virtues".^[1] Further, Aquinas holds that "the habit of charity extends not only to the love of God, but also to the love of our neighbor".^[2]

The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines "charity" as "the theological virtue by which we love God above all things for His own sake, and our neighbor as ourselves for the love of God".^[3]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)

 

The Blue Coat School (in this case Christ's Hospital, London) as drawn by Augustus Pugin and Thomas Rowlandson for Rudolph Ackermann's Microcosm of London (1808-11). The picture shows the Great Hall on St. Matthew's Day, September 21st. Two senior boys destined for scholarships to Oxford and Cambridge Universities, known as Grecians, gave orations in praise of the school, one in Latin and the other in English.

The Anniversary Meeting of the Charity Children in the Cathedral of St. Paul, 1826

Leeds Charity School Blue Plaque

Charity schools, sometimes called blue coat schools, or simply the Blue School, were significant in the history of education in England. They were built and maintained in various parishes by the voluntary contributions of the inhabitants to teach poor children to read and write, and for other necessary parts of education. They were usually maintained by religious organisations, which provided clothing and education to students freely or at little charge. In most charity schools, children were put out to trades, services, etc., by the same charitable foundation. Some schools were more ambitious than this and sent a few pupils on to university.

Charity schools began in London, and spread throughout most of the urban areas in England and Wales. By 1710, the statistics for charity schools in and around London were as follows: number of schools, 88; boys taught, 2,181; girls, 1,221; boys put out to apprentices, 967; girls, 407. By the 19th century, English elementary schools were predominantly charity schools.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_school

Peter Paul Rubens – Cimon and Pero (c.1625)

Roman Charity (Latin: Caritas romana; Italian: Carità Romana) is the exemplary story of a woman, Pero, who secretly breastfeeds her father, Cimon, after he is incarcerated and sentenced to death by starvation.^[1]

Of Roman origin, it was often represented in art, especially in the Baroque period. Sometimes the title is Cimon and Pero.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Charity

In the Catholic Church, a martyr of charity is someone who dies as a result of a charitable act or of administering Christian charity. While a martyr of the faith, which is what is usually meant by the word "martyr" (both in canon law and in lay terms), dies through being persecuted for being a Catholic or for being a Christian, a martyr of charity dies through practicing charity motivated by Christianity.^[1] This is an unofficial form of martyrdom; when Pope Paul VI beatified Maximilian Kolbe he gave him that honorary title (in 1982, when Kolbe was canonized by Pope John Paul II that title was still not given official canonical recognition; instead, John Paul II overruled his advisory commission, which had said Kolbe was a Confessor, not a Martyr, ruling that the systematic hatred of the Nazis as a group toward the rest of humanity was in itself a form of hatred of the faith). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyr_of_charity

Regulation and licensure in engineering is established by various jurisdictions of the world to encourage life, public welfare, safety, well-being, then environment and other interests of the general public^[1] and to define the licensure process through which an engineer becomes licensed to practice engineering and to provide professional services and products to the public as a Professional Engineer.

As with many other professions and activities, engineering is a restricted activity.^[2] Relatedly, jurisdictions that license according to particular engineering discipline define the boundaries of each discipline carefully so that practitioners understand what they are competent to do.

A licensed engineer takes legal responsibility for engineering work, product or projects (typically via a seal or stamp on the relevant design documentation) as far as the local engineering legislation is concerned. Regulations require that only a licensed engineer can sign, seal or stamp technical documentation such as reports, plans, engineering drawings and calculations for study estimate or valuation or carry out design analysis, repair, servicing, maintenance or supervision of engineering work, process or project. In cases where public safety, property or welfare is concerned, licensed engineers are trusted by the government and the public to perform the task in a competent manner. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Regulation (disambiguation).

Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For example:

• in biology, gene regulation and metabolic regulation allow living organisms to adapt to their environment and maintain homeostasis;
• in government, typically regulation means stipulations of the delegated legislation which is drafted by subject-matter experts^{[citation needed]} to enforce primary legislation;
• in business, industry self-regulation occurs through self-regulatory organizations and trade associations which allow industries to set and enforce rules with less government involvement; and,
• in psychology, self-regulation theory is the study of how individuals regulate their thoughts and behaviors to reach goals.

Social

Regulation in the social, political, psychological, and economic domains can take many forms: legal restrictions promulgated by a government authority, contractual obligations (for example, contracts between insurers and their insureds^[1]), self-regulation in psychology, social regulation (e.g. norms), co-regulation, third-party regulation, certification, accreditation or market regulation.^[2]

State-mandated regulation is government intervention in the private market in an attempt to implement policy and produce outcomes which might not otherwise occur,^[3] ranging from consumer protection to faster growth or technological advancement.

The regulations may prescribe or proscribe conduct ("command-and-control" regulation), calibrate incentives ("incentive" regulation), or change preferences ("preferences shaping" regulation). Common examples of regulation include limits on environmental pollution , laws against child labor or other employment regulations, minimum wages laws, regulations requiring truthful labelling of the ingredients in food and drugs, and food and drug safety regulations establishing minimum standards of testing and quality for what can be sold, and zoning and development approvals regulation. Much less common are controls on market entry, or price regulation.

One critical question in regulation is whether the regulator or government has sufficient information to make ex-ante regulation more efficient than ex-post liability for harm and whether industry self-regulation might be preferable.^[4][5][6][7] The economics of imposing or removing regulations relating to markets is analysed in empirical legal studies, law and economics, political science, environmental science, health economics, and regulatory economics.

Power to regulate should include the power to enforce regulatory decisions. Monitoring is an important tool used by national regulatory authorities in carrying out the regulated activities.^[8]

In some countries (in particular the Scandinavian countries) industrial relations are to a very high degree regulated by the labour market parties themselves (self-regulation) in contrast to state regulation of minimum wages etc.^[9]

Reasons

This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (March 2018)

Regulations may create costs as well as benefits and may produce unintended reactivity effects, such as defensive practice.^[10] Efficient regulations can be defined as those where total benefits exceed total costs.

Regulations can be advocated for a variety of reasons, including^{[citation needed]}

• Market failures – regulation due to inefficiency. Intervention due to what economists call market failure.
  • To constrain sellers' options in markets characterized by monopoly
  • As a means to implement collective action, in order to provide public goods
  • To assure adequate information in the market
  • To mitigate undesirable externalities
• Collective desires – regulation about collective desires or considered judgments on the part of a significant segment of society^[vague]
• Diverse experiences – regulation with a view of eliminating or enhancing opportunities for the formation of diverse preferences and beliefs^[vague]
• Social subordination – regulation aimed to increase or reduce social subordination of various social groups^{[citation needed]}
• Endogenous preferences – regulation intended to affect the development of certain preferences on an aggregate level^[vague]
• Professional conduct – the regulation of members of professional bodies, either acting under statutory or contractual powers.^[11]
• Interest group transfers – regulation that results from efforts by self-interest groups to redistribute wealth in their favor, which may be disguised as one or more of the justifications above.

The study of formal (legal or official) and informal (extra-legal or unofficial) regulation constitutes one of the central concerns of the sociology of law.

History

Regulation of businesses existed in the ancient early Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Standardized weights and measures existed to an extent in the ancient world, and gold may have operated to some degree as an international currency. In China, a national currency system existed and paper currency was invented. Sophisticated law existed in Ancient Rome. In the European Early Middle Ages, law and standardization declined with the Roman Empire, but regulation existed in the form of norms, customs, and privileges; this regulation was aided by the unified Christian identity and a sense of honor regarding contracts.^[12]: 5

Modern industrial regulation can be traced to the Railway Regulation Act 1844 in the United Kingdom, and succeeding Acts. Beginning in the late 19th and 20th centuries, much of regulation in the United States was administered and enforced by regulatory agencies which produced their own administrative law and procedures under the authority of statutes. Legislators created these agencies to allow experts in the industry to focus their attention on the issue. At the federal level, one of the earliest institutions was the Interstate Commerce Commission which had its roots in earlier state-based regulatory commissions and agencies. Later agencies include the Federal Trade Commission, Securities and Exchange Commission, Civil Aeronautics Board, and various other institutions. These institutions vary from industry to industry and at the federal and state level. Individual agencies do not necessarily have clear life-cycles or patterns of behavior, and they are influenced heavily by their leadership and staff as well as the organic law creating the agency. In the 1930s, lawmakers believed that unregulated business often led to injustice and inefficiency; in the 1960s and 1970s, concern shifted to regulatory capture, which led to extremely detailed laws creating the United States Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

See also

• Consumer protection – Protect consumers against unfair practices
• Rulemaking – Process by which executive branch agencies create regulations
• Regulatory state
• Deregulation – Remove or reduce state regulations
• Environmental law – Branch of law concerning the natural environment
• Occupational safety and health – Field concerned with the safety, health and welfare of people at work
• Public administration – Implementation of government policy
• Regulation of science
• Regulatory capture – Form of political corruption
• Regulatory economics – Economics of regulation
• Tragedy of the commons – Self-interests causing depletion of a shared resource
• Public choice – Economic theory applied to political science
• Precautionary principle – Risk management strategy

References

1. 
   

Marcos Antonio Mendoza, "Reinsurance as Governance: Governmental Risk Management Pools as a Case Study in the Governance Role Played by Reinsurance Institutions", 21 Conn. Ins. L.J. 53, (2014) https://ssrn.com/abstract=2573253

Levi-Faur, David, Regulation and Regulatory Governance, Jerusalem Papers in Regulation and Governance, No. 1, 2010

Orbach, Barak, What Is Regulation? 30 Yale Journal on Regulation Online 1 (2012)

Sim, Michael (2018). "Limited Liability and the Known Unknown". Duke Law Journal. 68: 275–332. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3121519. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 44186028 – via SSRN.

Schwarcz, Steven L. (2011). "Keynote & Chapman Dialogue Address: Ex Ante Versus Ex Post Approaches to Financial Regulation". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1748007. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 154354509.

Hosoe, Moriki (2020), "Ex-ante Regulation, Ex-post Regulation, and Collusion", Applied Economic Analysis of Information and Risk, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 49–66, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-3300-6_4, ISBN 978-981-15-3299-3, S2CID 216306756, retrieved 2020-11-03

Shavell, Steven (October 1983). "Liability for Harm Versus Regulation of Safety". Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w1218.

Eraldo Banovac. Monitoringgrundlagen der kroatischen Regulierungsbehörde für Energie. EW − das Magazin für die Energie Wirtschaft, Vol. 103, No. 1–2, 2004, pp. 14–16.

Anders Kjellberg (2017) ”Self-regulation versus State Regulation in Swedish Industrial Relations” In Mia Rönnmar and Jenny Julén Votinius (eds.) Festskrift till Ann Numhauser-Henning. Lund: Juristförlaget i Lund 2017, pp. 357-383

McGivern, Gerry; Fischer, Michael Daniel (1 February 2012). "Reactivity and reactions to regulatory transparency in medicine, psychotherapy and counselling" (PDF). Social Science & Medicine. 74 (3): 289–296. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.09.035. PMID 22104085. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018.

Harris, Brian; Andrew Carnes (February 2011). Disciplinary and Regulatory Proceedings. Jordans. ISBN 978-1-84661-270-1.

12. John Braithwaite, Péter Drahos. (2000). Global Business Regulation. Cambridge University Press.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Regulation.

Look up regulation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Centre on Regulation in Europe (CERRE)
• New Perspectives on Regulation (2009) and Government and Markets: Toward a New Theory of Regulation (2009)
• US/Canadian Regulatory Cooperation: Archived 2011-04-30 at the Wayback Machine Schmitz on Lessons from the European Union, Canadian Privy Council Office Commissioned Study
• A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law

Wikibooks

• Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy
• Lawrence A. Cunningham, A Prescription to Retire the Rhetoric of 'Principles-Based Systems' in Corporate Law, Securities Regulation and Accounting (2007)

v t e Law

v t e Public policy

v t e Capitalism

Authority control	NARA 2

Categories:

• Regulation
• Economics of regulation
• Legal research
• Public policy

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Line regulation is the ability of a power supply to maintain a constant output voltage despite changes to the input voltage, with the output current drawn from the power supply remaining constant.

${\displaystyle \text{Line Regulation}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }{V}_{\text{o}}}{\mathrm{\Delta }{V}_{\text{i }}}\cdot 100\mathrm{\%}}$

where ΔVi is the change in input voltage while ΔVo is the corresponding change in output voltage.

It is desirable for a power supply to maintain a stable output regardless of changes in the input voltage. The line regulation is important when the input voltage source is unstable or unregulated and this would result in significant variations in the output voltage. The line regulation for an unregulated power supply is usually very high for a majority of operations, but this can be improved by using a voltage regulator. A low line regulation is always preferred. In practice, a well regulated power supply should have a line regulation of at most 0.1%.^[1]

In the regulator device datasheets the line regulation is expressed as percent change in output with respect to change in input per volt of the output. Mathematically it is expressed as:

${\displaystyle \text{Line Regulation}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }{V}_{\text{o}}}{\mathrm{\Delta }{V}_{\text{i }}\cdot V_{\text{o}}}\cdot 100\mathrm{\%}/V}$

The unit here is %/V. For example, In the ABLIC Inc. S1206-series regulator device the typical line regulation is expressed as 0.05%/V which means that the change in the output with respect to change in the input of the regulator device is 0.05%, when the output of the device is set at 1V. Moreover, the line regulation of the device expressed in the datasheet is temperature dependent. Usually the datasheets mention line regulation at 25 °C.^[2]

See also

• Load regulation
• Linear regulator

Notes

1. 
   

"Line Regulation".

2. https://www.ablic.com/en/doc/datasheet/voltage_regulator/S1206_E.pdf^{[bare URL PDF]}

This article about electric power is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories:

• Electrical power control
• Electric power stubs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_regulation

Trade regulation is a field of law, often bracketed with antitrust (as in the phrase “antitrust and trade regulation law”),^[1] including government regulation of unfair methods of competition and unfair or deceptive business acts or practices. Antitrust law is often considered a subset of trade regulation law. Franchise and distribution law, consumer protection law, and advertising law are sometimes considered parts of trade regulation law.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_regulation

Night aviation regulations in the United States are administered and enforced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Unlike many countries,^[1][2][3][4] the United States places no special restrictions on VFR flying at night. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_aviation_regulations_in_the_United_States

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Compliance (regulation))

"Compliance (regulation)" redirects here. For other uses, see Compliance (disambiguation).

In general, compliance means conforming to a rule, such as a specification, policy, standard or law. Compliance has traditionally been explained by reference to the deterrence theory, according to which punishing a behavior will decrease the violations both by the wrongdoer (specific deterrence) and by others (general deterrence). This view has been supported by economic theory, which has framed punishment in terms of costs and has explained compliance in terms of a cost-benefit equilibrium (Becker 1968). However, psychological research on motivation provides an alternative view: granting rewards (Deci, Koestner and Ryan, 1999) or imposing fines (Gneezy Rustichini 2000) for a certain behavior is a form of extrinsic motivation that weakens intrinsic motivation and ultimately undermines compliance.

Regulatory compliance describes the goal that organizations aspire to achieve in their efforts to ensure that they are aware of and take steps to comply with relevant laws, policies, and regulations.^[1] Due to the increasing number of regulations and need for operational transparency, organizations are increasingly adopting the use of consolidated and harmonized sets of compliance controls.^[2] This approach is used to ensure that all necessary governance requirements can be met without the unnecessary duplication of effort and activity from resources.

Regulations and accrediting organizations vary among fields, with examples such as PCI-DSS and GLBA in the financial industry, FISMA for U.S. federal agencies, HACCP for the food and beverage industry, and the Joint Commission and HIPAA in healthcare. In some cases other compliance frameworks (such as COBIT) or even standards (NIST) inform on how to comply with regulations.

Some organizations keep compliance data—all data belonging or pertaining to the enterprise or included in the law, which can be used for the purpose of implementing or validating compliance—in a separate store for meeting reporting requirements. Compliance software is increasingly being implemented to help companies manage their compliance data more efficiently. This store may include calculations, data transfers, and audit trails.^[3][4]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_compliance

The Regulator Movement, also known as the Regulator Insurrection, War of Regulation, and War of the Regulation, was an uprising in Provincial North Carolina from 1766 to 1771 in which citizens took up arms against colonial officials, whom they viewed as corrupt. Though the rebellion did not change the power structure, some historians consider it a catalyst to the American Revolutionary War. Others like John Spencer Bassett take the view that the Regulators did not wish to change the form or principle of their government, but simply wanted to make the colony's political process more equal. They wanted better economic conditions for everyone, instead of a system that heavily benefited the colonial officials and their network of plantation owners mainly near the coast. Bassett interprets the events of the late 1760s in Orange and surrounding counties as "...a peasants' rising, a popular upheaval."^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulator_Movement}

A courthouse clique, courthouse machine, courthouse ring, courthouse gang, or courthouse crowd is a type of political machine in the United States principally composed of county-level public officials. Historically, they were especially predominant in the South until the mid-20th century. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courthouse_clique

The regulation of chemicals is the legislative intent of a variety of national laws or international initiatives such as agreements, strategies or conventions. These international initiatives define the policy of further regulations to be implemented locally as well as exposure or emission limits. Often, regulatory agencies oversee the enforcement of these laws.

Chemicals are regulated for:

• environmental protection (chemical waste, and chemical pollution of water, air, subterrestrial and terrestrial environments such as of pesticides)
• human health (such as in cosmetics and foods) and drugs (recreational and pharmaceuticals)
• chemical weapons prohibition (such as for the Chemical Weapons Convention)

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_chemicals

Bank regulation in the United States is highly fragmented compared with other G10 countries, where most countries have only one bank regulator. In the U.S., banking is regulated at both the federal and state level. Depending on the type of charter a banking organization has and on its organizational structure, it may be subject to numerous federal and state banking regulations. Apart from the bank regulatory agencies the U.S. maintains separate securities, commodities, and insurance regulatory agencies at the federal and state level, unlike Japan and the United Kingdom (where regulatory authority over the banking, securities and insurance industries is combined into one single financial-service agency).^[1] Bank examiners are generally employed to supervise banks and to ensure compliance with regulations.

U.S. banking regulation addresses privacy, disclosure, fraud prevention, anti-money laundering, anti-terrorism, anti-usury lending, and the promotion of lending to lower-income populations. Some individual cities also enact their own financial regulation laws (for example, defining what constitutes usurious lending). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_regulation_in_the_United_States

American Civil War
Clockwise from top: Battle of Gettysburg Union Captain John Tidball's artillery Confederate prisoners ironclad USS Atlanta Ruins of Richmond, Virginia Battle of Franklin
Date April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865[a] (4 years and 44 days)[b][1][2] Location United States, Atlantic Ocean Result Union victory Abolition of slavery in the United States Beginning of the Reconstruction era Passage of the Reconstruction Amendments Territorial changes Dissolution of the Confederate States of America
Belligerents
United States (Union)	Confederate States (Confederacy)
Commanders and leaders
Abraham Lincoln X Ulysses S. Grant and others...	Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee and others...
Strength
2,200,000[c] 698,000 (peak)[3][4]	750,000–1,000,000[c][5] 360,000 (peak)[3][6]
Casualties and losses
110,000+  †/ (DOW) 230,000+ accident/disease deaths[7][8] 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons[3][7] 365,000+ total dead[9] 282,000+ wounded[8] 181,193 captured[3][better source needed][d] Total: 828,000+ casualties	94,000+  †/ (DOW)[7] 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons[8] 290,000+ total dead 137,000+ wounded 436,658 captured[3][better source needed][e] Total: 864,000+ casualties
50,000 free civilians dead[10] 80,000+ slaves dead (disease)[11] Total: 616,222[12]–1,000,000+ dead[13][14]

v t e Theaters of the American Civil War
Union blockade Eastern Western Lower seaboard Trans-Mississippi Pacific coast

Events leading to
the American Civil War

Economic End of Atlantic slave trade Panic of 1857

Political Northwest Ordinance Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Missouri Compromise Nullification crisis Gag rule Tariff of 1828 End of slavery in British colonies Texas Revolution Texas annexation Mexican–American War Wilmot Proviso Nashville Convention Compromise of 1850 Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 Kansas–Nebraska Act Ostend Manifesto Caning of Charles Sumner Lincoln–Douglas debates 1860 presidential election Crittenden Compromise Secession of Southern states Peace Conference of 1861 Corwin Amendment

Social Nat Turner's slave rebellion Martyrdom of Elijah Lovejoy Burning of Pennsylvania Hall American Slavery As It Is Uncle Tom's Cabin Bleeding Kansas The Impending Crisis of the South Oberlin–Wellington Rescue John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry

Judicial Trial of Reuben Crandall Commonwealth v. Aves The Amistad affair Prigg v. Pennsylvania Recapture of Anthony Burns Dred Scott v. Sandford Virginia v. John Brown

Military Star of the West Battle of Fort Sumter President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers

v t e

This article is part of a series on the
History of the United States
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See also
United States portal
v t e

The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union^[f] ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states that had seceded. The central cause of the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prevented from doing so, which was widely believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War

The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act (1957) is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted to regulate the mining sector in India. It was amended in 2015 and 2016. This act forms the basic framework of mining regulation in India.^[1]

This act is applicable to all mineral except minor minerals and atomic minerals. It details the process and conditions for acquiring a mining or prospecting licence in India. Mining minor minerals comes under the purview of state governments.^[1] River sand is considered a minor mineral.^[2] For mining and prospecting in forest land, prior permission is needed from the Ministry of Environment and Forests.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mines_and_Minerals_(Development_and_Regulation)_Act

The president of the United States (POTUS)^[A] is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States

Regulatory affairs (RA), also called government affairs, is a profession within regulated industries, such as pharmaceuticals, medical devices, cosmetics, agrochemicals (plant protection products and fertilizers), energy, banking, telecom etc. Regulatory affairs also has a very specific meaning within the healthcare industries (pharmaceuticals, medical devices, biologics and functional foods).

Regulatory affairs professionals (aka regulatory professionals) usually have responsibility for the following general areas:

• Ensuring that their companies comply with all of the regulations and laws pertaining to their business.
• Working with federal, state, and local regulatory agencies and personnel on specific issues affecting their business, i.e., working with such agencies as the Food and Drug Administration or European Medicines Agency (pharmaceuticals and medical devices); The Department of Energy; or the Securities and Exchange Commission (banking).
• Advising their companies on the regulatory aspects and climate that would affect proposed activities. i.e. describing the "regulatory climate" around issues such as the promotion of prescription drugs and Sarbanes-Oxley compliance.^[1]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_affairs

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from FDA drug approval & regulation)

"FDA" redirects here. For other uses, see FDA (disambiguation).

"USFDA" redirects here. Not to be confused with USDA.

Food and Drug Administration

Agency overview
Formed	June 30, 1906; 116 years ago[1]
Preceding agencies	Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration (July 1927 to July 1930) Bureau of Chemistry, USDA (July 1901 through July 1927) Division of Chemistry, USDA (established 1862)
Jurisdiction	Federal government of the United States
Headquarters	White Oak Campus 10903 New Hampshire Avenue Silver Spring, Maryland 20993 39°02′07″N 76°58′59″W
Employees	18,000 (2022)[2]
Annual budget	US$6.5 billion (2022)[2]
Agency executives	Robert Califf, Commissioner Janet Woodcock, Principal Deputy Commissioner
Parent agency	Department of Health and Human Services
Child agencies	Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research Center for Devices and Radiological Health Center for Drug Evaluation and Research Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Center for Tobacco Products Center for Veterinary Medicine National Center for Toxicological Research Office of Criminal Investigations Office of Regulatory Affairs
Website	fda.gov

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food safety, tobacco products, caffeine products, dietary supplements, prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceutical drugs (medications), vaccines, biopharmaceuticals, blood transfusions, medical devices, electromagnetic radiation emitting devices (ERED), cosmetics, animal foods & feed^[3] and veterinary products.

The FDA's primary focus is enforcement of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C), but the agency also enforces other laws, notably Section 361 of the Public Health Service Act, as well as associated regulations. Much of this regulatory-enforcement work is not directly related to food or drugs, but involves such things as regulating lasers, cellular phones, and condoms, as well as control of disease in contexts varying from household pets to human sperm donated for use in assisted reproduction.

The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Robert Califf is the current commissioner, as of 17 February 2022.^[4]

The FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland.^[5] The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.^[6] In 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom.^[7]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration#Medications

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_transmitter#Regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_safety_standards

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_by_algorithm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systemically_important_banks

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-Mobile_US

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_Identification_Program

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce#Governmental_regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_device#Regulation_and_oversight

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_tobacco_by_the_U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_deposit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising#Regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eared_slider?wprov=srpw1_163#Infection_risks_and_United_States_federal_regulations_on_commercial_distribution

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AR-15_style_rifle

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Practices_for_Television_Broadcasters

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banned_gymnastics_skills

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlicensed_National_Information_Infrastructure

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_vehicle_registration_code

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_transfer

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_monopoly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Steel_Trust

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/107%25_rule

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soldier%27s_Medal_recipients

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_rankings_of_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescription_drug#Regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_passport

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty_pageant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaughterhouse#Regulation_and_expansion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrication_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_account

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unusual_biological_names

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_and_monitoring_of_pollution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_number

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide#Regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpiration#Regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracking_in_the_United_States#Regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_feedback#Error-controlled_regulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy

Law enforcement is the activity of some members of government who act in an organized manner to enforce the law by discovering, deterring, rehabilitating, or punishing people who violate the rules and norms governing that society.^[1] The term encompasses police, courts, and corrections. These three components may operate independently of each other or collectively, through the use of record sharing and mutual cooperation.

The concept of law enforcement dates back to ancient times, and forms of law enforcement and police have existed in various forms across many human societies. Modern state legal codes use the term peace officer, or law enforcement officer, to include every person vested by the legislating state with police power or authority; traditionally, anyone sworn or badged, who can arrest any person for a violation of criminal law, is included under the umbrella term of law enforcement.

Although law enforcement may be most concerned with the prevention and punishment of crimes, organizations exist to discourage a wide variety of non-criminal violations of rules and norms, effected through the imposition of less severe consequences such as probation. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement

 

A pardon is a government decision to allow a person to be relieved of some or all of the legal consequences resulting from a criminal conviction. A pardon may be granted before or after conviction for the crime, depending on the laws of the jurisdiction.^[1][2]

Pardons can be granted in many countries when individuals are deemed to have demonstrated that they have "paid their debt to society", or are otherwise considered to be deserving of them. In some jurisdictions of some nations, accepting a pardon may implicitly constitute an admission of guilt; the offer is refused in some cases. Cases of wrongful conviction are in recent times more often dealt with by appeal rather than by pardon; however, a pardon is sometimes offered when innocence is undisputed in order to avoid the costs that are associated with a retrial. Clemency plays a critical role when capital punishment exists in a jurisdiction.

Pardons are sometimes seen as a mechanism for combating corruption, allowing a particular authority to circumvent a flawed judicial process to free someone who is seen as wrongly convicted. Pardons can also be a source of controversy. In extreme cases, some pardons may be seen as acts of corruption by officials in the form of granting effective immunity as political favors. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon

 In European Christianity, the divine right of kings, divine right, or God's mandation is a political and religious doctrine of political legitimacy of a monarchy. It stems from a specific metaphysical framework in which a monarch is, before birth, pre-ordained to inherit the crown, chosen by God and in the image of God. According to this theory of political legitimacy, the subjects of the crown have actively (and not merely passively) turned over the metaphysical selection of the king's soul – which will inhabit the body and rule them – to God. In this way, the "divine right" originates as a metaphysical act of humility and/or submission towards God. Divine right has been a key element of the legitimisation of many absolute monarchies. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings

A manual override (MO) or manual analog override (MAO) is a mechanism where control is taken from an automated system and given to the user. For example, a manual override in photography refers to the ability for the human photographer to turn off the automatic aperture sizing, automatic focusing, or any other automated system on the camera.^[1]

Some manual overrides can be used to veto an automated system's judgment when the system is in error. An example of this is a printer's ink level detection: in one case, a researcher found that when he overrode the system, up to 38% more pages could be printed at good quality by the printer than the automated system would have allowed.^[2]

Automated systems are becoming increasingly common and integrated into everyday objects such as automobiles and domestic appliances. This development of ubiquitous computing raises general issues of policy and law about the need for manual overrides for matters of great importance such as life-threatening situations and major economic decisions. The loyalty of such autonomous devices then becomes an issue. If they follow rules installed by the manufacturer or required by law and refuse to cede control in some situations then the owners of the devices may feel disempowered, alienated and lacking true ownership.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_override

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_brake_(train)#United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_man%27s_switch

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)#Restrictions_and_extensions

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FADEC

 

Body donation, anatomical donation, or body bequest is the donation of a whole body after death for research and education. There is usually no cost to donate a body to science; donation programs will often provide a stipend and/or cover the cost of cremation or burial once a donated cadaver has served its purpose and is returned to the family for interment.

For years, only medical schools accepted bodies for donation, but now^[when?] private programs also accept donors. Depending on the program's need for body donation, some programs accept donors with different specifications.^{[clarification needed]}

Any person wishing to donate their body may do so through a willed body program. The donor may be required, but not always, to make prior arrangements with the local medical school, university, or body donation program before death. Individuals may request a consent form, and will be supplied information about policies and procedures that will take place after the potential donor is deceased.

The practice is still relatively rare, and in attempts to increase these donations, many countries have instituted programs and regulations surrounding the donation of cadavers or body parts. For example, in some states within the United States and for academic-based programs, a person must make the decision to donate their remains themselves prior to death; the decision cannot be made by a power of attorney. If a person decides not to donate their whole body, or they are unable to, there are other forms of donation via which one can contribute their body to science after death, such as organ donation and tissue donation. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_donation

 

Reasons for donation and ethical issues

Living related donors

Living related donors donate to family members or friends in whom they have an emotional investment. The risk of surgery is offset by the psychological benefit of not losing someone related to them, or not seeing them suffer the ill effects of waiting on a list.

Paired exchange

Diagram of an exchange between otherwise incompatible pairs

A "paired-exchange" is a technique of matching willing living donors to compatible recipients using serotyping. For example, a spouse may be willing to donate a kidney to their partner but cannot since there is not a biological match. The willing spouse's kidney is donated to a matching recipient who also has an incompatible but willing spouse. The second donor must match the first recipient to complete the pair exchange. Typically the surgeries are scheduled simultaneously in case one of the donors decides to back out and the couples are kept anonymous from each other until after the transplant. Paired-donor exchange, led by work in the New England Program for Kidney Exchange as well as at Johns Hopkins University and the Ohio organ procurement organizations, may more efficiently allocate organs and lead to more transplants.

Paired exchange programs were popularized in the New England Journal of Medicine article "Ethics of a paired-kidney-exchange program" in 1997 by L.F. Ross.^[39] It was also proposed by Felix T. Rapport^[40] in 1986 as part of his initial proposals for live-donor transplants "The case for a living emotionally related international kidney donor exchange registry" in Transplant Proceedings.^[41] A paired exchange is the simplest case of a much larger exchange registry program where willing donors are matched with any number of compatible recipients.^[42] Transplant exchange programs have been suggested as early as 1970: "A cooperative kidney typing and exchange program."^[43]

The first pair exchange transplant in the US was in 2001 at Johns Hopkins Hospital.^[44] The first complex multihospital kidney exchange involving 12 people was performed in February 2009 by The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Barnes-Jewish Hospital in St. Louis and Integris Baptist Medical Center in Oklahoma City.^[45] Another 12-person multihospital kidney exchange was performed four weeks later by Saint Barnabas Medical Center in Livingston, New Jersey, Newark Beth Israel Medical Center and New York-Presbyterian Hospital.^[46] Surgical teams led by Johns Hopkins continue to pioneer this field with more complex chains of exchange, such as an eight-way multihospital kidney exchange.^[47] In December 2009, a 13 organ 13 recipient matched kidney exchange took place, coordinated through Georgetown University Hospital and Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC.^[48]

Good Samaritan

Good Samaritan or "altruistic" donation is giving a donation to someone that has no prior affiliation with the donor. The idea of altruistic donation is to give with no interest of personal gain, it is out of pure selflessness. On the other hand, the current allocation system does not assess a donor's motive, so altruistic donation is not a requirement.^[49] Some people choose to do this out of a personal need to donate. Some donate to the next person on the list; others use some method of choosing a recipient based on criteria important to them. Websites are being developed that facilitate such donation. Over half of the members of the Jesus Christians, an Australian religious group, have donated kidneys in such a fashion.^[50]

Financial compensation

See also: Organ theft, Organ trade, and Repugnancy costs

Monetary compensation for organ donors, in the form of reimbursement for out-of-pocket expenses, has been legalised in Australia,^[51] and strictly only in the case of kidney transplant in the case of Singapore (minimal reimbursement is offered in the case of other forms of organ harvesting by Singapore). Kidney disease organizations in both countries have expressed their support.^[52][53]

In compensated donation, donors get money or other compensation in exchange for their organs. This practice is common in some parts of the world, whether legal or not, and is one of the many factors driving medical tourism.^[54]

In the illegal black market the donors may not get sufficient after-operation care,^[55] the price of a kidney may be above $160,000,^[56] middlemen take most of the money, the operation is more dangerous to both the donor and receiver, and the receiver often gets hepatitis or HIV.^[57] In legal markets of Iran^[58] the price of a kidney is $2,000 to $4,000.^[57][59][60]

An article by Gary Becker and Julio Elias on "Introducing Incentives in the market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations"^[61] said that a free market could help solve the problem of a scarcity in organ transplants. Their economic modeling was able to estimate the price tag for human kidneys ($15,000) and human livers ($32,000).

In the United States, The National Organ Transplant Act of 1984 made organ sales illegal. In the United Kingdom, the Human Organ Transplants Act 1989 first made organ sales illegal, and has been superseded by the Human Tissue Act 2004. In 2007, two major European conferences recommended against the sale of organs.^[62] Recent development of websites and personal advertisements for organs among listed candidates has raised the stakes when it comes to the selling of organs, and have also sparked significant ethical debates over directed donation, "good-Samaritan" donation, and the current US organ allocation policy. Bioethicist Jacob M. Appel has argued that organ solicitation on billboards and the internet may actually increase the overall supply of organs.^[63]

In an experimental survey, Elias, Lacetera and Macis (2019) find that preferences for compensation for kidney donors have strong moral foundations; participants in the experiment especially reject direct payments by patients, which they find would violate principles of fairness.^[64]

Many countries have different approaches to organ donation such as the opt-out approach and many advertisements of organ donors, encouraging people to donate. Although these laws have been implemented in a certain country they are not forced upon everyone as it is an individual decision.

Two books, Kidney for Sale By Owner by Mark Cherry (Georgetown University Press, 2005) and Stakes and Kidneys: Why Markets in Human Body Parts are Morally Imperative by James Stacey Taylor: (Ashgate Press, 2005), advocate using markets to increase the supply of organs available for transplantation. In a 2004 journal article economist Alex Tabarrok argues that allowing organ sales, and elimination of organ donor lists will increase supply, lower costs and diminish social anxiety towards organ markets.^[65]

Iran has had a legal market for kidneys since 1988.^[66] The donor is paid approximately US$1200 by the government and also usually receives additional funds from either the recipient or local charities.^[59][67] The Economist^[68] and the Ayn Rand Institute^[69] approve and advocate a legal market elsewhere. They argued that if 0.06% of Americans between 19 and 65 were to sell one kidney, the national waiting list would disappear (which, the Economist wrote, happened in Iran). The Economist argued that donating kidneys is no more risky than surrogate motherhood, which can be done legally for pay in most countries.

In Pakistan, 40 percent to 50 percent of the residents of some villages have only one kidney because they have sold the other for a transplant into a wealthy person, probably from another country, said Dr. Farhat Moazam of Pakistan, at a World Health Organization conference. Pakistani donors are offered $2,500 for a kidney but receive only about half of that because middlemen take so much.^[70] In Chennai, southern India, poor fishermen and their families sold kidneys after their livelihoods were destroyed by the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004. About 100 people, mostly women, sold their kidneys for 40,000–60,000 rupees ($900–1,350).^[71] Thilakavathy Agatheesh, 30, who sold a kidney in May 2005 for 40,000 rupees said, "I used to earn some money selling fish but now the post-surgery stomach cramps prevent me from going to work." Most kidney sellers say that selling their kidney was a mistake.^[72]

In Cyprus in 2010, police closed a fertility clinic under charges of trafficking in human eggs. The Petra Clinic, as it was known locally, brought in women from Ukraine and Russia for egg harvesting and sold the genetic material to foreign fertility tourists.^[73] This sort of reproductive trafficking violates laws in the European Union. In 2010, Scott Carney reported for the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting and the magazine Fast Company explored illicit fertility networks in Spain, the United States and Israel.^[74][75]

Forced donation

See also: Persecution of Falun Gong § Organ harvesting

There have been concerns that certain authorities are harvesting organs from people deemed undesirable, such as prison populations. The World Medical Association stated that prisoners and other individuals in custody are not in a position to give consent freely, and therefore their organs must not be used for transplantation.^[76]

According to former Chinese Deputy Minister of Health, Huang Jiefu, the practice of transplanting organs from executed prisoners is still occurring as of February 2017.^[77][78] World Journal reported Huang had admitted approximately 95% of all organs used for transplantation are from executed prisoners.^[78] The lack of a public organ donation program in China is used as a justification for this practice. In July 2006, the Kilgour-Matas report^[79] stated, "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six-year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and "we believe that there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners".^[79] Investigative journalist Ethan Gutmann estimates 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008.^[80][81] However 2016 reports updated the death toll of the 15-year period since the persecution of Falun Gong began putting the death toll at 150,000^[82] to 1.5 million.^[83] In December 2006, after not getting assurances from the Chinese government about allegations relating to Chinese prisoners, the two major organ transplant hospitals in Queensland, Australia stopped transplantation training for Chinese surgeons and banned joint research programs into organ transplantation with China.^[84]

In May 2008, two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their requests for "the Chinese government to fully explain the allegation of taking vital organs from Falun Gong practitioners and the source of organs for the sudden increase in organ transplants that has been going on in China since the year 2000".^[85] People in other parts of the world are responding to this availability of organs, and a number of individuals (including US and Japanese citizens) have elected to travel to China or India as medical tourists to receive organ transplants which may have been sourced in what might be considered elsewhere to be unethical manner.^{[86][87][88][89][90]}

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_transplantation#Reasons_for_donation_and_ethical_issues

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Philanthropy (disambiguation).

"Philanthropist" redirects here. For other uses, see Philanthropist (disambiguation).

Philanthropy is a form of altruism that consists of "private initiatives, for the public good, focusing on quality of life". Philanthropy contrasts with business initiatives, which are private initiatives for private good, focusing on material gain; and with government endeavors, which are public initiatives for public good, notably focusing on provision of public services.^[1] A person who practices philanthropy is a philanthropist.

See also: List of philanthropists

Etymology

Herodes Atticus, a Greek philanthropist of Ancient Rome active during the 2nd century AD

The word philanthropy comes from Ancient Greek φιλανθρωπία (philanthrōpía) 'love of humanity', from phil- 'love, fond of' and anthrōpos 'humankind, mankind'.^[2] In the second century AD, Plutarch used the Greek concept of philanthrôpía to describe superior human beings. During the Middle Ages, philanthrôpía was superseded in Europe by the Christian virtue of charity (Latin: caritas) in the sense of selfless love, valued for salvation and escape from purgatory.^[3] Thomas Aquinas held that "the habit of charity extends not only to the love of God, but also to the love of our neighbor".^[4]

Philanthropy was modernized by Sir Francis Bacon in the 1600s, who is credited in great part with preventing the word from being owned by horticulture.^{[clarification needed]} Bacon considered philanthrôpía to be synonymous with "goodness", correlated with the Aristotelian conception of virtue, as consciously instilled habits of good behaviour. Samuel Johnson simply defined philanthropy as "love of mankind; good nature".^[5] This definition still survives today and is often cited more gender-neutrally as the "love of humanity."^{[6][better source needed]}

Europe

Great Britain

The Foundling Hospital in London, c. 1753. The original building has since been demolished.

In London, prior to the 18th century, parochial and civic charities were typically established by bequests and operated by local church parishes (such as St Dionis Backchurch) or guilds (such as the Carpenters' Company). During the 18th century, however, "a more activist and explicitly Protestant tradition of direct charitable engagement during life" took hold, exemplified by the creation of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and Societies for the Reformation of Manners.^[7]

In 1739, Thomas Coram, appalled by the number of abandoned children living on the streets of London, received a royal charter to establish the Foundling Hospital to look after these unwanted orphans in Lamb's Conduit Fields, Bloomsbury.^[8] This was "the first children's charity in the country, and one that 'set the pattern for incorporated associational charities' in general."^[8] The hospital "marked the first great milestone in the creation of these new-style charities."^[7]

Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era, established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarer's charity, in a bid to aid the recruitment of men to the navy.^[9] By 1763, the society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes. These organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. They raised public awareness of their activities through the emerging popular press and were generally held in high social regard—some charities received state recognition in the form of the Royal Charter.

19th century

William Wilberforce, a prominent British philanthropist and anti-slavery campaigner

Philanthropists, such as anti-slavery campaigner William Wilberforce, began to adopt active campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause and lobby the government for legislative change. This included organized campaigns against the ill treatment of animals and children and the campaign that succeeded in ending the slave trade throughout the Empire starting in 1807.^[10] Although there were no slaves allowed in Britain itself, many rich men owned sugar plantations in the West Indies, and resisted the movement to buy them out until it finally succeeded in 1833.^[11]

Financial donations to organized charities became fashionable among the middle-class in the 19th century. By 1869 there were over 200 London charities with an annual income, all together, of about £2 million. By 1885, rapid growth had produced over 1000 London charities, with an income of about £4.5 million. They included a wide range of religious and secular goals, with the American import, YMCA, as one of the largest, and many small ones such as the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association. In addition to making annual donations, increasingly wealthy industrialists and financiers left generous sums in their wills. A sample of 466 wills in the 1890s revealed a total wealth of £76 million, of which £20 million was bequeathed to charities. By 1900 London charities enjoyed an annual income of about £8.5 million.^[12]

Led by the energetic Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885), philanthropists organized themselves.^[13] In 1869 they set up the Charity Organisation Society. It was a federation of district committees, one in each of the 42 Poor Law divisions. Its central office had experts in coordination and guidance, thereby maximizing the impact of charitable giving to the poor.^[14] Many of the charities were designed to alleviate the harsh living conditions in the slums. such as the Labourer's Friend Society founded in 1830. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for "cottage husbandry" that later became the allotment movement, and in 1844 it became the first Model Dwellings Company—an organization that sought to improve the housing conditions of the working classes by building new homes for them, while at the same time receiving a competitive rate of return on any investment. This was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavor that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century, brought about by the growth of the middle class. Later associations included the Peabody Trust, and the Guinness Trust. The principle of philanthropic intention with capitalist return was given the label "five per cent philanthropy."^[15][16]

Switzerland

Main articles: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and International Committee of the Red Cross

The Red Cross, after the Battle of Gravelotte in 1870

In 1863, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant used his fortune to fund the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, which became the International Committee of the Red Cross. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Dunant personally led Red Cross delegations that treated soldiers. He shared the first Nobel Peace Prize for this work in 1901.^[17]

The French Red Cross played a minor role in the war with Germany (1870–71). After that, it became a major factor in shaping French civil society as a non-religious humanitarian organization. It was closely tied to the army's Service de Santé. By 1914 it operated one thousand local committees with 164,000 members, 21,500 trained nurses, and over 27 million francs in assets.^[18]

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) played a major role in working with POW's on all sides in World War II. It was in a cash-starved position when the war began in 1939, but quickly mobilized its national offices set up a Central Prisoner of War Agency. For example, it provided food, mail and assistance to 365,000 British and Commonwealth soldiers and civilians held captive. Suspicions, especially by London, of ICRC as too tolerant or even complicit with Nazi Germany led to its side-lining in favour of the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) as the primary humanitarian agency after 1945.^[19]

France

Men and woman working in a classroom at the Institut Pasteur in Paris, c. 1920

In France, the Pasteur Institute had a monopoly of specialized microbiological knowledge allowed it to raise money for serum production from both private and public sources, walking the line between a commercial pharmaceutical venture and a philanthropic enterprise.^[20]

By 1933, at the depth of the Great Depression, the French wanted a welfare state to relieve distress but did not want new taxes. War veterans came up with a solution: the new national lottery proved highly popular to gamblers, while generating the cash needed without raising taxes.^[21]

American money proved invaluable. The Rockefeller Foundation opened an office in Paris and helped design and fund France's modern public health system, under the National Institute of Hygiene. It also set up schools to train physicians and nurses.^[22][23]

Germany

The history of modern philanthropy on the European Continent is especially important in the case of Germany, which became a model for others, especially regarding the welfare state. The princes and in the various imperial states continued traditional efforts, such as monumental buildings, parks and art collections. Starting in the early 19th century, the rapidly emerging middle classes made local philanthropy a major endeavor to establish their legitimate role in shaping society, in contradistinction to the aristocracy and the military. They concentrated on support for social welfare institutions, higher education, and cultural institutions, as well as some efforts to alleviate the hardships of rapid industrialization. The bourgeoisie (upper-middle-class) was defeated in its effort to it gain political control in 1848, but it still had enough money and organizational skills that could be employed through philanthropic agencies to provide an alternative powerbase for its world view.^[24]

Religion was a divisive element in Germany, as the Protestants, Catholics and Jews used alternative philanthropic strategies. The Catholics, for example, continued their medieval practice of using financial donations in their wills to lighten their punishment in purgatory after death. The Protestants did not believe in purgatory, but made a strong commitment to the improvement of their communities there and then. Conservative Protestants raised concerns about deviant sexuality, alcoholism and socialism, as well as illegitimate births. They used philanthropy to try to eradicate what they considered as "social evils" that were seen as utterly sinful.^[25][26] All the religious groups used financial endowments, which multiplied in the number and wealth as Germany grew richer. Each was devoted to a specific benefit to that religious community, and each had a board of trustees; these were laymen who donated their time to public service.

Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, an upper class Junker, used his state-sponsored philanthropy, in the form of his invention of the modern welfare state, to neutralize the political threat posed by the socialistic labor unions.^[27] The middle classes, however, made the most use of the new welfare state, in terms of heavy use of museums, gymnasiums (high schools), universities, scholarships, and hospitals. For example, state funding for universities and gymnasiums covered only a fraction of the cost; private philanthropy became the essential ingredient. 19th-century Germany was even more oriented toward civic improvement than Britain or the United States, when measured in terms of voluntary private funding for public purposes. Indeed, such German institutions as the kindergarten, the research university, and the welfare state became models copied by the Anglo-Saxons.^[28]

The heavy human and economic losses of the First World War, the financial crises of the 1920s, as well as the Nazi regime and other devastation by 1945, seriously undermined and weakened the opportunities for widespread philanthropy in Germany. The civil society so elaborately build up in the 19th century was practically dead by 1945. However, by the 1950s, as the "economic miracle" was restoring German prosperity, the old aristocracy was defunct, and middle-class philanthropy started to return to importance.^[29]

War and postwar: Belgium and Eastern Europe

Poster requesting clothing for occupied France and Belgium

The Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB) was an international (predominantly American) organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium and northern France during the First World War. It was led by Herbert Hoover.^[30] Between 1914 and 1919, the CRB operated entirely with voluntary efforts and was able to feed 11,000,000 Belgians by raising the necessary money, obtaining voluntary contributions of money and food, shipping the food to Belgium and controlling it there. For example, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium.^[31] Biographer George Nash finds that by the end of 1916, Hoover "stood preeminent in the greatest humanitarian undertaking the world had ever seen."^[32] Biographer William Leuchtenburg adds, "He had raised and spent millions of dollars, with trifling overhead and not a penny lost to fraud. At its peak, his organization was feeding nine million Belgians and French a day.^[33]

When the war ended in late 1918, Hoover took control of the American Relief Administration (ARA), with the mission of food to Central and Eastern Europe. The ARA fed millions.^[34] U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in the summer of 1919, and Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. Under the auspices of the ARA, the European Children's Fund fed millions of starving children. When attacked for distributing food to Russia, which was under Bolshevik control, Hoover snapped, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"^[35][36]

United States

Main article: Philanthropy in the United States

The first corporation founded in the Thirteen Colonies was Harvard College (1636), designed primarily to train young men for the clergy. A leading theorist was the Puritan theologian Cotton Mather (1662–1728), who in 1710 published a widely read essay, Bonifacius, or an Essay to Do Good. Mather worried that the original idealism had eroded, so he advocated philanthropic benefaction as a way of life. Though his context was Christian, his idea was also characteristically American and explicitly Classical, on the threshold of the Enlightenment.^[37]

Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was an activist and theorist of American philanthropy. He was much influenced by Daniel Defoe's An Essay upon Projects (1697) and Cotton Mather's Bonifacius: an essay upon the good. (1710). Franklin attempted to motivate his fellow Philadelphians into projects for the betterment of the city: examples included the Library Company of Philadelphia (the first American subscription library), the fire department, the police force, street lighting and a hospital. A world-class physicist himself, he promoted scientific organizations including the Philadelphia Academy (1751) – which became the University of Pennsylvania – as well as the American Philosophical Society (1743), to enable scientific researchers from all 13 colonies to communicate.^[38]

By the 1820s, newly rich American businessmen were initiating philanthropic work, especially with respect to private colleges and hospitals. George Peabody (1795–1869) is the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy. A financier based in Baltimore and London, in the 1860s he began to endow libraries and museums in the United States, and also funded housing for poor people in London. His activities became the model for Andrew Carnegie and many others.^[39][40]

Andrew Carnegie

Andrew Carnegie's philanthropy. Puck magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903

Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) was the most influential leader of philanthropy on a national (rather than local) scale. After selling his steel company in 1901 he devoted himself to establishing philanthropic organizations, and making direct contributions to many educational, cultural and research institutions. He financed over 2500 public libraries built across the nation and abroad. He also funded Carnegie Hall in New York City and the Peace Palace in the Netherlands. His final and largest project was the Carnegie Corporation of New York, founded in 1911 with a $25 million endowment, later enlarged to $135 million. Carnegie Corporation has endowed or otherwise helped to establish institutions that include the Russian Research Center at Harvard University (now known as the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies),^[41] the Brookings Institution and the Sesame Workshop. In all, Andrew Carnegie gave away 90% of his fortune.^[42]

John D. Rockefeller

John D. Rockefeller in 1895

Other prominent American philanthropists of the early 20th century included John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), Julius Rosenwald (1862–1932)^[43][44] and Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage (1828–1918).^[45] Rockefeller retired from business in the 1890s; he and his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874–1960) made large-scale national philanthropy systematic, especially with regard to the study and application of modern medicine, higher education and scientific research. Of the $530 million the elder Rockefeller gave away, $450 million went to medicine.^[46] Their leading advisor Frederick Taylor Gates launched several very large philanthropic projects staffed by experts who sought to address problems systematically at the roots rather than let the recipients deal only with their immediate concerns.^[47]

By 1920, the Rockefeller Foundation was opening offices in Europe. It launched medical and scientific projects in Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and elsewhere. It supported the health projects of the League of Nations.^[48] By the 1950s, it was investing heavily in the Green Revolution, especially the work by Norman Borlaug that enabled India, Mexico and many poor countries to dramatically upgrade their agricultural productivity.^[49]

Ford Foundation

Main article: Ford Foundation

With the acquisition of most of the stock of the Ford Motor Company in the late 1940s, the Ford Foundation became the largest American philanthropy, splitting its activities between the United States, and the rest of the world. Outside the United States, it established a network of human rights organizations, promoted democracy, gave large numbers of fellowships for young leaders to study in the United States, and invested heavily in the Green Revolution, whereby poor nations dramatically increased their output of rice, wheat and other foods. Both Ford and Rockefeller were heavily involved.^[50] Ford also gave heavily to build up research universities in Europe and worldwide. For example, in Italy in 1950, it sent a team to help the Italian ministry of education reform the nation's school system, based on the principles of 'meritocracy" (rather than political or family patronage), democratisation (with universal access to secondary schools). It reached a compromise between the Christian Democrats and the Socialists, to help promote uniform treatment and equal outcomes. The success in Italy became a model for Ford programs and many other nations.^[51]

The Ford Foundation in the 1950s wanted to modernize the legal systems in India and Africa, by promoting the American model. The plan failed, because of India's unique legal history, traditions, and profession, as well as its economic and political conditions. Ford, therefore, turned to agricultural reform.^[52] The success rate in Africa was no better, and that program closed in 1977.^[53]

Asia

Saudi Arabian philanthropist Lamia bint Majed al-Saud

While charity has a long history in Asia, philanthropy or a systematic approach to doing good remains nascent.^[54] Chinese philosopher Mozi (c. 470 – c. 391 BC) developed the concept of "universal love" (jiān'ài, 兼愛), a reaction against perceived over-attachment to family and clan structures within Confucianism. Other interpretations of Confucianism see concern for others as an extension of benevolence.^[55]

Muslims in countries such as Indonesia are bound by zakat (almsgiving), while Buddhists and Christians throughout Asia may participate in philanthropic activities. In India, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is now mandated, with 2% of net profits to be directed towards charity.^[56]

Asia is home to the majority of the world's billionaires, surpassing the United States and Europe in 2017.^[57] Wikipedia's list of countries by number of billionaires shows three Asian economies in the top ten: 698 in China, 237 in India and 71 in Hong Kong (as of March 2021).

Whilst the region's philanthropy practices are relatively under-researched compared to those of the United States and Europe, the Centre for Asian Philanthropy and Society (CAPS) produces a study of the sector every two years. In 2020, its research found that if Asia were to donate the equivalent of two per cent of its GDP, the same as the United States, it would unleash US$507 billion (HK$3.9 trillion) annually, more than 11 times the foreign aid flowing into the region every year and one-third of the annual amount needed globally to meet the sustainable development goals by 2030.^[58]

Oceania

Australia

Structured giving in Australia through foundations^[59] is slowly growing, although public data on the philanthropic sector is sparse.^[60][61] There is no public registry of philanthropic foundations as distinct from charities more generally.

Two foundation types for which some data is available^[62][63][64] are Private Ancillary Funds (PAFs)^[65] and Public Ancillary Funds (PubAFs).^[66][67] Private Ancillary Funds have some similarities to private family foundations in the US and Europe, and do not have a public fundraising requirement.^[68] Public Ancillary Funds include community foundations, some corporate foundations, and foundations that solely support single organisations such as hospitals, schools, museums and art galleries.^[69][70] They must raise funds from the general public.^[71]

Differences between traditional and new philanthropy

Impact investment versus traditional philanthropy

Traditional philanthropy and impact investment can be distinguished by how they serve society. Traditional philanthropy is usually short-term, where organizations obtain resources for causes through fund-raising and one-off donations.^[72] The Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation are examples of such; they focus more on the financial contributions to social causes and less on the actual actions and processes of benevolence. Impact investment, on the other hand, focuses on the interaction between individual wellbeing and broader society through the promotion of sustainability. Stressing the importance of impact and change, they invest in different sectors of society, including housing, infrastructure, healthcare and energy.^[73]

A suggested explanation for the preference for impact investment philanthropy to traditional philanthropy is the gaining prominence of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) since 2015. Almost every SDG is linked to environmental protection and sustainability because of raising concerns about how globalisation, liberal consumerism and population growth may affect the environment. As a result, development agencies have seen increased accountability on their part, as they face greater pressure to fit with current developmental agendas.

Traditional philanthropy versus philanthrocapitalism

Philanthrocapitalism differs from traditional philanthropy in how it operates. Traditional philanthropy is about charity, mercy, and selfless devotion improving recipients' wellbeing.^[73] Philanthrocapitalism, is philanthropy transformed by business and the market,^[74] where profit-oriented business models are designed that work for the good of humanity.^[75] Share value companies are an example. They help develop and deliver curricula in education, strengthen their own businesses and improve the job prospects of people.^[76] Firms improve social outcomes, but while they do so, they also benefit themselves.

The rise of philanthrocapitalism can be attributed to global capitalism. There is an understanding that philanthropy is not worthwhile if no economic benefit can be derived by philanthropy organisations, both from a social and private perspective. Therefore, philanthropy has been seen as a tool to sustain economic growth and the firm's own growth, based on human capital theory. Through education, specific skills are taught which enhance people's capacity to learn and their productivity at work.

Intel invests in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curricular standards in the US and provides learning resources and materials for schools, for its own innovation and revenue.^[77] The New Employment Opportunities initiative in Latin America is a regional collaboration to train 1 million youth by 2022 to raise employment standards and ultimately provide a talented pool of labour for companies.

Promoting equity through science and health philanthropy

Philanthropy has the potential to foster equity and inclusivity in various fields, such as scientific research, development, and healthcare. Addressing systemic inequalities in these sectors can lead to more diverse perspectives, innovations, and better overall outcomes. Scholars have examined the importance of philanthropic support in promoting equity in different areas. For example, Christopherson et al.^[78] highlight the need to prioritize underrepresented groups, promote equitable partnerships, and advocate for diverse leadership within the scientific community. In the healthcare sector, Thompson et al.^[79] emphasize the role of philanthropy in empowering communities to reduce health disparities and address the root causes of these disparities. Research by Chandra et al.^[80] demonstrates the potential of strategic philanthropy to tackle health inequalities through initiatives that focus on prevention, early intervention, and building community capacity. Similarly, a report by the Bridgespan Group^[81] suggests that philanthropy can create systemic change by investing in long-term solutions that address the underlying causes of social issues, including those related to science and health disparities.

To advance equity in science and healthcare, philanthropists can adopt several key strategies:

• Prioritize underrepresented groups: Support scientists and health professionals from diverse backgrounds to help address historical injustices and foster diversity.
• Encourage equitable partnerships: Facilitate collaborations between institutions from different backgrounds to promote knowledge exchange and a fair distribution of resources.
• Advocate for diverse leadership: Support initiatives that emphasize diversity and inclusion in leadership positions within scientific and health institutions.
• Invest in early-career professionals: Help create a more equitable pipeline for future leaders in science and healthcare by investing in early-career researchers and health professionals.
• Influence policy changes: Utilize philanthropic influence to advocate for policy changes that address systemic inequalities in science and health. Through these approaches, philanthropy can play a significant role in promoting equity within scientific and health communities, leading to more inclusive and effective advancements.

Types of philanthropy

Philanthropy is defined differently by different groups of people; many define it as a means to alleviate human suffering and advance the quality of life.^[82] There are many diverse forms of philanthropy, allowing for different impacts by different groups in different settings.

Celebrity philanthropy

Celebrity philanthropy refers to celebrity-affiliated charitable and philanthropic activities. It is an increasingly prevalent topic of scholarship in studies of 'the popular' vis-à-vis the modern and post-modern world.^[83]: 3 Structured and systematised charitable giving by celebrities is a relatively new phenomenon. Although charity and fame are associated historically, it was only in the 1990s that entertainment and sports celebrities from affluent western societies became involved with a particular type of philanthropy.^{[83]: 1–16} Celebrity philanthropy in contemporary western societies is not isolated to large one-off monetary donations by definition. It involves celebrities using their publicity, brand credibility and personal wealth to promote not-for-profit organisations, which are increasingly 'business-like' in form. This is sometimes termed as 'celanthropy' – the fusion of celebrity and cause as a representation of what the organisation advocates.^[83]: 5

Implications on government and governance

The advent of celebrity philanthropy has seen the contraction of government involvement in areas such as welfare support and foreign aid to name a few. This can be identified from the proliferation of neoliberal policies^{[citation needed]}. Conversely, public interest groups, not-for-profit organisations and the United Nations now budget extensive amounts of time and money to use celebrity endorsers in their campaigns. An example of this is the People's Climate March, which took place on 21 September 2014. The demonstration was part of the larger People's Climate Movement, which aims to raise awareness of climate change and environmental issues more generally. Notable celebrities who are part of this campaign include actors Leonardo DiCaprio, Mark Ruffalo and Edward Norton.^[84]

Examples

• The Concert for Bangladesh
• Band Aid
• LiveAid
• NetAid
• Danny Thomas and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital
• Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media
• Jerry Lewis and the MDA Telethon
• List of UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
• Newman's Own
• Tiger Woods Foundation
• Richard Gere Activism
• Remote Area Medical

Diaspora philanthropy

Diaspora philanthropy is philanthropy conducted by diaspora populations either in their country of residence or in their countries of origin. Diaspora philanthropy is a newly established term with many variations, including migrant philanthropy, homeland philanthropy, and transnational giving.^[85] It is a relatively new term and there is limited scholarship available on it so far. In diaspora philanthropy, migrants and their descendants are frontline distributors of aid, and enablers of development.^[86] For many countries, diaspora philanthropy is a prominent way in which members of the diaspora invest back into their homeland countries. Along with diaspora-led foreign direct investment, diaspora philanthropy is becoming a growing force in the development of a country. Members of a diaspora are uniquely familiar with their community's needs and the social, political, and economic factors that influence the delivery of those needs. Studies show that those who are a part of the diaspora are more aware of the pressing and neglected issues of their community than outsiders or other well wishers.^[87] Also given their deep ties to their country of origin, diaspora philanthropies have greater longevity compared to other international philanthropies. Due to the distance buffer accompanied with diaspora philanthropy, diaspora philanthropy is more willing to address controversial issues found in their country of origin compared to local philanthropy.^[85]  

Philanthropic capitalism

Philanthropic capitalism or Philanthrocapitalism is a way of doing philanthropy through the capitalist realm. Instead of it being for profit, the philanthropist does it as a non-profit and only breaks even or even takes a small loss, but the overall gain to the community would be greater than the small loss they in-cured.^[88] For example, if a philanthropist puts up $10 million dollars for neighborhood revitalization to build new homes in place of dilapidated housing and only breaks even or takes on a small loss selling the homes. If they took a $1,000 loss on each home, 10,000 homes could be made with that initial philanthropic donation. It could be run like a nonprofit organization so they wouldn't have to pay property taxes on the homes as they were waiting to be sold.

Criticism

Despite the initial observed benefits of philanthropy as a variant form of charity, it has been noted that philanthropy has been used by ultra high-net-worth individuals to offset their larger tax liabilities, through charitable contribution deductions enabled by the tax code. In the book Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World by Anand Giridharadas, he notes that various philanthropic initiatives by the wealthy elite in practice function to entrench the power structures and special interests of the wealthy elite.^[89] For example, despite Robert F. Smith's generosity by paying off the student debt incurred by the Morehouse class of 2019, he simultaneously fought against changes to the tax code that would have made more money available to help low-income students pay for college. As a result, Giridharadas argues, Smith's philanthropic giving functions to reinforce the prevailing status quo and perpetuates income inequality, instead of addressing the root cause of social issues.^[90]

The ability of wealthy people to deduct a significant amount of their tax liabilities in the form of philanthropic giving, as noted by the late German billionaire shipping magnate and philanthropist Peter Kramer, functioned as "a bad transfer of power", from democratically elected politicians to unelected billionaires, whereby it is no longer "the state that determines what is good for the people, but rather the rich who decide". The Global Policy Forum, an independent policy watchdog which functions to monitor the activities of the United Nations General Assembly, warned governments and international organisations that they should "assess the growing influence of major philanthropic foundations, and especially the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation … and analyse the intended and unintended risks and side-effects of their activities" prior to accepting money from rich donors. In 2015, Global Policy Forum also warned elected politicians that they should be particularly concerned about "the unpredictable and insufficient financing of public goods, the lack of monitoring and accountability mechanisms, and the prevailing practice of applying business logic to the provision of public goods".^[91]

Giridharadas also argues that philanthrophy also functions to distract the general public from some of the ill-gotten gains that were derived for profit from the marketplace. For example, the Sackler family were known for their generous philanthropic giving to various cultural institutions worldwide. However, their philanthropic giving functioned as deception and propaganda, as their legacy of generosity was tainted by the subsequent exposure of Purdue Pharma's role in encouraging and exacerbating the opioid epidemic.^[92] As a result of their exposed ill-gotten gains from the social issues caused by the philanthropic donors, the British institutions of the National Portrait Gallery, London and the Tate, along with the American institution Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, announced their rejection of charitable giving from the Sackler family trusts.^[92]

See also

• List of philanthropists
• List of wealthiest charitable foundations
• Charitable organization
• Ethics of philanthropy
• Effective altruism
• Foundation (charity)
• Non-profit organization
• Venture philanthropy
• Visiting the sick
• Misanthropy
• Philanthropic capitalism

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"The London Foundling Hospital". victorianweb.org. Retrieved 29 January 2016.

N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company: 2004), 313.

Louis Taylor Merrill, "The English campaign for abolition of the slave trade." Journal of Negro History 30#4 (1945): 382–399. online Archived 2021-02-06 at the Wayback Machine

Christer Petley, "'Devoted Islands' and 'that Madman Wilberforce': British Proslavery Patriotism during the Age of Abolition." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 39#3 (2011): 393–415.

Donald Read, England 1868–1914: The age of urban democracy (1979), pp 129–30.

Geoffrey Finlayson, "The Victorian Shaftesbury." History Today (March 1983) 33#3 pp 31–35.

Read, England 1868–1914 p 130.

Siegel, Fred (1974). "Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas Between 1840 and 1914. By John Nelson Tarn… [Book Review]". The Journal of Economic History. 34 (4, December): 1061f. doi:10.1017/S0022050700089683. S2CID 154468207.

Tarn, John Nelson (1973). Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas Between 1840 and 1914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. xiv, 23, and passim. ISBN 978-0521085069.

David P. Forsythe, The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross (2005).

Rachel Chrastil, "The French Red Cross, war readiness, and civil society, 1866–1914." French Historical Studies 31#3 (2008): 445–476.

J. Crossland, Britain and the International Committee of the Red Cross, 1939–1945 (2014).

Simon, J (2007), "The origin of the production of diphtheria antitoxin in France, between philanthropy and commerce", Dynamis: Acta Hispanica Ad Medicinae Scientiarumque Historiam Illustrandam, 27: 63–82, PMID 18351159

Nicolas Delalande, "Giving and Gambling: The Gueules Cassées, the National Lottery, and the Moral Economy of the Welfare State in 1930s France." French Historical Studies 40#4 (2017): 623–649.

William H. Schneider, "War, philanthropy, and the National Institute of Hygiene in France." Minerva 41#1 (2003): 1–23.

Timothy B. "The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914–1943." The Historical Journal 41#4 (1998): 1055–1087.

Thomas Adam, Philanthropy, Civil Society, and the State in German history, 1815–1989 (2016).

Andrew Lees, "Deviant Sexuality and Other 'Sins': The Views of Protestant Conservatives in Imperial Germany." German Studies Review 23.3 (2000): 453–476.

Andrew Lees, Cities, Sin and Social Reform in Imperial Germany (2002).

Dimitris N. Chorafas (2016). Education and Employment in the European Union: The Social Cost of Business. Routledge. p. 255. ISBN 9781317145936.

Adam, Philanthropy, pp 1–7.

Adam, Philanthropy, pp 142–73.

George H. Nash, "An American Epic: Herbert Hoover and Belgian Relief in World War I," Prologue (1989) 21#1 pp 75–86

David Burner, Herbert Hoover: The Public Life (1979) pp 72–95.

George H. Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914–1917 (1988) p 249.

William E. Leuchtenburg (2009). Herbert Hoover. p. 30. ISBN 9781429933490.

Burner, Hoover pp 114–37.

Leuchtenburg (2009). Herbert Hoover. p. 58. ISBN 9781429933490.

Frank M. Surface and Raymond L. Bland, American food in the world war and reconstruction period : operations of the organizations under the direction of Herbert Hoover, 1914 to 1924 (1932) online; 1034 detailed pages

Cotton Mather (1825). Essays to do Good addressed to all Christians, whether in public or private capacities. p. 51.

Robert T. Grimm, ed. (2002). Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering. pp. 100–3. ISBN 9781573563406.

Grimm, ed. (2002). Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering. pp. 243–45. ISBN 9781573563406.

Schaaf, Elizabeth (1995). "George Peabody: His Life and Legacy, 1795–1869". Maryland Historical Magazine. 90 (3): 268–285.

"Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies". Kathryn W. and Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies, Harvard University. Harvard University. 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2018.^{[permanent dead link]}

Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie (1970), pp 882–84.

Grimm, Robert T., ed. (2002). Notable American Philanthropists. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pp. 277–79. ISBN 978-1573563406.

Ascoli, Peter M. (2006). Julius Rosenwald: The Man Who Built Sears, Roebuck and Advanced the Cause of Black Education in the American South.

Crocker, Ruth (2003). Mrs. Russell Sage: Women's Activism and Philanthropy in Gilded Age and Progressive Era America.

Peter J. Johnson and John Ensor Harr, The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family (1988)

Dwight Burlingame (2004). Philanthropy in America: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia, vol 2. ABC-CLIO. p. 419. ISBN 9781576078600.

Paul Weindling, "Philanthropy and world health: the Rockefeller Foundation and the League of Nations Health Organization." Minerva 35.3 (1997): 269–281.

Leon F. Hesser, The man who fed the world: Nobel Peace Prize laureate Norman Borlaug and his battle to end world hunger: An authorized biography (2006).

Toenniessen, Gary; Adesina, Akinwumi; Devries, Joseph (2008), "Building an Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136 (1): 233–42, Bibcode:2008NYASA1136..233T, doi:10.1196/annals.1425.028, PMID 18579885, S2CID 16277025

Mariuzzo, Andrea (2016), "American cultural diplomacy and post-war educational reforms: James Bryant Conant's mission to Italy in 1960", History of Education, 45 (3): 352–371, doi:10.1080/0046760X.2016.1154192, hdl:11380/1176822, S2CID 146991139

Jayanth K. Krishnan, "Professor Kingsfield goes to Delhi: American academics, the Ford Foundation, and the development of legal education in India." American Journal of Legal History 46.4 (2004): 447–499. online Archived 2021-02-05 at the Wayback Machine

Jayanth K. Krishnan, "Academic SAILERS: The Ford Foundation and the Efforts to Shape Legal Education in Africa, 1957–1977." American Journal of Legal History 52.3 (2012): 261–324.

"Philanthropy in Asia needs a push from good government policies". 29 January 2018. Retrieved 2021-10-27.

"The Values of Confucian Benevolence and the Universality of the Confucian Way of Extending Love" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-11-22.

"Handbook on Corporate Social Responsibility in India" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-10-27.

"Philanthropy in Asia hampered by trust issues, says report". Retrieved 2021-10-26.

"Centre for Asian Philanthropy and Society's Doing Good Index Plots Way Forward in Post-Covid-19 World". 18 June 2020. Retrieved 2021-10-27.

Scaife, Wendy A.; Williamson, Alexandra (2012-02-22). "Foundations for giving : why and how Australians structure their philanthropy". Queensland, Australia. doi:10.5204/rep.eprints.48801.

McGregor-Lowndes, Myles; Williamson, Alexandra (2018-05-02). "Foundations in Australia: Dimensions for International Comparison". American Behavioral Scientist. 62 (13): 1759–1776. doi:10.1177/0002764218773495. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 149469573.

Scaife, Wendy; McDonald, Katie; Williamson, Alexandra; Mossel, Valérie (2015). Wiepking, Pamala; Handy, Femida (eds.). Giving in Australia: Philanthropic Potential Beginning to Be Realized. The Palgrave Handbook of Global Philanthropy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 488–505. doi:10.1057/9781137341532_28. ISBN 9781137343239.

Mcgregor-Lowndes, Myles; Balczun, Marie; Williamson, Alexandra (2022-08-16). "Ancillary Funds 2000–2020: ACPNS Current Issues Information Sheet 2022-1".

McGregor-Lowndes, Myles; Balczun, Marie; Williamson, Alexandra (September 2020). "Ancillary Funds 2017-2018: ACPNS Current Issues Information Sheet 2020/2, August 2020". eprints.qut.edu.au. Retrieved 2021-01-21.

McGregor-Lowndes, Myles; Balczun, Marie; Williamson, Alexandra (2021-07-15). "Ancillary Funds 2000–2019: ACPNS Current Issues Information Sheet 2021-1".

Office, Australian Taxation. "Private ancillary funds". www.ato.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-08-06.

Office, Australian Taxation. "Public ancillary funds". www.ato.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-08-06.

Williamson, Alexandra Kate; Luke, Belinda G. (2021). "Mapping the field of public ancillary funds". Australian Journal of Public Administration. 80 (4): 748–768. doi:10.1111/1467-8500.12515. ISSN 1467-8500. S2CID 240517564.

Williamson, Alexandra; Luke, Belinda; Leat, Diana; Furneaux, Craig (2017). "Founders, Families, and Futures: Perspectives on the Accountability of Australian Private Ancillary Funds" (PDF). Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. 46 (4): 747–771. doi:10.1177/0899764017703711. ISSN 0899-7640. S2CID 151796260.

Williamson, Alexandra Kate; Luke, Belinda G. (2021-09-22). "Mapping the field of public ancillary funds". Australian Journal of Public Administration. 80 (4): 748–768. doi:10.1111/1467-8500.12515. ISSN 0313-6647. S2CID 240517564.

Williamson, Alexandra Kate; Luke, Belinda; Furneaux, Craig (2020-09-11). "Ties That Bind: Public Foundations in Dyadic Partnerships". VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations. 32 (2): 234–246. doi:10.1007/s11266-020-00269-8. ISSN 1573-7888. S2CID 225218420.

Williamson, Alexandra; Luke, Belinda (2019-09-01). "Publicness and the Identity of Public Foundations". The Foundation Review. 11 (3). doi:10.9707/1944-5660.1482. ISSN 1944-5660. S2CID 211317782.

Srivastava, Prachi; Oh, Su-Ann (2012). "Private Foundations, Philanthropy and Partnership in Education and Development: Mapping the Terrain". Public Private Partnerships in Education. doi:10.4337/9780857930699.00015. ISBN 9780857930699.

"Fundamentals of Modern Philanthropy - myImpact". myImpact - Formen der modernen Philanthropie (in German). Retrieved 2019-05-20.

Klasen, Stephan (2013-12-05), "Is it time for a new international poverty measure?", Development Co-operation Report 2013, Development Co-operation Report, OECD, pp. 35–42, doi:10.1787/dcr-2013-6-en, ISBN 9789264200999

Philanthrocapitalism: how the rich can save the world. 2009-05-01.

Kramar, M.K., G. Hills, K. Tallani, M. Wilka., and A. Bhatt (2014), "The new role of business in global education: How companies can create shared value by improving education while driving shareholder returns". A report by FSG, pp.1-23.

Rubio Royo, Enrique (2009-09-30). "Nuevo "rol" y paradigmas del Aprendizaje, en una Sociedad Global en RED y Compleja: la Era del Conocimiento y el Aprendizaje". Arbor. CLXXXV (Extra): 41–62. doi:10.3989/arbor.2009.extran1205. ISSN 1988-303X.

Christopherson, Elizabeth Good; Howell, Emily L.; Scheufele, Dietram A.; Viswanath, Kasisomayajula; West, Norris P. (2021). "How Science Philanthropy Can Build Equity". Stanford Social Innovation Review. 19: 4855. doi:10.48558/P4G8-QM77.

Thompson, Beti; Molina, Yamile; Viswanath, Kasisomayajula; Warnecke, Richard; Prelip, Michael L. (August 2016). "Strategies To Empower Communities To Reduce Health Disparities". Health Affairs. 35 (8): 1424–1428. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1364. ISSN 0278-2715. PMC 5554943. PMID 27503967.

Chandra, Anita; Acosta, Joie; Carman, Katherine Grace; Dubowitz, Tamara; Leviton, Laura; Martin, Laurie T.; Miller, Carolyn; Nelson, Christopher; Orleans, Tracy; Tait, Margaret; Trujillo, Matthew; Towe, Vivian; Yeung, Douglas; Plough, Alonzo L. (January 2017). "Building a National Culture of Health: Background, Action Framework, Measures, and Next Steps". Rand Health Quarterly. 6 (2): 3. ISSN 2162-8254. PMC 5568157. PMID 28845341.

Grindle, Jeffrey Bradach, Abe. "Transformative Scale: The Future of Growing What Works". Bridgespan. Retrieved 2023-04-04.

"Philanthropy as a Force of Social Change | Learning to Give". www.learningtogive.org. Retrieved 2023-05-12.

Allatson, Paul; Jeffreys, Elaine (2015). Celebrity Philanthropy. Bristol, UK: Intellect.

"Endorsements". People's Climate Movement. Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.

Johnson, Paula Doherty (2007). Diaspora philanthropy: Influences, initiatives, and issues. Boston, MA: Philanthropic Initiative.

Espinosa, Shirlita Africa (2015-07-06). "Diaspora philanthropy: the making of a new development aid?". Migration and Development. 5 (3): 361–377. doi:10.1080/21632324.2015.1053305. ISSN 2163-2324.

DeSouza, Mercy; Osei, Onallia Esther; Idemudia, Erhabor Sunday (2023-01-18). "Transnational migrants' philanthropy: Its forms, operations, and implications from the perspectives of Ghanaian residents in Europe". Frontiers in Sociology. 7. doi:10.3389/fsoc.2022.1062755. ISSN 2297-7775.

"Capitalist Philanthropy: A Means of Circumventing the State?| Countercurrents". 4 August 2020.

"Binah: Anand Giridharadas on the Fallacy of Billionaire Philanthropy". KALW. Retrieved 2021-11-15.

Campbell, David. "A new reason Americans are getting leery of billionaire donors". The Conversation. Retrieved 2021-11-15.

"How philanthropy benefits the super-rich". the Guardian. 2020-09-08. Retrieved 2021-11-15.

92. Livni, Ephrat (7 April 2019). "What could possibly be wrong with wanting to change the world?". Quartz. Retrieved 2021-11-15.

Further reading

• Adam, Thomas. Philanthropy, Patronage, and Civil Society: Experiences from Germany, Great Britain, and North America (2008)
• Burlingame, D.F. Ed. (2004). Philanthropy in America: A comprehensive historical encyclopaedia (3 vol. ABC Clio).
• Curti, Merle E. American philanthropy abroad: a history (Rutgers UP, 1963).
• Giridharadas, Anand (2018). Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World. New York. ISBN 978-0-451-49324-8. OCLC 1004981738.
• Grimm, Robert T. Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering (2002) excerpt
• Hitchcock, William I. (2014) "World War I and the humanitarian impulse." The Tocqueville Review/La revue Tocqueville 35.2 (2014): 145–163.
• Ilchman, Warren F. et al. Philanthropy in the World's Traditions (1998) Examines philanthropy in Buddhist, Islamic, Hindu, Jewish, and Native American religious traditions and in cultures from Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. online
• Jordan, W.K. Philanthropy in England, 1480–1660: A Study of the Changing Pattern of English Social Aspirations (1959) online
• Kiger, Joseph C. Philanthropists and foundation globalization (Transaction Publishers, 2011).
• Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Klaus Petersen, and Søren Kolstrup. "Autonomy, Cooperation or Colonization? Christian Philanthropy and State Welfare in Denmark." Journal of Church and State 56#1 (2014): 81–104.
• Reich, Rob, Chiara Cordelli, and Lucy Bernholz, eds. Philanthropy in democratic societies: History, institutions, values (U of Chicago Press, 2016).
• Zunz, Olivier. Philanthropy in America: A history (Princeton UP, 2014).

External links

• Quotations related to Philanthropy at Wikiquote
• The dictionary definition of philanthropy at Wiktionary
• Media related to Philanthropy at Wikimedia Commons
• History of Philanthropy, 1601–present compiled and edited by National Philanthropic Trust

v t e Charitable giving and practices

v t e Extreme wealth

Authority control: National	Germany Czech Republic

Category:

• Philanthropy

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropy

 Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for the welfare and/or happiness of other human beings or animals, resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious and secular worldviews. However, the object(s) of concern vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness, which is the opposite of selfishness. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism

Bioethics is both a field of study and professional practice, interested in ethical issues related to health (primarily focused on the human, but also increasingly includes animal ethics), including those emerging from advances in biology, medicine, and technologies. It proposes the discussion about moral discernment in society (what decisions are "good" or "bad" and why) and it is often related to medical policy and practice, but also to broader questions as environment, well-being and public health. Bioethics is concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, theology and philosophy. It includes the study of values relating to primary care, other branches of medicine ("the ethics of the ordinary"), ethical education in science, animal, and environmental ethics, and public health.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics

Primary care ethics is the study of the everyday decisions that primary care clinicians make, such as: how long to spend with a particular patient, how to reconcile their own values and those of their patients, when and where to refer or investigate, how to respect confidentiality when dealing with patients, relatives and third parties.^{[citation needed]}All these decisions involve values as well as facts and are therefore ethical issues. These issues may also involve other workers in primary healthcare, such as receptionists and managers.

Primary care ethics is not a discipline; it is a notional field of study which is simultaneously an aspect of primary health care and applied ethics. De Zulueta argues that primary care ethics has ‘a definitive place on the ‘bioethics map’, represented by a substantial body of empirical research, literary texts and critical discourse (2, 9, 10). The substantial body of research referred to by De Zulueta (9) has a tendency to be issue-specific, such as to do with rationing(11), confidentiality, medical reports, or relationships with relatives.

Much of the literature on primary care ethics concerns primary care physicians. The term primary care physician is synonymous with family practitioner, or general practitioner; meaning a medically qualified clinician who is the first point of access to health care, with general responsibilities which may but do not necessarily include child health or obstetrics and gynaecology. Other primary care clinicians; nurses, physiotherapists, midwives, and in some situations pharmacists may face similar issues, and some (confidentially, prioritisation of patients) may also involve administrative staff. In some healthcare systems primary care specialists may also encounter many of these issues. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_care_ethics

 

Global justice is an issue in political philosophy arising from the concern about unfairness. It is sometimes understood as a form of internationalism.^[1]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_justice

The term Bioethics (Greek bios, "life"; ethos, "moral nature, behavior"^[1]) was coined in 1927 by Fritz Jahr in an article about a "bioethical imperative" regarding the use of animals and plants in scientific research.^[2] In 1970, the American biochemist, and oncologist Van Rensselaer Potter used the term to describe the relationship between the biosphere and a growing human population. Potter's work laid the foundation for global ethics, a discipline centered around the link between biology, ecology, medicine, and human values.^[3][4] Sargent Shriver, the spouse of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, claimed that he had invented the term "bioethics" in the living room of his home in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1970. He stated that he thought of the word after returning from a discussion earlier that evening at Georgetown University, where he discussed with others a possible Kennedy family sponsorship of an institute focused around the "application of moral philosophy to concrete medical dilemmas".^[5]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics}

 

 

Accounting, also known as accountancy, is the measurement, processing, and communication of financial and non-financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations.^[1][2] Accounting, which has been called the "language of business",^[3] measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of stakeholders, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators.^[4] Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms "accounting" and "financial reporting" are often used as synonyms.^[5]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting

Finance is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets. It is related to, but not synonymous with economics, which is the study of production, distribution, and consumption of money, assets, goods and services (the discipline of financial economics bridges the two). Finance activities take place in financial systems at various scopes, thus the field can be roughly divided into personal, corporate, and public finance.^[a] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance

Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. There are many debates about its precise definition, for example, about which aims it tries to achieve. A further issue is whether education is value-free or involves an improvement of the student. Some researchers stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. The term can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people. Additionally, it can mean the academic field studying education.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchip_Technology#Standard_Microsystems_Corporation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_finance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonformal_learning

 Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located at the confluence of Western, Central and Southern Europe.^[e][13] It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland

 

The Holy Roman Empire,^[17] also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a political entity^[18] in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed in the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.^[19]

Imperial Banner
(c. 1430–1806)

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire}

 

 The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire occurred de facto on 6 August 1806, when the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, abdicated his title and released all imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Since the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire had been recognized by Western Europeans as the legitimate continuation of the ancient Roman Empire due to its emperors having been proclaimed as Roman emperors by the papacy. Through this Roman legacy, the Holy Roman Emperors claimed to be universal monarchs whose jurisdiction extended beyond their empire's formal borders to all of Christian Europe and beyond. The decline of the Holy Roman Empire was a long and drawn-out process lasting centuries. The formation of the first modern sovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought with it the idea that jurisdiction corresponded to actual territory governed, threatened the universal nature of the Holy Roman Empire. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire

 

Vienna (/viˈɛnə/ (listen) vee-EN-ə;^[7][8] German: Wien [viːn] (listen); Austro-Bavarian: Wean [veɐ̯n]) is the capital, largest city, and one of nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's most populous city and its primate city, with about two million inhabitants^[9] (2.9 million within the metropolitan area,^[10] nearly one third of the country's population), and its cultural, economic, and political center. It is the 6th-largest city proper by population in the European Union and the largest of all cities on the Danube river.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

Prague (/prɑːɡ/ PRAHG; Czech: Praha [ˈpraɦa] (listen); German: Prag, pronounced [pʁaːk] (listen); Latin: Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic,^[8] and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people.^[4] The city has a temperate oceanic climate, with relatively warm summers and chilly winters. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague

 

Czech Gothic architecture refers to the architectural period primarily of the Late Middle Ages in the area of the present-day Czech Republic (former Crown of Bohemia, primarily consisting of the Kingdom of Bohemia and Margraviate of Moravia).

The Gothic style first appeared in the Czech lands in the first half of the 13th century and was usual there until the early 16th century. The phases of the development of the Gothic architecture in the Czech lands are often named after the Bohemian ruling dynasty of the corresponding time:

• Early Gothic – Přemyslid Gothic (13th and early 14th century)
• High Gothic – Luxembourg Gothic (14th and early 15th century)
• Late Gothic – Jagiellonian Gothic (approximately 1471–1526)^[2]

The most significant Gothic architects who worked in the Czech lands (especially in Bohemia) were Peter Parler and Benedikt Rejt. 

Choir of St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague built by Matthias of Arras and Peter Parler in 1344–1385^[1]

 

Portal of the church of Porta coeli Convent in Tišnov near Brno, Moravia, 1230s.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Gothic_architecture

 

The double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, the symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire

 

Francis II
Portrait by Joseph Kreutzinger, c. 1815

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor

 

The Nazi Party,^[b] officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei^[c] or NSDAP), was a far-right^[10][11][12] political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported the ideology of Nazism. Its precursor, the German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; DAP), existed from 1919 to 1920. The Nazi Party emerged from the extremist German nationalist, racist and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, which fought against the communist uprisings in post–World War I Germany.^[13] The party was created to draw workers away from communism and into völkisch nationalism.^[14] Initially, Nazi political strategy focused on anti–big business, anti-bourgeois, and anti-capitalist rhetoric, which was later downplayed to gain the support of business leaders. By the 1930s, the party's main focus shifted to antisemitic and anti-Marxist themes.^[15] The party had little popular support until the Great Depression, where worsening living standards and vast unemployment drove Germans into political extremism.^[12]

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Party}

 

 World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. It was fought between two coalitions, the Allies and the Central Powers. Fighting occurred throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. An estimated 9 million soldiers were killed in combat, plus another 23 million wounded, while 5 million civilians died as a result of military action, hunger, and disease. Millions more died as a result of genocide, while the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic was exacerbated by the movement of combatants during the war. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I

 

Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.^[1][2] There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others.^{[3][4][5][6][7]} The best-known types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in most of the world's legal systems.^[8]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright

 

 

 

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starvation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapons

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Transplant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(Rebuild)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Build

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_Materials

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mines_

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/