05-21-2023-0018 - Jacobian ; EMV ; Georgian ; Mint ; See caption Wanstead House (1722) – among the first, and largest, of the Neo-Palladian houses; the image is from Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus. ; etc. (draft)

Jacobean architecture Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Castle Bromwich Hall, Birmingham The Jacobean style is the second phase of Renaissance architecture in England, following the Elizabethan style.[1] It is named after King James VI and I, with whose reign (1603–1625 in England) it is associated. At the start of James' reign there was little stylistic break in architecture, as Elizabethan trends continued their development. However, his death in 1625 came as a decisive change towards more classical architecture, with Italian influence, was in progress, led by Inigo Jones; the style this began is sometimes called Stuart architecture, or English Baroque (though the latter term may be regarded as starting later). Courtiers continued to build large prodigy houses, even though James spent less time on summer progresses round his realm than Elizabeth had. The influence of Flemish and German Northern Mannerism increased, now often executed by immigrant craftsmen and artists, rather than obtained from books as in the previous reign. There continued to be very little building of new churches, though a considerable amount of modifications to old ones, but a great deal of secular building. Characteristics Jacobean-Revival Dining Hall (Selwyn College, Cambridge) The reign of James VI of Scotland (or James I of England (1603–1625)), a disciple of the new scholarship, saw the first decisive adoption of Renaissance motifs in a free form communicated to England through German and Flemish carvers rather than directly from Italy. Although the general lines of Elizabethan design remained, there was a more consistent and unified application of formal design, both in plan and elevation. Much use was made of columns and pilasters, round-arch arcades, and flat roofs with openwork parapets. These and other classical elements appeared in a free and fanciful vernacular rather than with any true classical purity. With them were mixed the prismatic rustications and ornamental detail of scrolls, straps, and lozenges also characteristic of Elizabethan design. The style influenced furniture design and other decorative arts. History and examples The Jacobean east wing of Crewe Hall, Cheshire, built in 1615–36 Bank Hall, Bretherton, built in 1608 Reproductions of the Classical orders had already found their way into English architecture during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, frequently based upon John Shute's The First and Chief Grounds of Architecture, published in 1563, with two other editions in 1579 and 1584. In 1577, three years before the commencement of Wollaton Hall, a copybook of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Hans Vredeman de Vries. Although nominally based on the description of the orders by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his rendering of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions were of a most decadent type, so that even the author deemed it advisable to publish a letter from a canon of the Church, stating that there was nothing in his architectural designs that was contrary to religion. It is to publications of this kind that Jacobean architecture owes the perversion of its forms and the introduction of strap work and pierced crestings, which appear for the first time at Wollaton Hall (1580); at Bramshill House, Hampshire (1607–1612), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it receives its fullest development.[1] Hatfield House, built in its entirety by Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, between 1607 and 1611, is an example of the later extension of the Elizabethan prodigy house, with turreted Tudor-style wings at each end with their mullioned windows but the two wings linked by an Italianate Renaissance facade. This central facade, originally an open loggia, has been attributed to Inigo Jones himself; however, the central porch carries a heavier quasi-gatehouse emphasis, so the attribution is probably false. Inside the house, the elaborately carved staircase demonstrates the Renaissance influence on English ornament. Other Jacobean buildings of note are Crewe Hall, Cheshire; Hatfield House, Hertfordshire; Knole House, near Sevenoaks in Kent; Charlton House in Charlton, London; Holland House by John Thorpe; Plas Teg near Pontblyddyn, between Wrexham and Mold in Wales; Bank Hall in Bretherton; Castle Bromwich Hall near Solihull; Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire and Chastleton House in Oxfordshire. Although the term is generally employed of the style which prevailed in England during the first quarter of the 17th century, its peculiar decadent detail will be found nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton Hall, Nottingham, and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to 1660, notwithstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by Inigo Jones in 1619 at Whitehall.[1] In the Americas In 1607 and 1620, England founded her first successful colonies: Jamestown, Virginia and Plymouth, Massachusetts. As with other settlers in the New World, the men and women that built the homes and buildings that formed the infrastructure of these towns and the others that followed over the coming century often built edifices that were consistent with Jacobean vernacular architecture in the portion of England that they originated from: for example, the clapboard common to houses in New England and later Nova Scotia to this day are derived from a local style of architecture popular in Northeast England in the early to mid 17th century. Historians often classify this architecture as a subtype of colonial American architecture, called First Period architecture, however there is an enormous amount of overlap between the architecture of the commoner class in early 17th century England and colonial America architecture, where some of the key features of the Jacobean era often outlived James I and VI owing to less contact between the American colonists and the fashions of England. When the Puritans arrived in the winter of 1620 in New England, there was very little time to waste owing to the bitterly cold weather and the fact that many of the occupants of the ship that brought them, the Mayflower, were very ill and needed to get into housing before circumstances could allow the diseases on board to spread further. Those that were still able bodied had to act quickly and as a result the first buildings of New England most resembled the wattle and daub cottages of the common people back home, especially of places like East Anglia and Devonshire, with the thatched roofs that remained common in England until the 1660s differing only in that the main material chosen for thatching was grass found in the local salt marshes.[2] Most of these would have been hall and parlor dwellings with a simple central chimney, a feature of British architecture since the earlier Elizabethan era, a timber frame, a squat lower floor and an upper floor with bare beams and a space to be used for storage.[2] Measurements of the archaeological remains of houses owned by Myles Standish and John Alden done in the mid nineteenth and the mid twentieth century in Duxbury, Massachusetts, a town across the harbor from Plymouth, also settled by the original Pilgrim Fathers, and inhabited just eight years later, reveal that the original homes were very narrow and small, averaging approximately forty feet long by fifteen feet wide. This concurs with the dimensions of houses that would have been found amongst the English commoner classes (specifically yeoman and small farmers) as evidenced by the surviving tax rolls of the Jacobean era. Examples of original Jacobean architecture in the Americas include Drax Hall Great House and St. Nicholas Abbey, both located in Barbados, and Bacon's Castle in Surry County, Virginia. Coxe Hall, fronting the Hobart Quad. The building, named for Bishop Arthur Cleveland Coxe, is an example of Jacobethan architecture. In the 19th Century, the Jacobean Gothic or “Jacobethan” style was briefly popular. Excellent examples are Coxe Hall, Williams Hall, and Medbury Hall, which define the West and North sides of the quadrangle of Hobart College in Geneva, NY. Other notable collegiate examples include The University of Florida and Florida State University both designed by William Augustus Edwards. See also iconArchitecture portal Jacobean era Jacobean Revival Notes One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Spiers, R. Phene (1911). "Jacobean Style". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 115. "Vernacular House Forms in Seventeenth Century Plymouth Colony". References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jacobean architecture. Marcus Whiffen, An Introduction to Elizabethan and Jacobean Architecture (1952). J. Summerson, Architecture in Britain, 1530–1830 (rev. ed. 1963). The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001. vte Architecture of England Styles Anglo-Saxon Saxo-Norman Norman English Gothic Tudor Elizabethan Jacobean English Baroque Queen Anne Georgian Strawberry Hill Gothic Victorian Jacobethan Edwardian Bristol Byzantine Brutalist Westminster Hall Buildings and structures Castles Abbeys and priories Medieval cathedrals Former cathedrals Roman villas Historic houses Hall houses Renaissance theatres Listed buildings Museums Church monuments National Trust properties Windmills Hindu temples Stadiums Lighthouses Other London Birmingham Liverpool Manchester Bath Bristol Brighton and Hove Hammerbeam roof Fan vault Almshouse Bastle house Country house Oast house (cowl) Wealden hall house Dartmoor longhouse Somerset towers Bath stone Portland stone Flushwork English landscape garden Cruck framing Category Categories: Jacobean architectureRenaissance architecture in EnglandArchitecture in England by period or styleBritish architectural stylesStuart EnglandArchitectural stylesArchitecture in Barbados17th-century architecture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobean_architecture Vitruvius Vitruvius.jpg A 1684 depiction of Vitruvius (right) presenting De Architectura to Augustus Born 80–70 BC Roman Republic Died 15 BC (aged 55–65) Nationality Roman Occupations Authorarchitectcivil engineermilitary engineer Notable work De architectura Vitruvius (/vɪˈtruːviəs/; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled De architectura.[1] He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas ("strength", "utility", and "beauty").[2] These principles were later widely adopted in Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description[3] he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines.[4] As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts[5] though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria (c. 1450). The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though the original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius Georgian architecture Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the unrelated architecture of the country of Georgia, see Architecture of Georgia (country). Middle-class house in Salisbury cathedral close, England, with minimal classical detail. Very grand terrace houses at The Circus, Bath (1754), with basement "areas" and a profusion of columns. Function rules at Massachusetts Hall at Harvard University, 1718-20 Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is named after the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The so-called great Georgian cities of the British Isles were Edinburgh, Bath, pre-independence Dublin, and London, and to a lesser extent York and Bristol.[1] The style was revived in the late 19th century in the United States as Colonial Revival architecture and in the early 20th century in Great Britain as Neo-Georgian architecture; in both it is also called Georgian Revival architecture. In the United States the term Georgian is generally used to describe all buildings from the period, regardless of style; in Britain it is generally restricted to buildings that are "architectural in intention",[2] and have stylistic characteristics that are typical of the period, though that covers a wide range. The Georgian style is highly variable, but marked by symmetry and proportion based on the classical architecture of Greece and Rome, as revived in Renaissance architecture. Ornament is also normally in the classical tradition, but typically restrained, and sometimes almost completely absent on the exterior. The period brought the vocabulary of classical architecture to smaller and more modest buildings than had been the case before, replacing English vernacular architecture (or becoming the new vernacular style) for almost all new middle-class homes and public buildings by the end of the period. Georgian architecture is characterized by its proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to determine the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room as a double cube. Regularity, as with ashlar (uniformly cut) stonework, was strongly approved, imbuing symmetry and adherence to classical rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions were added to earlier structures remaining visible, was deeply felt as a flaw, at least before John Nash began to introduce it in a variety of styles.[3] Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. Until the start of the Gothic Revival in the early 19th century, Georgian designs usually lay within the Classical orders of architecture and employed a decorative vocabulary derived from ancient Rome or Greece. Characteristics In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, and rows of identical terraced houses became the norm.[4] Even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an enormous amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world, and the standards of construction were generally high. Where they have not been demolished, large numbers of Georgian buildings have survived two centuries or more, and they still form large parts of the core of cities such as London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Newcastle upon Tyne and Bristol. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession; before the mid-century "the high-sounding title, 'architect' was adopted by anyone who could get away with it".[5] This contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. But most buildings were still designed by builders and landlords together, and the wide spread of Georgian architecture, and the Georgian styles of design more generally, came from dissemination through pattern books and inexpensive suites of engravings. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny (active 1723–1755) had editions in America as well as Britain. A similar phenomenon can be seen in the commonality of housing designs in Canada and the United States (though of a wider variety of styles) from the 19th century down to the 1950s, using pattern books drawn up by professional architects that were distributed by lumber companies and hardware stores to contractors and homebuilders.[6] From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every architect, designer, builder, carpenter, mason and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland.[7] Styles Georgian succeeded the English Baroque of Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh, Thomas Archer, William Talman, and Nicholas Hawksmoor; this in fact continued into at least the 1720s, overlapping with a more restrained Georgian style. The architect James Gibbs was a transitional figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century, but he adjusted his style after 1720.[8] Major architects to promote the change in direction from Baroque were Colen Campbell, author of the influential book Vitruvius Britannicus (1715–1725); Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington and his protégé William Kent; Isaac Ware; Henry Flitcroft and the Venetian Giacomo Leoni, who spent most of his career in England. Neoclassical grandeur; Stowe House 1770-79 by Robert Adam modified in execution by Thomas Pitt Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the Elder. The European Grand Tour became very common for wealthy patrons in the period, and Italian influence remained dominant,[9] though at the start of the period Hanover Square, Westminster (1713 on), developed and occupied by Whig supporters of the new dynasty, seems to have deliberately adopted German stylistic elements in their honour, especially vertical bands connecting the windows.[10] The styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking world's equivalent of European Rococo. From the mid-1760s a range of Neoclassical modes were fashionable, associated with the British architects Robert Adam, James Gibbs, Sir William Chambers, James Wyatt, George Dance the Younger, Henry Holland and Sir John Soane. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, he was responsible for designing large areas of London.[11] Greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke. In Britain, brick or stone are almost invariably used;[12] brick is often disguised with stucco. The Georgian terraces of Dublin are noted for their almost uniform use of red brick, for example, whereas equivalent terraces in Edinburgh are constructed from stone.[13] In America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Raked roofs were mostly covered in earthenware tiles until Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn led the development of the slate industry in Wales from the 1760s, which by the end of the century had become the usual material.[14] Types of buildings Houses Westover Plantation - Georgian country house on a James River plantation in Virginia Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture. Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided. In grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. Typically the basement area or "rustic", with kitchens, offices and service areas, as well as male guests with muddy boots,[15] came some way above ground, and was lit by windows that were high on the inside, but just above ground level outside. A single block was typical, with perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid; this was partly to minimize window tax, which was in force throughout the period in the United Kingdom. Some windows were subsequently bricked-in. Their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable. Before this the internal plan and function of the rooms can generally not be deduced from the outside. To open these large windows the sash window, already developed by the 1670s, became very widespread.[16] Corridor plans became universal inside larger houses.[17] Internal courtyards became more rare, except beside the stables, and the functional parts of the building were placed at the sides, or in separate buildings nearby hidden by trees. The views to and from the front and rear of the main block were concentrated on, with the side approaches usually much less important. The roof was typically invisible from the ground, though domes were sometimes visible in grander buildings. The roofline was generally clear of ornament except for a balustrade or the top of a pediment.[18] Columns or pilasters, often topped by a pediment, were popular for ornament inside and out,[19] and other ornament was generally geometrical or plant-based, rather than using the human figure. Grand Neoclassical interior by Robert Adam, Syon House, London Inside ornament was far more generous, and could sometimes be overwhelming.[20] The chimneypiece continued to be the usual main focus of rooms, and was now given a classical treatment, and increasingly topped by a painting or a mirror.[21] Plasterwork ceilings,[22] carved wood, and bold schemes of wallpaint formed a backdrop to increasingly rich collections of furniture, paintings, porcelain, mirrors, and objets d'art of all kinds.[23] Wood-panelling, very common since about 1500, fell from favour around the mid-century, and wallpaper included very expensive imports from China.[24] Smaller houses in the country, such as vicarages, were simple regular blocks with visible raked roofs, and a central doorway, often the only ornamented area. Similar houses, often referred to as "villas" became common around the fringes of the larger cities, especially London,[25] and detached houses in towns remained common, though only the very rich could afford them in central London. In towns even most better-off people lived in terraced houses, which typically opened straight onto the street, often with a few steps up to the door. There was often an open space, protected by iron railings, dropping down to the basement level, with a discreet entrance down steps off the street for servants and deliveries; this is known as the "area".[26] This meant that the ground floor front was now removed and protected from the street and encouraged the main reception rooms to move there from the floor above. Often, when a new street or set of streets was developed, the road and pavements were raised up, and the gardens or yards behind the houses remained at a lower level, usually representing the original one.[27] Georgian townhouses on Baggot Street, Dublin Town terraced houses for all social classes remained resolutely tall and narrow, each dwelling occupying the whole height of the building. This contrasted with well-off continental dwellings, which had already begun to be formed of wide apartments occupying only one or two floors of a building; such arrangements were only typical in England when housing groups of batchelors, as in Oxbridge colleges, the lawyers in the Inns of Court or The Albany after it was converted in 1802.[28] In the period in question, only in Edinburgh were working-class purpose-built tenements common, though lodgers were common in other cities. A curving crescent, often looking out at gardens or a park, was popular for terraces where space allowed. In early and central schemes of development, plots were sold and built on individually, though there was often an attempt to enforce some uniformity,[29] but as development reached further out schemes were increasingly built as a uniform scheme and then sold.[30] The late Georgian period saw the birth of the semi-detached house, planned systematically, as a suburban compromise between the terraced houses of the city and the detached "villas" further out, where land was cheaper. There had been occasional examples in town centres going back to medieval times. Most early suburban examples are large, and in what are now the outer fringes of Central London, but were then in areas being built up for the first time. Blackheath, Chalk Farm and St John's Wood are among the areas contesting being the original home of the semi.[31] Sir John Summerson gave primacy to the Eyre Estate of St John's Wood. A plan for this exists dated 1794, where "the whole development consists of pairs of semi-detached houses, So far as I know, this is the first recorded scheme of the kind". In fact the French Wars put an end to this scheme, but when the development was finally built it retained the semi-detached form, "a revolution of striking significance and far-reaching effect".[32] Churches St Martin-in-the-Fields, London (1720), James Gibbs The courtyard of Somerset House, from the North Wing entrance. Built for government offices. Until the Church Building Act 1818, the period saw relatively few churches built in Britain, which was already well-supplied,[33] although in the later years of the period the demand for Non-conformist and Roman Catholic places of worship greatly increased.[34] Anglican churches that were built were designed internally to allow maximum audibility, and visibility, for preaching, so the main nave was generally wider and shorter than in medieval plans, and often there were no side-aisles. Galleries were common in new churches. Especially in country parishes, the external appearance generally retained the familiar signifiers of a Gothic church, with a tower or spire, a large west front with one or more doors, and very large windows along the nave, but all with any ornament drawn from the classical vocabulary. Where funds permitted, a classical temple portico with columns and a pediment might be used at the west front. Interior decoration was generally chaste; however, walls often became lined with plaques and monuments to the more prosperous members of the congregation.[35] In the colonies new churches were certainly required, and generally repeated similar formulae. British Non-conformist churches were often more classical in mood, and tended not to feel the need for a tower or steeple. The archetypal Georgian church is St Martin-in-the-Fields in London (1720), by Gibbs, who boldly added to the classical temple façade at the west end a large steeple on top of a tower, set back slightly from the main frontage. This formula shocked purists and foreigners, but became accepted and was very widely emulated, at home and in the colonies,[36] for example at St Andrew's Church, Chennai in India. And in Dublin, the extremely similar St. George's Church, Dublin. The 1818 Act allocated some public money for new churches required to reflect changes in population, and a commission to allocate it. Building of Commissioners' churches gathered pace in the 1820s, and continued until the 1850s. The early churches, falling into the Georgian period, show a high proportion of Gothic Revival buildings, along with the classically inspired.[37] Public buildings Public buildings generally varied between the extremes of plain boxes with grid windows and Italian Late Renaissance palaces, depending on budget. Somerset House in London, designed by Sir William Chambers in 1776 for government offices, was as magnificent as any country house, though never quite finished, as funds ran out.[38] Barracks and other less prestigious buildings could be as functional as the mills and factories that were growing increasingly large by the end of the period. But as the period came to an end many commercial projects were becoming sufficiently large, and well-funded, to become "architectural in intention", rather than having their design left to the lesser class of "surveyors".[39] Colonial Georgian architecture See also: Federal architecture Hyde Park Barracks (1819), Georgian architecture in Sydney Georgian architecture was widely disseminated in the English colonies during the Georgian era. American buildings of the Georgian period were very often constructed of wood with clapboards; even columns were made of timber, framed up, and turned on an oversized lathe. At the start of the period the difficulties of obtaining and transporting brick or stone made them a common alternative only in the larger cities, or where they were obtainable locally. Dartmouth College, Harvard University and the College of William and Mary offer leading examples of Georgian architecture in the Americas. Unlike the Baroque style that it replaced, which was mostly used for palaces and churches, and had little representation in the British colonies, simpler Georgian styles were widely used by the upper and middle classes. Perhaps the best remaining house is the pristine Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland, designed by the colonial architect William Buckland and modelled on the Villa Pisani at Montagnana, Italy as depicted in Andrea Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura ("The Four Books of Architecture"). After independence, in the former American colonies, Federal-style architecture represented the equivalent of Regency architecture, with which it had much in common. In Canada, the United Empire Loyalists embraced Georgian architecture as a sign of their fealty to Britain, and the Georgian style was dominant in the country for most of the first half of the 19th century. The Grange, for example, is a Georgian manor built in Toronto in 1817. In Montreal, English-born architect John Ostell worked on a significant number of remarkable constructions in the Georgian style such as the Old Montreal Custom House and the Grand séminaire de Montréal. In Australia, the Old Colonial Georgian residential and non-residential styles were developed in the period from c. 1810 – c. 1840. Post-Georgian developments See also: Colonial Revival architecture Winfield House in London was designed and built in the 1930s and is listed by Historic England as an important Neo-Georgian townhouse After about 1840, Georgian conventions were slowly abandoned as a number of revival styles, including Gothic Revival, that had originated in the Georgian period, developed and contested in Victorian architecture, and in the case of Gothic became better researched, and closer to their originals. Neoclassical architecture remained popular, and was the opponent of Gothic in the Battle of the Styles of the early Victorian period. In the United States the Federalist Style contained many elements of Georgian style, but incorporated revolutionary symbols. In the early decades of the twentieth century when there was a growing nostalgia for its sense of order, the style was revived and adapted and in the United States came to be known as the Colonial Revival. The revived Georgian style that emerged in Britain during the same period is usually referred to as Neo-Georgian; the work of Edwin Lutyens[40][41] and Vincent Harris includes some examples. The British town of Welwyn Garden City, established in the 1920s, is an example of pastiche or Neo-Georgian development of the early 20th century in Britain. Versions of the Neo-Georgian style were commonly used in Britain for certain types of urban architecture until the late 1950s, Bradshaw Gass & Hope's Police Headquarters in Salford of 1958 being a good example. Architects such as Raymond Erith, and Donald McMorran were among the few architects who continued the neo-Georgian style into the 1960s. Both in the United States and Britain, the Georgian style is still employed by architects like Quinlan Terry, Julian Bicknell, Ben Pentreath, Robert Adam Architects, and Fairfax and Sammons for private residences. A debased form in commercial housing developments, especially in the suburbs, is known in the UK as mock-Georgian. Gallery Ditchley House in Oxfordshire, a country house. James Gibbs, 1722 Ditchley House in Oxfordshire, a country house. James Gibbs, 1722 Connecticut Hall at Yale University, a relatively unornamented iteration of the Georgian style (1750) Connecticut Hall at Yale University, a relatively unornamented iteration of the Georgian style (1750) Sutton Lodge, Sutton, London, once used by the Prince Regent, George IV of the United Kingdom[42] Sutton Lodge, Sutton, London, once used by the Prince Regent, George IV of the United Kingdom[42] Georgian period townhouses in Pery Square, Newtown Pery, Limerick, Ireland, after 1769 Kedleston Hall by Matthew Brettingham and Robert Adam, begun 1769, a large English country house Kedleston Hall by Matthew Brettingham and Robert Adam, begun 1769, a large English country house One of Robert Adam's masterpieces, in a largely Georgian setting: Pulteney Bridge, Bath, 1774 One of Robert Adam's masterpieces, in a largely Georgian setting: Pulteney Bridge, Bath, 1774 Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia by Robert Smith, 1775 example of American colonial architecture Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia by Robert Smith, 1775 example of American colonial architecture Royal Exchange, Dublin, 1779 Royal Exchange, Dublin, 1779 A former guildhall in Dunfermline, Scotland built between 1805 and 1811 A former guildhall in Dunfermline, Scotland built between 1805 and 1811 University Hall of Harvard University by Charles Bulfinch (1815), exemplary of Georgian ornamental restraint University Hall of Harvard University by Charles Bulfinch (1815), exemplary of Georgian ornamental restraint Western side of Bryanston Square, London, with its gardens. 1810-15 Western side of Bryanston Square, London, with its gardens. 1810-15 Late Georgian Regency; the west curve of Park Crescent, London, by John Nash, 1806–21 Late Georgian Regency; the west curve of Park Crescent, London, by John Nash, 1806–21 The Grange, a Georgian manor in Toronto built for D'Arcy Boulton in 1817 The Grange, a Georgian manor in Toronto built for D'Arcy Boulton in 1817 St James' Church, Sydney in Colonial Georgian architecture, built in 1824 St James' Church, Sydney in Colonial Georgian architecture, built in 1824 Neo-Georgian - Chesterfield Town Hall (1938), Derbyshire, by Bradshaw Gass & Hope Neo-Georgian - Chesterfield Town Hall (1938), Derbyshire, by Bradshaw Gass & Hope Rose Terrace, Perth, Scotland Rose Terrace, Perth, Scotland See also iconArchitecture portal Golden ratio Jamaican Georgian architecture Canning, Liverpool Clifton, Bristol Georgian Dublin Grainger Town, Newcastle upon Tyne New Town, Edinburgh, an 18th- and 19th-century development that contains some of the largest surviving examples of Georgian-style architecture and layout. Newtown Pery, Limerick The Georgian Group Notes St John Parker, Michael. (2013). Life in Georgian Britain. Gloucestershire: Pitkin Publishing. ISBN 9780752491622. Retrieved 3 May 2021. A phrase used by John Summerson, distinguishing among commercial buildings, Summerson, 252 Musson, 33–34, 52–53 Summerson, 26–28, 73–86 Summerson, 47–49, 47 quoted Reiff, Daniel D. (2001). Houses from Books. University Park, Pa.: Penn State University Press. ISBN 9780271019437. Retrieved 28 February 2017. Summerson, 49–51; The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc., "Palladio and Patternbooks in Colonial America." Archived 2009-12-23 at the Wayback Machine Summerson, 61–70, and see index Jenkins (2003), xiv; Musson, 31 Summerson, 73–74 Summerson, see index on all these; Jenkins (2003), xv–xiv; Musson, 28–35 Summerson, 54–56 "Bricks - their part in the rise of man". The Irish Times. Summerson, 55 Musson, 31; Jenkins (2003), xiv Musson, 73-76; Summerson, 46 Bannister Fletcher, 420 Musson, 51; Bannister Fletcher, 420 Bannister Fletcher, 420 Jenkins (2003), xv; Musson, 31 Musson, 84–87 Musson, 113–116 Jenkins (2003), xv Musson, 101–106 Summerson, 266–269 Summerson, 44–45 Summerson, 44–45 Summerson, 45 Summerson, 73–86 Summerson, 147–191 correspondence in The Guardian Summerson, 159-160 Summerson, 57–72, 206–224; Jenkins (1999), xxii Summerson, 222–224 Jenkins (1999), xx–xxii Summerson, 64–70 Summerson, 212-221 Summerson, 115–120 Summerson, 47, 252–262, 252 quoted Elizabeth McKellar, Professor of Architectural and Design History at the Open University (30 September 2016). "You Didn't Know it was Neo-Georgian". "New Book Neo-Georgian Architecture 1880-1970: A Reappraisal by Julian Holder and Elizabeth". lutyenstrust. "Sutton Lodge Day Centre website". Archived from the original on 2014-10-16. Retrieved 2015-08-12. References Fletcher, Banister and Fletcher, Banister, A History of Architecture, 1901 edn., Batsford Esher, Lionel, The Glory of the English House, 1991, Barrie and Jenkins, ISBN 0712636137 Jenkins, Simon (1999), England's Thousand Best Churches, 1999, Allen Lane, ISBN 0-7139-9281-6 Jenkins, Simon (2003), England's Thousand Best Houses, 2003, Allen Lane, ISBN 0-7139-9596-3 Musson, Jeremy, How to Read a Country House, 2005, Ebury Press, ISBN 009190076X Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Englishness of English Art, Penguin, 1964 edn. Sir John Summerson, Georgian London (1945), 1988 revised edition, Barrie & Jenkins, ISBN 0712620958. (Also see revised edition, edited by Howard Colvin, 2003) Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Georgian architecture. Howard Colvin, A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 3rd ed., 1995. John Cornforth, Early Georgian Interiors (Paul Mellon Centre), 2005. James Stevens Curl, Georgian Architecture. Christopher Hussey, Early Georgian Houses, Mid-Georgian Houses, Late Georgian Houses. Reissued in paperback, Antique Collectors Club, 1986. Frank Jenkins, Architect and Patron, 1961. Barrington Kaye, The Development of the Architectural Profession in Britain, 1960. McAlester, Virginia & Lee, A Field Guide to American Houses, 1996. ISBN 0-394-73969-8. Sir John Summerson, Architecture in Britain (series: Pelican History of Art). Reissued in paperback 1970. Richard Sammons, The Anatomy of the Georgian Room. Period Homes, March 2006. vte Architecture of England vte Architecture of the United States Categories: Georgian architectureArchitectural stylesBritish architectural stylesHouse stylesAmerican architectural styles18th-century architectural styles19th-century architecture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_architecture Kharkiv Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Listen to this article From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Kharkiv (disambiguation). "Kharkov" redirects here. For other uses, see Kharkov (disambiguation). Kharkiv Харків City Ukrainian transcription(s) • National, ALA-LC, BGN/PCGN Kharkiv • Scholarly Charkiv Anticlockwise from top: Assumption Cathedral, Taras Shevchenko monument, Kharkiv Railway station, National University of Kharkiv, Kharkiv city council. Flag of Kharkiv Flag Coat of arms of Kharkiv Coat of arms Official logo of Kharkiv Brandmark Nickname: Smart City Map Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap Interactive map of Kharkiv Kharkiv is located in Ukraine Kharkiv Kharkiv Show map of Ukraine Show map of Kharkiv Oblast Show map of Europe Show all Coordinates: 49°59′33″N 36°13′52″ECoordinates: 49°59′33″N 36°13′52″E Country Ukraine Oblast Kharkiv Oblast Raion Kharkiv Raion Founded 1654[1] Districts List of 9[2] Government • Mayor Ihor Terekhov[3] (Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv[4]) Area • City 350 km2 (140 sq mi) Elevation 152 m (499 ft) Population (2022) • City 1,421,125 Decrease • Rank 2nd in Ukraine • Density 4,500/km2 (12,000/sq mi) • Metro 1,729,049[5] Demonym Kharkivite[6] Time zone UTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Postal code 61001–61499 Licence plate AX, KX, ХА (old), 21 (old) Sister cities Bologna, Cincinnati, Kaunas, Lille, Nuremberg, Poznań, Tianjin, Jinan, Kutaisi, Varna, Rishon LeZion, Brno, Daugavpils Website www.city.kharkov.ua/ru/ Kharkiv (Ukrainian: Ха́рків, IPA: [ˈxɑrkiu̯] (listen)), also known as Kharkov (Russian: Харькoв, IPA: [ˈxarʲkəf]), is the second-largest city and municipality in Ukraine.[7] Located in the northeast of the country, it is the largest city of the historic region of Sloboda Ukraine. Kharkiv is the administrative centre of Kharkiv Oblast and of the surrounding Kharkiv Raion. It has a population of 1,421,125 (2022 est.).[8] Kharkiv was founded in 1654 as a fortress, and grew to become a major centre of industry, trade, and Ukrainian culture in the Russian Empire. At the beginning of the 20th century, the city was predominantly Russian in population, but as industrial expansion drew in further labor from the distressed countryside, and as the Soviet Union moderated previous restrictions on Ukrainian cultural expression, Ukrainians became the largest ethnic group in the city by the eve of World War II. From December 1919 to January 1934, Kharkiv was the first capital of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Kharkiv is a major cultural, scientific, educational, transport and industrial centre of Ukraine, with numerous museums, theatres and libraries, including the Annunciation and Dormition cathedrals, the Derzhprom building in Freedom Square, and the National University of Kharkiv. Industry plays a significant role in Kharkiv's economy, specialised primarily in machinery and electronics. There are hundreds of industrial facilities throughout the city, including the Morozov Design Bureau, the Malyshev Factory, Khartron, Turboatom, and Antonov. In March and April 2014, security forces and counter-demonstrators defeated efforts by Russian-backed separatists to seize control of the city and regional administration. Kharkiv was a major target for Russian forces in the northeastern Ukraine campaign during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine before they were pushed back to the Russia-Ukraine border. The city remains under intermittent Russian fire. History See also: Timeline of Kharkiv Early history A depiction of the legendary founder "Khariton or Kharko" (postcard of the Russian imperial period, c. 1890s). The earliest historical references to the region are to Scythian and Sarmatian settlement in the 2nd century BCE. Between the 2nd to the 6th centuries CE there is evidence of Chernyakhov culture, a multiethnic mix of the Geto-Dacian, Sarmatian, and Gothic populations. [9] In the 8th to 10th centuries the Khazar fortress of Verkhneye Saltovo stood about 25 miles (40 km) east of the modern city, near Staryi Saltiv.[10] During the 12th century, the area was part of the territory of the Cumans, and then from the mid 13th century of the Mongol/Tartar Golden Horde. By the early 17th century, the area was a contested frontier region with renegade populations that had begun to organise in Cossack formations and communities defined by a common determination to resist both Tatar slavery, and Polish-Lithuanian and Russian serfdom. Mid-century, the Khmelnytsky Uprising against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth saw the brief establishment of an independent Cossack Hetmanate.[11] Kharkiv Fortress In 1654, in the midst of this period of turmoil for Right-bank Ukraine, groups of people came onto the banks of Lopan and Kharkiv rivers where they resurrected and fortified an abandoned settlement.[12] There is a folk etymology that connects the name of both the settlement and the river to a legendary cossack founder named Kharko[13] (a diminutive form of the name Chariton, Ukrainian: Харитон, romanized: Khariton,[1] or Zechariah, Ukrainian: Захарій, romanized: Zakharii).[14] But the river's name is attested earlier than the foundation of the fortress.[15] The settlement reluctantly accepted the protection and authority of a Russian voivode from Chuhuiv 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the east. The first appointed voivode from Moscow was Voyin Selifontov in 1656, who began to build a local ostrog (fort). In 1658, a new voivode, Ivan Ofrosimov, commanded the locals to kiss the cross in a demonstration of loyalty to Tsar Alexis. Led by their otaman Ivan Kryvoshlyk, the refused refused. However, with the election of a new otaman, Tymish Lavrynov, relations appear to have been repaired, the Tsar in Moscow granting the community's request (signed by the deans of the new Assumption Cathedral and parish churches of Annunciation and Trinity) to establish a local market.[12] At that time the population of Kharkiv was just over 1000, half of whom were local cossacks. Selifontov had brought with him a Moscow garrison of only 70 soldiers.[12] Defence rested with a local sloboda cossack regiment under the jurisdiction of the Razryad Prikaz, a military agency commanded from Belgorod.[12] The Intercession Cathedral with bell tower and Ozeryanskaya church (right) built in Kharkiv in 1689 The original walls of Kharkiv enclosed today's streets: vulytsia Kvitky-Osnovianenko, Constitution Square, Rose Luxemburg Square, Proletarian Square, and Cathedral Descent.[12] There were 10 towers of which the tallest, Vestovska, was some 16 metres (52 ft) high. In 1689 the fortress was expanded to include the Intercession Cathedral and Monastery, which became a seat of a local church hierarch, the Protopope.[12] Russian Empire The first railway station in Kharkiv was built in 1869 A 19th-century view of Kharkiv, with the belltower of the Assumption Cathedral dominating the skyline Administrative reforms led to Kharkiv being governed from 1708 from Kyiv,[16] and from 1727 from Belgorod. In 1765 Kharkiv was established as the seat of a separate Sloboda Ukraine Governorate.[17] Kharkiv University was established in 1805 in the Palace of Governorate-General.[12] Alexander Mikolajewicz Mickiewicz, brother of the Polish national poet Adam Mickiewicz, was a professor of law in the university, while another celebrity, Goethe, searched for instructors for the school.[12] One of its later graduates was In Ivan Franko to whom it awarded a doctorate in Russian linguistics in 1906.[12][18] The streets were first cobbled in the city centre in 1830.[19] In 1844 the 90 metres (300 ft) tall Alexander Bell Tower, commemorating the victory over Napoleon I in 1812, was built next to the first Assumption Cathedral (later to be transformed by the Soviet authorities into a radio tower). A system of running water was established in 1870.[12] In the course of the 19th century, although predominantly Russian speaking, Kharkiv became a centre of Ukrainian culture.[20] The first Ukrainian newspaper was published in the city in 1812. Soon after the Crimean War, in 1860–61, a hromada was established in the city, one of a network of secret societies that laid the groundwork for the appearance of a Ukrainian national movement. Its most prominent member was the philosopher, linguist and pan-slavist activist Oleksandr Potebnia. Members of a student hromada in the city included the future national leaders Borys Martos and Dmytro Antonovych,[20] and reputedly were the first to employ the slogan "Glory to Ukraine!" and its response "Glory on all of earth!".[21] In 1900, the student hromada founded the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP), which sought to unite all Ukrainian national elements, including the growing number of socialists.[22] Following the revolutionary events 1905 in which Kharkiv distinguished itself by avoiding a reactionary pogrom against its Jewish population,[23] the RUP in Kharkiv, Poltava, Kyiv, Nizhyn, Lubny, and Yekaterinodar repudiated the more extreme elements of Ukrainian nationalism. Adopting the Erfurt Program of German Social Democracy, they restyled themselves the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party (USDLP). This was to remain independent of, and opposed by, the Bolshevik faction of the Russian SDLP.[24][25] After the February Revolution of 1917, the USDLP was the main party in the first Ukrainian government, the General Secretariat of Ukraine. The Tsentralna Rada (central council) of Ukrainian parties in Kyiv authorised the Secretariat to negoitate national autonomy with the Russian Provisional Government. In the succeeding months, as wartime conditions deteriorated, the USDLP lost support in Kharkiv and elsewhere to the Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR) which organised both in peasant communities and in disaffected military units.[25] Soviet era Capital of Soviet Ukraine The Derzhprom building in the late 1920s. In the Russian Constituent Assembly election held in November 1917, the Bolsheviks who had seized power in Petrograd and Moscow received just 10.5 percent of the vote in the Governorate, compared to 73 percent for a bloc of Russian and Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries. Commanding worker, rather than peasant, votes, within the city itself the Bolsheviks won a plurality.[26] When in Petrograd Lenin's Council of People's Commissars disbanded the Constituent Assembly after its first sitting, the Tsentralna Rada in Kyiv proclaimed the independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR).[1] Bolsheviks withdrew from Tsentralna Rada and formed their own Rada (national council) in Kharkiv.[27][28] By February 1918 their forces had captured much of Ukraine.[29] They made Kharkiv the capital of the Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic.[30] Six weeks later, under the treaty terms agreed with the Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk, they abandoned the city and ceded the territory to the German-occupied Ukrainian State.[31] After the German withdrawal, the Red Army returned but, in June 1919, withdrew again before the advancing forces of Anton Denikin's White movement Volunteer.[32] By December 1919 Soviet authority was restored.[33] The Bolsheviks established Kharkiv as the capital of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and, in 1922, this was formally incorporated as a constituent republic of the Soviet Union.[34] A number of prestige construction projects in new officially-approved Constructivist style were completed,[35] among them Derzhprom (Palace of Industry) then the tallest building in the Soviet Union (and the second tallest in Europe),[36] the Red Army Building, the Ukrainian Polytechnic Institute of Distance Learning (UZPI), the City Council building, with its massive asymmetric tower, and the central department store that was opened on the 15th Anniversary of the October Revolution.[12] As new buildings were going up, many of city's historic architectural monuments were being torn down. These included most of the baroque churches: Saint Nicholas's Cathedral of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church, the Church of the Myrrhophores, Saint Demetrius's Church, and the Cossack fortified Church of the Nativity.[37] Under Stalin's First Five Year Plan, the city underwent intensified industrialisation, led by a number of national projects. Chief among these were the Kharkiv Tractor Factory (HTZ), described by Stalin as "a steel bastion of the collectivisation of agriculture in the Ukraine",[38] and the Malyshev Factory, an enlargement of the old Kharkiv Locomotive Factory, which at its height employed 60,000 workers in the production of heavy equipment.[39] By 1937 the output of Kharkiv's industries was reported as being 35 times greater than in 1913.[37] Since turn of the century, the influx of new workers from the countryside changed the ethnic composition of Kharkiv. According to census returns, by 1939 the Russian share of the population had fallen from almost two thirds to one third, while the Ukrainian share rose from a quarter to almost half. The Jewish population rose from under 6 percent of the total, to over 15 percent[40][41] (sustaining a Hebrew secondary school, a popular Jewish university and extensive publication in Yiddish and Hebrew).[42] Starved peasants on the street during the Holodomor in Kharkiv, 1933. In the 1920s, the Ukrainian SSR promoted the use of the Ukrainian language, mandating it for all schools. In practice the share of secondary schools teaching in the Ukrainian language remained lower than the ethnic Ukrainian share of the Kharkiv Oblasts population.[43] The Ukrainization policy was reversed, with the prosecution in Kharkiv in 1930 of the Union for the Freedom of Ukraine. Hundreds of Ukrainian intellectuals were arrested and deported.[44] In 1932 and '33, the combination of grain seizures and the forced collectivisation of peasant holdings created famine conditions, the Holodomor, driving people off the land and into Kharkiv, and other cities, in search of food.[45][46] Eye-witness accounts by westerners—among them those of American Communist Fred Beal employed in the Kharkiv Tractor Factory[47] —were cited in the international press but, until the era of Glasnost were consistently denounced in the Soviet Union as fabrications.[48][49][50] In 1934 hundreds of Ukrainian writers, intellectuals and cultural workers were arrested and executed in the attempt to eradicate all vestiges of Ukrainian nationalism. The purges continued into 1938. Blind Ukrainian street musicians Kobzars were also rounded up in Kharkiv and murdered by the NKVD.[51] Confident in his control over Ukraine, in January 1934 Stalin had the capital of the Ukrainian SSR moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv.[52] During April and May 1940 about 3,900 Polish prisoners of Starobelsk camp were executed in the Kharkiv NKVD building, later secretly buried on the grounds of an NKVD pansionat in Pyatykhatky forest (part of the Katyn massacre) on the outskirts of Kharkiv.[53][54] The site also contains the numerous bodies of Ukrainian cultural workers who were arrested and shot in the 1937–38 Stalinist purges. German occupation During World War II, Kharkiv was the focus of major battles. The city was captured by Nazi Germany on 24 October 1941.[55][56] A disastrous Red Army offensive failed to recover the city in May 1942.[57][58] It was retaken (Operation Star) on 16 February 1943, but lost again to the Germans on 15 March 1943. 23 August 1943 saw a final liberation.[59] A memorial to 23 August 1943, the end of German occupation during World War II On the eve of the occupation, Kharkiv's prewar population of 700,000 had been doubled by the influx of refugees.[60] What remained of the pre-war Jewish population of 130,000, were slated by the Germans for "special treatment": between December 1941 and January 1942, they killed and buried an estimated 15,000 Jews in a ravine outside of town named Drobytsky Yar.[61] Over their 22 months occupation they executed a further 30,000 residents, among them suspected Soviet partisans and, after a brief period of toleration, Ukrainian nationalists. 80,000 people died of hunger, cold and disease. 60,000 were forcibly transported to Germany as slave workers (Ostarbeiter).[62][37] (Among these was Boris Romanchenko. The 96-year old survivor of forced labor at the Buchenwald, Peenemünde, Dora and Bergen Belsen concentration camps was killed when Russian fire hit his apartment bloc on 18 March 2022).[63][64] By the time of Kharkiv's liberation in August 1943, the surviving population had been reduced to under 200,000.[60] Seventy percent of the city had been destroyed.[59] Post-World War II Before the occupation, Kharkiv's tank industries had been evacuated to the Urals with all their equipment, and became the heart of Red Army's tank programs (particularly, producing the T-34 tank earlier designed in Kharkiv). These enterprises returned to Kharkiv after the war, and became central elements of the post-war Soviet military industrial complex.[62] Houses and factories were rebuilt, and much of the city's center was reconstructed in the style of Stalinist Classicism.[12] Kharkiv in 1981 In the Brezhnev-era, Kharkiv was promoted as a "model Soviet city". Propaganda made much of its “youthfulness”, a designation broadly used to suggest the relative absence in the city of "material and spiritual relics" from the pre-revolutionary era, and its commitment to the new frontiers of Soviet industry and science. The city's machine-and-weapons building prowess was attributed to a forward-looking collaboration between its large-scale industrial enterprises and new research institutes and laboratories.[65] The last Communist Party chief of Ukraine, Vladimir Ivashko, appointed in 1989, trained as a mining engineer and served as a party functionary in Kharkiv.[66] He led the Communists to victory in Kharkiv and across the country in the parliamentary election held in the Ukrainian SSR in March 1990.[67] The election was relatively free, but occurred well before organised political parties had time to form, and did not arrest the decline in the CPSU's legitimacy.[68] This was accelerated by the intra-party coup attempt against President Mikhail Gorbachev and his reforms on August 18, 1991, during which Ivashko temporarily replaced by Gorbachev as CPSU General Secretary.[69] The National University of Kharkiv was at the forefront of democratic agitation. In October 1991, a call from Kyiv for an all-Ukrainian university strike to protest Gorbachev's new Union Treaty and to call for new multi-party elections was met with a rally at the entrance to the university attended not only by students and university teachers, but also by a range of public and cultural figures.[70] The protests—the so-called the Revolution on Granite[71]—ended on October 17 with a resolution of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR promising further democratic reform. In the event, the only demand fulfilled was the removal of the Communist Prime Minister.[72] Jewish community Kharkiv's Jewish community revived after World War II: by 1959 there were 84,000 Jews living in the city. Soviet anti-Zionism restricted expressions of Jewish religion and culture, and was sustained until the final Gorbachev years (the confiscated Kharkiv Choral Synagogue reopened as a synagogue in 1990).[42] The city's Jewish population, 62,800 in 1970,[42] had dropped to 50,000 by the end of the century.[73] During the 1990s post-Soviet aliyah, many Jews from Kharkiv emigrated to Israel or to Western countries.[74] Mirror Stream fountain Independent Ukraine In the 1 December 1991 Referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence, on a turnout of 76 percent 86 percent of the Kharkiv Oblast approved separate Ukrainian statehood.[75] New Year's decoration of Freedom Square in Kharkiv in 2018 A monument to the persecuted kobzars in Kharkiv. The collapse of the Soviet Union disrupted, but did not sever, the ties that bound Kharkiv heavy's industries to the integrated Soviet market and supply chains, and did not diminish dependency on Russian oil, minerals, and gas.[76] In Kharkiv and elsewhere in eastern Ukraine, the limited prospects for securing new economic partners in the West, and concern for the rights of Russian-speakers in the new national state, combined to promote the interests of political parties and candidates emphasising understanding and cooperation with the Russian Federation. In the new century, these were represented by the Party of Regions and by the presidential ambitions of Victor Yanukovych,[77] which in Kharkiv triumphed in the city council elections of 2006, in the parliamentary elections of 2007 and in the presidential elections of 2010.[78] Although never attaining the level of protest witnessed in Kyiv and in communities further west, following the disputed 2012 Parliamentary elections public opposition to President Yanukovych and his party surfaced in Kharkiv amid accusations of systematic corruption and of sabotaging prospects for new ties to the European Union.[79] 2014 pro-Russian unrest Main article: 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine § Kharkiv Oblast The Euromaidan protests in the winter of 2013–2014 against then president Viktor Yanukovych consisted of daily gatherings of about 200 protestors near the statue of Taras Shevchenko and were predominantly peaceful.[80] Disappointed at the turnout, an activist at Kharkiv University suggested that his fellow students "proved to be as much of an inert, grey and cowed mass as Kharkiv’s ‘biudzhetniki’ " (those whose income derives from the state budget, mostly public servants).[81] But Pro-Yanukovych demonstrations, held near the statue of Lenin in Freedom (previously Dzerzhinsky) Square, were similarly small.[80] In the wake Yanukovych's ouster in February, there were attempts in Kharkiv to follow the example of separatists in neighbouring Donbas.[82] On 2 March 2014, a Russian "tourist" from Moscow replaced the Ukrainian flag with a Russian flag on the Kharkiv Regional State Administration Building.[83] On 6 April 2014 pro-Russian protestors occupied the building and unilaterally declared independence from Ukraine as the "Kharkiv People's Republic".[80][84] Doubts arose about their local origin as they had initially targeted the city's Opera and Ballet Theatre before recognising their mistake.[85] Kharkiv's mayor, Hennadiy "Gepa" Kernes, elected in 2010 as the nominee of the Party of Regions, was placed under house arrest. Claiming to have been "prisoner of Yanukovych's system",[86] he now declared his loyalty to acting President Oleksandr Turchynov.[80] In a televised address on April 7, Turchynov had announced that "a second wave of the Russian Federation's special operation against Ukraine [has] started" with the "goal of destabilising the situation in the country, toppling Ukrainian authorities, disrupting the elections, and tearing our country apart".[87] Kernes persuaded the police to storm the regional administration building and push out the separatists. He was allowed to return to his mayoral duties.[88] Police action against the separatists was reinforced by a special forces unit from Vinnytsia directed by Ukrainian Interior Minister Arsen Avakov and Stepan Poltorak the acting commander of the Ukrainian Internal Forces.[80][89] On 13 April, some pro-Russian protesters again made it inside the Kharkiv regional state administration building, but were quickly evicted.[89][90][91] Violent clashes resulted in the severe beating of at least 50 pro-Ukrainian protesters in attacks by pro-Russian protesters.[90][91] On 28 April, Kernes was shot by a sniper,[92] a victim, commentators suggested, of his former pro-Russian allies.[88] Relatively peaceful demonstrations continued to be held, with "pro-Russian" rallies gradually diminishing and "pro-Ukrainian unity" demonstrations growing in numbers.[93][94][95] On 28 September, activists dismantled Ukraine's largest monument to Lenin at a pro-Ukrainian rally in the central square.[96] Polls conducted from September to December 2014 found little support in Kharkiv for joining Russia.[97][98] From early November until mid-December, Kharkiv was struck by seven non-lethal bomb blasts. Targets of these attacks included a rock pub known for raising money for Ukrainian forces, a hospital for Ukrainian forces, a military recruiting centre, and a National Guard base.[99] According to SBU investigator Vasyliy Vovk, Russian covert forces were behind the attacks, and had intended to destabilise the otherwise calm city of Kharkiv.[100] On 8 January 2015 five men wearing balaclavas broke into an office of Station Kharkiv, a volunteer group aiding refugees from Donbas.[101] On 22 February an improvised explosive device killed four people and wounded nine during a march commemorating the Euromaidan victims.[80] The authorities launched an 'anti-terrorist operation'.[102] Further bombings targeted army fuel tanks, an unoccupied passenger train and a Ukrainian flag in the city centre.[103] On 23 September 2015, 200 people in balaclavas and camouflage picketed the house of former governor Mykhailo Dobkin, and then went to Kharkiv town hall, where they tried to force their way through the police cordon. At least one tear gas grenade was used. The rioters asked the mayor, Hennadiy Kernes, a supporter of the president, to come out.[104][105] Following recovery from his wounds, Kernes had been re-elected mayor, and was so again in 2020. He died of COVID-19 related complication in December 2020.[106][107] He was succeeded by Ihor Terekhov of the "Kernes Bloc — Successful Kharkiv".[3][4] After the Euromaidan events and Russian actions in the Crimea and Donbas ruptured relations with Moscow, the Kharkiv region experienced a sharp fall in output and employment. Once a hub of cross border trade, Kharkiv was turned into a border fortress. A reorientation to new international markets, increased defense contracts (after Kyiv, the region contains the second-largest umber of military-related enterprises) and export growth in the economy's services sector helped fuel a recovery, but people's incomes did not return to pre-2014 levels.[108] By 2018 Kharkiv officially has the lowest unemployment rate in Ukraine, 6 percent. But in part this reflected labor shortages caused by the steady outflow of young and skilled workers to Poland and other European countries.[108] 2022 Russian invasion Main article: Battle of Kharkiv (2022) Residential building destroyed during the Battle of Kharkiv in 2022 During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Kharkiv was the site of heavy fighting between the Ukrainian and Russian forces.[109] On 27 February, the governor of Kharkiv Oblast Oleh Synyehubov claimed that Russian troops were repelled from Kharkiv.[110] According to a 28 February 2022, report from Agroportal 24h, the Kharkiv Tractor Plant (KhTZ), in the south east of the city, was destroyed and “engulfed in fire” by “massive shelling” from Russian forces.[111] Video purported to record explosions and fire at the plant on 25 and 27 February 2022.[112][113] UNESCO has confirmed that in the first three weeks of bombardment the city experienced the loss or damage of at least 27 major historical buildings.[114] On 4 March 2022, Human Rights Watch reported that on the fourth day of the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation, 28 February 2022, Federation forces used cluster munitions in the KhTZ , the Moskovskyi and Shevchenkivskyi districts of the city. The rights group—which noted the "inherently indiscriminate nature of cluster munitions and their foreseeable effects on civilians"—based its assessment on interviews and an analysis of 40 videos and photographs.[115] In March 2022, during the Battle of Kharkiv, the city was designated as a Hero City of Ukraine.[116] In May 2022, Ukrainian forces began a counter-offensive to drive Russian forces away from the city and towards the international border. By 12 May, the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence reported that Russia had withdrawn units from the Kharkiv area.[117] Russian artillery and rockets remain within range of the city, and it continues to suffer shelling[118] and missile strikes.[119] Geography The Lopan-Kharkiv river spur Kharkiv is located at the banks of the Kharkiv, Lopan, and Udy rivers, where they flow into the Seversky Donets watershed in the north-eastern region of Ukraine. Historically, Kharkiv lies in the Sloboda Ukraine region (Slobozhanshchyna also known as Slobidshchyna) in Ukraine, in which it is considered to be the main city. The approximate dimensions of city of Kharkiv are: from the North to the South — 24.3 km; from the West to the East — 25.2 km. Based on Kharkiv's topography, the city can be conditionally divided into four lower districts and four higher districts. The highest point above sea level, in Pyatikhatky, is 202m, and the lowest is Novoselivka in Kharkiv is 94m.[citation needed] Kharkiv lies in the large valley of rivers of Kharkiv, Lopan', Udy, and Nemyshlya. This valley lies from the North West to the South East between the Mid Russian highland and Donetsk lowland. All the rivers interconnect in Kharkiv and flow into the river of Northern Donets. A special system of concrete and metal dams was designed and built by engineers to regulate the water level in the rivers in Kharkiv.[citation needed] Kharkiv has a large number of green city parks with a long history of more than 100 years with very old oak trees and many flowers.[citation needed] Gorky park, or Maxim Gorky Central Park for Culture and Recreation, is Kharkiv's largest public garden. The park has nine areas: children, extreme sports, family entertainment, a medieval area, entertainment center, French park, cable car, sports grounds, retro park. Climate Kharkiv's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfa/Dfb) with long, cold, snowy winters and warm to hot summers. The average rainfall totals 519 mm (20 in) per year, with the most in June and July. Climate data for Kharkiv, Ukraine (1991−2020, extremes 1936–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 11.1 (52.0) 14.6 (58.3) 21.8 (71.2) 30.5 (86.9) 34.5 (94.1) 39.8 (103.6) 38.4 (101.1) 39.8 (103.6) 34.5 (94.1) 29.3 (84.7) 20.3 (68.5) 13.4 (56.1) 39.8 (103.6) Average high °C (°F) −2.1 (28.2) −0.8 (30.6) 5.2 (41.4) 14.7 (58.5) 21.4 (70.5) 25.2 (77.4) 27.4 (81.3) 26.8 (80.2) 20.5 (68.9) 12.6 (54.7) 4.3 (39.7) −0.7 (30.7) 12.9 (55.2) Daily mean °C (°F) −4.5 (23.9) −3.8 (25.2) 1.4 (34.5) 9.7 (49.5) 16.1 (61.0) 20.0 (68.0) 22.0 (71.6) 21.1 (70.0) 15.1 (59.2) 8.2 (46.8) 1.6 (34.9) −2.9 (26.8) 8.7 (47.7) Average low °C (°F) −6.8 (19.8) −6.6 (20.1) −1.9 (28.6) 4.8 (40.6) 10.7 (51.3) 14.7 (58.5) 16.6 (61.9) 15.4 (59.7) 10.2 (50.4) 4.4 (39.9) −0.8 (30.6) −5.1 (22.8) 4.6 (40.3) Record low °C (°F) −35.6 (−32.1) −29.8 (−21.6) −32.2 (−26.0) −11.4 (11.5) −1.9 (28.6) 2.2 (36.0) 5.7 (42.3) 2.2 (36.0) −2.9 (26.8) −9.1 (15.6) −20.9 (−5.6) −30.8 (−23.4) −35.6 (−32.1) Average precipitation mm (inches) 37 (1.5) 33 (1.3) 36 (1.4) 32 (1.3) 54 (2.1) 58 (2.3) 63 (2.5) 39 (1.5) 44 (1.7) 44 (1.7) 39 (1.5) 40 (1.6) 519 (20.4) Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) 8 (3.1) 11 (4.3) 8 (3.1) 1 (0.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0.4) 4 (1.6) 11 (4.3) Average rainy days 10 8 10 13 14 15 13 10 12 13 13 12 143 Average snowy days 19 18 12 2 0.1 0 0 0 0.03 2 9 18 80 Average relative humidity (%) 85.6 83.0 77.3 65.7 60.9 65.2 65.3 62.9 70.2 77.6 85.7 86.5 73.8 Mean monthly sunshine hours 41.5 63.3 123.5 166.7 252.9 266.6 278.0 262.4 176.6 112.8 51.0 31.4 1,826.7 Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net[120] Source 2: World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010)[121] A panoramic view of the central district in Kharkiv Governance Legal status and local government See also: List of mayors of Kharkiv The mayor of Kharkiv and the city council govern all the business and administrative affairs in the City of Kharkiv. The mayor of Kharkiv has the executive powers; the city council has the administrative powers as far as the government issues are concerned. The mayor of Kharkiv is elected by direct public election in Kharkiv every four years. The city council is composed of elected representatives, who approve or reject the initiatives on the budget allocation, tasks priorities and other issues in Kharkiv. The representatives to the city council are elected every four years. The mayor and city council hold their regular meetings in the City Hall in Kharkiv. Administrative divisions While Kharkiv is the administrative centre of the Kharkiv Oblast (province), the city affairs are managed by the Kharkiv Municipality. Kharkiv is a city of oblast subordinance. Kholodnohirskyi District Shevchenkivskyi District Kyivskyi District Saltivskyi District Nemyshlyanskyi District Industrialnyi District Slobidskyi District Osnovianskyi District Novobavarskyi District Административное деление Харькова.svg The territory of Kharkiv is divided into 9 administrative raions (districts), until February 2016 they were named for people, places, events, and organizations associated with early years of the Soviet Union but many were renamed in February 2016 to comply with decommunization laws.[2] Also, owing to this law, over 200 streets have been renamed in Kharkiv since 20 November 2015.[122] The raions are named:[2][123] Kholodnohirskyi (Ukrainian: Холодногірський район, Cold Mountain; namesake: the historic name of the neighbourhood[124]) (formerly Leninskyi; namesake: Vladimir Lenin) Shevchenkivskyi (Ukrainian: Шевченківський район); namesake: Taras Shevchenko (formerly Dzerzhynskyi; namesake Felix Dzerzhinsky) Kyivskyi (Ukrainian: Київський район); namesake: Kyiv (formerly Kahanovychskyi; namesake: Lazar Kaganovich) Saltivskyi (Ukrainian: Салтівський район); namesake: Saltivka residential area (formerly Moskovskyi; namesake: Moscow) Nemyshlianskyi (Ukrainian: Немишлянський район) (formerly Frunzensky: namesake: Mikhail Frunze[123]); Industrialnyi (Ukrainian: Індустріальний район) (formerly Ordzhonikidzevskyi; namesake: Sergo Ordzhonikidze) Slobidskyi (Ukrainian: Слобідський район) (formerly Kominternіvsky[123]); namesake: Sloboda Ukraine Osnovianskyi (Ukrainian: Основ'янський район) (formerly Chervonozavodsky[123]); namesake: Osnova, a city neighborhood Novobavarskyi (Ukrainian: Новобаварський район) (formerly Zhovtnevy[123]); namesake: Nova Bavaria, a city neighborhood Demographics This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2023) Historical populationYear Pop. 1660[125] 1,000 1788[126] 10,742 1850[127] 41,861 1861[127] 50,301 1901[127] 198,273 1916[128] 352,300 1917[129] 382,000 1920[128] 285,000 1926[128] 417,000 1939[130] 833,000 1941[128] 902,312 1941[131] 1,400,000 1941[128][132] 456,639 1943[133] 170,000 1959[127] 930,000 1962[127] 1,000,000 1976[127] 1,384,000 1982[126] 1,500,000 1989 1,593,970 1999 1,510,200 2001[134] 1,470,900 2014[135] 1,430,885 According to the 1989 Soviet Union Census, the population of the city was 1,593,970. In 1991, it decreased to 1,510,200, including 1,494,200 permanent residents.[136] Kharkiv is the second-largest city in Ukraine after the capital, Kyiv.[137] The first independent all-Ukrainian population census was conducted in December 2001, and the next all-Ukrainian population census is decreed to be conducted in 2020. As of 2001, the population of the Kharkiv region is as follows: 78.5% living in urban areas, and 21.5% living in rural areas.[138] Ethnicity Ethnic group 1897[40] 1926 1939 1959[41] 1989[136] 2001[139][140][dubious – discuss] Ukrainians 25.9% 38.6% 48.5% 48.4% 50.4% 62.8% Russians 63.2% 37.2% 32.9% 40.4% 43.6% 33.2% Jews 5.7% 19.5% 15.6% 8.7% 3.0% 0.7% Notes 1660 year – approximated estimation 1788 year – without the account of children 1920 year – times of the Russian Civil War 1941 year – estimation on 1 May, right before German-Soviet War 1941 year – next estimation in September varies between 1,400,000 and 1,450,000 1941 year – another estimation in December during the occupation without the account of children 1943 year – 23 August, liberation of the city; estimation varied 170,000 and 220,000 1976 year – estimation on 1 June 1982 year – estimation in March Religion The Assumption or Dormition Cathedral. The St. Annunciation Orthodox Cathedral is one of the tallest Orthodox churches in the world. It was completed on 2 October 1888. Kharkiv is an important religious centre in Eastern Ukraine. There are many old and new religious buildings, associated with various denominations in Kharkiv. The St. Assumption Orthodox Cathedral was built in Kharkiv in the 1680s and re-built in 1820s-1830s.[141] The St. Trinity Orthodox Church was built in Kharkiv in 1758–1764 and re-built in 1857–1861.[142] The St. Annunciation Orthodox Cathedral, one of the tallest Orthodox churches in the world, was completed in Kharkiv on 2 October 1888.[143] Recently built churches include the St. Valentine Orthodox Church and the St. Tamara Orthodox Church.[144][145] Kharkiv's Jewish population is estimated to be around 8,000 people.[146] It is served by the old Kharkiv Choral Synagogue, which was fully renovated in Kharkiv in 1991–2016. There are two mosques including the Kharkiv Cathedral Mosque and one Islamic center in Kharkiv.[citation needed] Economy Sumska Street is the main thoroughfare of Kharkiv. The 2016–2020 economic development strategy: "Kharkiv Success Strategy", is created in Kharkiv.[147][148][149] Kharkiv has a diversified service economy, with employment spread across a wide range of professional services, including financial services, manufacturing, tourism, and high technology. International Economic Forum The International Economic Forum: Innovations. Investments. Kharkiv Innitiatives! is being conducted in Kharkiv every year.[150] In 2015, the International Economic Forum: Innovations. Investments. Kharkiv Innitiatives! was attended by the diplomatic corps representatives from 17 world countries, working in Ukraine together with top-management of trans-national corporations and investment funds; plus Ukrainian People's Deputies; plus Ukrainian Central government officials, who determine the national economic development strategy; plus local government managers, who perform practical steps in implementing that strategy; plus managers of technical assistance to Ukraine; plus business and NGO's representatives; plus media people.[150][151][152][153][154] The key topics of the plenary sessions and panel discussions of the International Economic Forum: Innovations. Investments. Kharkiv Innitiatives! are the implementation of Strategy for Sustainable Development "Ukraine – 2020", the results achieved and plan of further actions to reform the local government and territorial organization of power in Ukraine, export promotion and attraction of investments in Ukraine, new opportunities for public-private partnerships, practical steps to create "electronic government", issues of energy conservation and development of oil and gas industry in the Kharkiv Region, creating an effective system of production and processing of agricultural products, investment projects that will receive funding from the State Fund for Regional Development, development of international integration, preparation for privatization of state enterprises.[150][151][152][153][154] International Industrial Exhibitions The international industrial exhibitions are usually conducted at the Radmir Expohall exhibition center in Kharkiv.[155] Industrial corporations Kvant-2 module - its control system was designed at Khartron in Kharkiv. During the Soviet era, Kharkiv was the capital of industrial production in Ukraine and a large centre of industry and commerce in the USSR. After the collapse of the Soviet Union the largely defence-systems-oriented industrial production of the city decreased significantly. In the early 2000s, the industry started to recover and adapt to market economy needs. The enterprises form machine-building, electro-technology, instrument-making, and energy conglomerates. State-owned industrial giants, such as Turboatom and Elektrotyazhmash[156] occupy 17% of the heavy power equipment construction (e.g., turbines) market worldwide. Multipurpose aircraft are produced by the Antonov aircraft manufacturing plant. The Malyshev factory produces not only armoured fighting vehicles, but also harvesters. Khartron[157] is the leading designer of space and commercial control systems in Ukraine and the former CIS. Derzhprom building IT industry As of April 2018, there were 25,000 specialists in IT industry of the Kharkiv region, 76% of them were related to computer programming. Thus, Kharkiv accounts for 14% of all IT specialists in Ukraine and makes the second largest IT location in the country, right after the capital Kyiv.[158] Also, the number of active IT companies in the region to be 445, five of them employing more than 601 people. Besides, there are 22 large companies with the workers' number ranging from 201 to 600. More than half of IT-companies located in the Kharkiv region fall into "extra small" category with less than 20 persons engaged. The list is compiled with 43 medium (81-200 employers) and 105 small companies (21-80).[citation needed] Due to the comparably narrow market for IT services in Ukraine, the majority of Kharkiv companies are export-oriented with more than 95% of total sales generated overseas in 2017. Overall, the estimated revenue of Kharkiv IT companies will more than double from $800 million in 2018 to $1.85 billion by 2025. The major markets are North America (65%) and Europe (25%).[159] Finance industry Kharkiv is also the headquarters of one of the largest Ukrainian banks, UkrSibbank, which has been part of the BNP Paribas group since December 2005. Trade industry There are many large modern shopping malls in Kharkiv. There are a large number of markets: Barabashovo market is the largest market in Ukraine and one of the largest markets in Europe. Blagoveshinskiy market. Konniy "horse" market. Sumskoi market [160] Raiskiy book market. Science and education Main building of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. Northern building of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. Il'ya I. Mechnikov, Lev D. Landau, Simon A. Kuznets Nobel Laureates Monuments at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. Higher education The Vasyl N. Karazin Kharkiv National University is the most prestigious reputable classic university, which was founded due to the efforts by Vasily Karazin in Kharkiv in 1804–1805.[161][162] On 29 January [O.S. 17 January] 1805, the Decree on the Opening of the Imperial University in Kharkiv came into force. The Roentgen Institute opened in 1931. It was a specialist cancer treatment facility with 87 research workers, 20 professors, and specialist medical staff. The facilities included chemical, physiology, and bacteriology experimental treatment laboratories. It produced x-ray apparatus for the whole country.[163] The city has 13 national universities and numerous professional, technical and private higher education institutions, offering its students a wide range of disciplines. These universities include Kharkiv National University (12,000 students), National Technical University "KhPI" (20,000 students), Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics (12,000 students), Kharkiv National Aerospace University "KhAI", Kharkiv National University of Economics, Kharkiv National University of Pharmacy, and Kharkiv National Medical University. More than 17,000 faculty and research staff are employed in the institutions of higher education in Kharkiv. Scientific research The city has a high concentration of research institutions, which are independent or loosely connected with the universities. Among them are three national science centres: Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology, Institute of Meteorology, Institute for Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine and 20 national research institutions of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, such as the B Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics and Engineering, Institute for Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine, State Scientific Institution "Institute for Single Crystals", Usikov Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics (IRE), Institute of Radio Astronomy (IRA), and others. A total number of 26,000 scientists are working in research and development. A number of world-renowned scientific schools appeared in Kharkiv, such as the theoretical physics school and the mathematical school. There is the Kharkiv Scientists House in the city, which was built by A. N. Beketov, architect in Kharkiv in 1900. All the scientists like to meet and discuss various scientific topics at the Kharkiv Scientists House in Kharkiv.[164] Public libraries Students in the library of the National University of Pharmacy in Kharkiv In addition to the libraries affiliated with the various universities and research institutions, the Kharkiv State Scientific V. Korolenko-library is a major research library. Secondary schools Kharkiv has 212 (secondary education) schools, including 10 lyceums and 20 gymnasiums.[citation needed] Education centers There is the educational "Landau Center", which is named after Prof. L.D. Landau, Nobel laureate in Kharkiv.[165] Culture Kharkiv is one of the main cultural centres in Ukraine. It is home to 20 museums, over 10 theatres[citation needed] and a number of art galleries. Large music and cinema festivals are hosted in Kharkiv almost every year. Theatres The Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre The Kharkiv National Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre named after N. V. Lysenko is the biggest theatre in Kharkiv.[166][167] Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre named after T. G. Shevchenko is popular among Ukrainian speaking people [168] The Kharkiv Academic Russian Drama Theatre named after A.S. Pushkin was recently renovated, and it is quite popular among locals.[169] The Kharkiv Theatre of the Young Spectator (now the Theatre for Children and Youth) is one of the oldest theatres for children.[170] The Kharkiv Puppet Theatre (The Kharkiv State Academic Puppet Theatre named after VA Afanasyev) is the first puppet theatre in the territory of Kharkiv. It was created in 1935. The Kharkiv Academic Theatre of Musical Comedy is a theatre founded on 1 November 1929 in Kharkiv. Literature The Kharkiv Academic Drama Theatre In the 1930s Kharkiv was referred to as a Literary Klondike.[citation needed] It was the centre for the work of literary figures such as: Les Kurbas, Mykola Kulish, Mykola Khvylovy, Mykola Zerov, Valerian Pidmohylny, Pavlo Filipovych, Marko Voronny, Oleksa Slisarenko. Over 100 of these writers were repressed during the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. This tragic event in Ukrainian history is called the "Executed Renaissance" (Rozstrilene vidrodzhennia). Today, a literary museum located on Frunze Street marks their work and achievements. Today, Kharkiv is often referred to as the "capital city" of Ukrainian science fiction and fantasy.[171][172] It is home to a number of popular writers, such as H. L. Oldie, Alexander Zorich, Andrey Dashkov, Yuri Nikitin and Andrey Valentinov; most of them write in Russian and are popular in both Russia and Ukraine. The annual science fiction convention "Star Bridge" (Звёздный мост) has been held in Kharkiv since 1999.[173] Music Academic choir of Kharkiv Philharmonic named after V. Palkin and chief leader of choir, prize winner of the all-Ukrainian choir masters contest, Andriy Syrotenko. There is the Kharkiv Philharmonic Society in the city. The leading group active in the Philharmonic is the Academic Symphony Orchestra. It has 100 musicians of a high professional level, many of whom are prize-winners in international and national competitions. There is the Organ Music Hall in the city.[174] The Organ Music Hall is situated at the Assumption Cathedral presently. The Rieger–Kloss organ was installed in the building of the Organ Music Hall back in 1986. The new Organ Music Hall will be opened at the extensively renovated building of Kharkiv Philharmonic Society in Kharkiv in November 2016. The Kharkiv Conservatory is in the city. The Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I.P. Kotlyarevsky is situated in the city.[175] Kharkiv sponsors the prestigious Hnat Khotkevych International Music Competition of Performers of Ukrainian Folk Instruments, which takes place every three years. Since 1997 four tri-annual competitions have taken place. The 2010 competition was cancelled by the Ukrainian Ministry of Culture two days before its opening.[176] The music festival: "Kharkiv - City of Kind Hopes" is conducted in Kharkiv.[177] From Kharkiv comes also black metal band Drudkh. Films From 1907 to 2008, at least 86 feature films were shot in the city's territory and its region. The most famous is Fragment of an Empire (1929). Arriving in Leningrad, the main character, in addition to the usual pre-revolutionary buildings, sees the Gosprom - a symbol of a new era. Film festivals The Kharkiv Lilacs international film festival is very popular among movie stars, makers and producers in Ukraine, Eastern Europe, Western Europe and North America.[178][179] The annual festival is usually conducted in May.[178][179] There is a special alley with metal hand prints by popular movies actors at Shevchenko park in Kharkiv. [179][180] Visual arts Kharkiv has been a home for many famous painters, including Ilya Repin, Zinaida Serebryakova, Henryk Siemiradzki, and Vasyl Yermilov. There are many modern arts galleries in the city: the Yermilov Centre, Lilacs Gallery, the Kharkiv Art Museum, the Kharkiv Municipal Gallery, the AC Gallery, Palladium Gallery, the Semiradsky Gallery, AVEK Gallery, and Arts of Slobozhanshyna Gallery among others. Museums M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum Kharkiv Art Museum Railway museum in Kharkiv There are around 147 museums in the Kharkiv's region.[181] Museums in the city include: The M. F. Sumtsov Kharkiv Historical Museum[182] The Kharkiv Art Museum[183] The Natural History Museum at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University was founded in Kharkiv on 2 April 1807. The museum is visited by 40000 visitors every year.[184][185] The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University History Museum was established in Kharkiv in 1972.[186][187][188] The V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University Archeology Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 20 March 1998.[189][190] The National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute" Museum was created in Kharkiv on 29 December 1972.[191][192][193][194][195] The National Aerospace University "Kharkiv Aviation Institute" Museum was founded on 29 May 1992.[196] The "National University of Pharmacy" Museum was founded in Kharkiv on 15 September 2010.[197][198][199] The Kharkiv Maritime Museum - a museum dedicated to the history of shipbuilding and navigation.[200] The Kharkiv Puppet Museum is the oldest museum of dolls in Ukraine.[citation needed] Memorial museum-apartment of the family Grizodubov.[citation needed] Club-Museum of Claudia Shulzhenko.[201] The Museum of "First Aid".[citation needed] The Museum of Urban Transport.[citation needed] The Museum of Sexual Cultures.[202] Landmarks Of the many attractions of the Kharkiv city are the: Dormition Cathedral, Annunciation Cathedral, Derzhprom building, Freedom Square, Taras Shevchenko Monument, Mirror Stream, Historical Museum, Choral Synagogue, T. Shevchenko Gardens, Zoo, Children's narrow-gauge railroad, World War I Tank Mk V, Memorial Complex, and many more. After the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea the monument to Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny in Sevastopol was removed and handed over to Kharkiv.[203] Parks Gorky park is one of the main family attractions in Kharkiv. Fountains in Taras Shevchenko's garden Kharkiv contains numerous parks and gardens such as the Gor'ky park, Shevchenko park, Hydro park, Strelka park, Sarzhyn Yar and Feldman ecopark. The Gor'ky park is a common place for recreation activities among visitors and local people.[citation needed] The Shevchenko park is situated in close proximity to the V.N. Karazin National University. It is also a common place for recreation activities among the students, professors, locals and foreigners. The Ecopark is situated at circle highway around Kharkiv. It attracts kids, parents, students, professors, locals and foreigners to undertake recreation activities. Sarzhyn Yar is a natural ravine three minutes walk from "Botanichniy Sad" station. It is an old girder that now - is a modern park zone more than 12 km length. There is also a mineral water source with cupel and a sporting court.[204] Media There are a large number of broadcast and internet TV channels, AM/FM/PM/internet radio-stations, and paper/internet newspapers in Kharkiv. Some are listed below. Newspapers Slobidskyi Krai Vremya Vecherniy Kharkov Segodnya Vesti Kharkovskie Izvestiya Magazines Guberniya [205] TV stations "7 kanal" channel "А/ТВК" channel "Simon" channel "ATN Kharkov" channel "UA: Kharkiv" channel Radio stations Promin Ukrainske Radio Radio Kharkiv Kharkiv Oblastne Radio Russkoe Radio Ukraina Shanson Retro FM Online news in English The Kharkiv Times Kharkiv Observer Transport Kharkiv's Metro. The city of Kharkiv is one of the largest transportation centres in Ukraine, which is connected to numerous other cities of the world by air, rail and road traffic. There are about 250 thousand cars in the city.[206] Kharkiv is one out of four Ukrainian cities with a subway system.[207] Local transport Being an important transportation centre of Ukraine, many different means of transportation are available in Kharkiv. Kharkiv's Metro is the city's rapid transit system operating since 1975. It includes three different lines with 30 stations in total.[208][209] The Kharkiv buses carry about 12 million passengers annually.[citation needed] Trolleybuses, trams (which celebrated its 100-year anniversary of service in 2006), and marshrutkas (private minibuses) are also important means of transportation in the city. Railways The first railway connection of Kharkiv was opened in 1869. The first train to arrive in Kharkiv came from the north on 22 May 1869, and on 6 June 1869, traffic was opened on the Kursk–Kharkiv–Azov line. Kharkiv's passenger railway station was reconstructed and expanded in 1901, to be later destroyed in the Second World War. A new Kharkiv railway station was built in 1952.[210] Kharkiv is connected with all main cities in Ukraine and abroad by regular railway services. Regional trains known as elektrichkas connect Kharkiv with nearby towns and villages. Historical building of Kharkiv Airport Air Kharkiv is served by Kharkiv International Airport. Charter flights are also available. The former largest carrier of the Kharkiv Airport — Aeromost-Kharkiv — is not serving any regular destinations as of 2007. The Kharkiv North Airport is a factory airfield and was a major production facility for Antonov aircraft company. Sport Kharkiv International Marathon The Kharkiv International Marathon is considered as a prime international sportive event, attracting many thousands of professional sportsmen, young people, students, professors, locals and tourists to travel to Kharkiv and to participate in the international event.[211][212][213][214] Football (soccer) Kharkiv EURO 2012 host city emblem Metalist Stadium The most popular sport is football. The city has several football clubs playing in the Ukrainian national competitions. The most successful is FC Dynamo Kharkiv that won eight national titles back in the 1920s–1930s. FC Metalist Kharkiv, which plays at the Metalist Stadium FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv, which plays at the Metalist Stadium FC Helios Kharkiv, a defunct club, which played at the Helios Arena FC Kharkiv, a defunct club, which played at the Dynamo Stadium FC Arsenal Kharkiv, which played at the Arsenal-Spartak Stadium (participates in regional competitions) FC Shakhtar Donetsk also play at the Metalist Stadium since 2017, due to the war in Donbas There is also a female football club WFC Zhytlobud-1 Kharkiv, which represented Ukraine in the European competitions and constantly is the main contender for the national title. Metalist Stadium hosted three group matches at UEFA Euro 2012. Other sports Bicycles racing competition in Kharkiv at Bicycle Day on 9 July 2016. Kharkiv also had some ice hockey clubs, MHC Dynamo Kharkiv, Vityaz Kharkiv, Yunost Kharkiv, HC Kharkiv, who competed in the Ukrainian Hockey Championship. Avangard Budy is a bandy club from Kharkiv, which won the Ukrainian championship in 2013. There are a men's volleyball teams, Lokomotyv Kharkiv and Yurydychna Akademiya Kharkiv, which performed in Ukraine and in European competitions. RC Olymp is the city's rugby union club. They provide many players for the national team. Tennis is also a popular sport in Kharkiv. There are many professional tennis courts in the city. Elina Svitolina is a tennis player from Kharkiv. There is a golf club in Kharkiv.[215] Horseriding as a sport is also popular among locals.[216][217][218][219] There are large stables and horse riding facilities at Feldman Ecopark in Kharkiv.[220] There is a growing interest in cycling among locals.[221][222] There is a large bicycles producer, Kharkiv Bicycle Plant within the city.[223] Presently, the modern bicycle highway is under construction at the "Leso park" (Лісопарк) district in Kharkiv. People Anastasia Afanasieva (born 1982) - psychiatrist, poet, writer, translator Nikolai P. Barabashov (1894–1971) – astronomer, co-author of the first pictures of the far side of the moon Pavel Batitsky (1910–1984) – Soviet military leader Vladimir Bobri (1898–1986) – illustrator, author, composer, educator and guitar historian Inna Bohoslovska (born 1960) – lawyer, politician and leader of the Ukrainian public organization Viche Sergei Bortkiewicz (1877–1952) – Russian Romantic composer and pianist Maria Burmaka (born 1970) – Ukrainian singer, musician and songwriter Leonid Bykov (1928–1979) – Soviet actor, film director, and script writer Cassandre (1901–1968) – Ukrainian-French painter, commercial poster artist, and typeface designer Juliya Chernetsky (born 1982) – TV host, actress, model, and music promoter in the US. (Mistress Juliya) Andrey Denisov (born 1952) a Russian diplomat in China Vladimir Drinfeld (born 1954) – mathematician, awarded Fields Medal in 1990 Isaak Dunayevsky (1900–1955) – Soviet composer and conductor Konstanty Gorski (1859–1924) – Polish composer, violist, organist and music teacher Valentina Grizodubova (1909–1993) – one of the first female pilots in the Soviet Union Lyudmila Gurchenko (1935–2011) – Soviet and Russian actress, singer and entertainer Mikhail Gurevich (1892–1976) – Soviet aircraft designer, a partner (with Artem Mikoyan) of the MiG military aviation bureau Diana Harkusha (born 1994) – Miss Ukraine Universe 2014 and Miss Universe 2014's 2nd Runner-up Leonid Haydamaka (1898–1991) – bandurist and conductor Vasily Karazin (1773–1842) – founder of National University of Kharkiv, which bears his name Hnat Khotkevych (1877–1938) – writer, ethnographer, composer, bandurist Mikhail Koshkin (1898–1940)– chief designer of Soviet tank T-34 Olga Krasko (born 1981) – Russian actress Mykola Kulish (1892–1937) – Ukrainian prose writer, playwright and pedagogue Les Kurbas (1887–1937) - a Ukrainian movie and theatre director and dramatist Simon Kuznets (1901–1985) – Russian-American economist Evgeny Lifshitz (1915–1985) – Soviet physicist Eduard Limonov (1943–2020) – writer, poet and controversial politician Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy (1909–2001) – lead developer of Soviet Shuttle Buran program Aleksandr Lyapunov (1857–1918) – Russian mathematician and physicist, invented motion stability theory Boris Mikhailov (born 1938) – photographer and artist Mykola Mikhnovsky (1873–1924) – Ukrainian political leader and activist T-DJ Milana (born 1989) – DJ, composer, dancer and model, lives in Kharkiv Yuri Nikitin (born 1939) – a Russian science fiction and fantasy writer. H. L. Oldie (Dmitry Gromov and Oleg Ladyzhensky) (both born 1963)– writers Justine Pasek (born 1979) – Miss Universe 2002 Valerian Pidmohylny (1901-1937) – poet, novelist and literary critic Olga Rapay-Markish (1929–2012) – ceramicist Serafina Schachova – nephrologist Eugen Schauman (1875–1904) – Finnish nationalist, killed Russian general NA Bobrikov Alexander Shchetynsky (born 1960) – composer of solo, orchestral and choral pieces. George Shevelov (1908–2002) – linguist, essayist, literary historian and literary critic Elena Sheynina (born 1965) – children's author Lev Shubnikov (1901–1937) – Soviet experimental physicist, worked in the Netherlands and USSR Klavdiya Shulzhenko (1906–1984) – Soviet and Russian popular female singer and actress. Alexander Siloti (1863–1945) – Russian pianist, conductor and composer Hryhorii Skovoroda (1722–1794) – poet, philosopher and composer Karina Smirnoff (born 1978) – world champion dancer, starring on Dancing with the Stars Jura Soyfer (1912–1939) – Austrian political journalist and cabaret writer Otto Struve (1897–1963) – Russian-American astronomer Sergei Sviatchenko (born 1952) Danish-Ukrainian artist, photographer and architect. Mark Taimanov (1926–2016) – concert pianist and chess player Nikolai Tikhonov (1905–1997) - a Soviet Russian-Ukrainian statesman during the Cold War. Yevgeniy Timoshenko (born 1988) – poker player in the US Andriy Tsaplienko (born 1968) - Ukrainian journalist, presenter, filmmaker and writer. Anna Tsybuleva (born 1990) – classical pianist, winner of the Leeds International Piano Competition Anna Ushenina (born 1985) – women's world chess champion Vladimir Vasyutin (1952–2002) – Soviet cosmonaut of Ukrainian descent Vitali Vitaliev (born 1954) – journalist and author Alexander Voevodin (born 1949) – biomedical scientist and educator Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina (1918 – 1983) – composer Vasyl Yermylov (1894–1968) - Ukrainian and Soviet painter, avant-garde artist and designer. Serhiy Zhadan (born 1974) - Ukrainian poet, novelist, essayist and translator. Valentine Yanovna Zhubinskaya (1926–2013) Ukrainian composer, concertmistress and pianist Irina Zhurina (born 1946) Russian operatic coloratura soprano. Alexander Zorich (Dmitry Gordevsky and Yana Botsman) (both born 1973) – writers Sport Leonid Buryak (born 1953) – football coach and former footballer Valentina Chepiga (born 1962) – female bodybuilder and 2000 Ms. Olympia champion Olga Danilov (born 1973) – Israeli Olympic speed skater Alexander Davidovich (born 1967) – Israeli Olympic wrestler Mikhail Gurevich – (born 1959) a Belgian chess player. Oleksandr Gvozdyk (born 1987) – boxer Pavlo Ishchenko (born 1992) – Olympic Ukrainian-Israeli boxer Oleksandr Kachorenko (born 1980) – professional footballer Maksym Kalynychenko (born 1979) – footballer Igor Olshanetskyi (born 1986) – Israeli Olympic weightlifter Gennady Orlov (born 1945) - Russian sports journalist and former footballer Ivan Pravilov (1963–2012) - ice hockey coach, sexually abused a teenage student, committed suicide by hanging in prison Irina Press (1939–2004) – athlete who won two Olympic gold medals Tamara Press (1937–2021) – Soviet shot putter and discus thrower Oleh Ptachyk (born 1981) – retired Ukrainian footballer Igor Rybak (1934–2005) – Olympic champion lightweight weightlifter Elina Svitolina (born 1994) – tennis player Ievgeniia Tetelbaum (born 1991) – Israeli Olympic synchronized swimmer Artem Tsoglin (born 1997) – Israeli pair skater Yury Vengerovsky (1938–1998) – Olympic gold medal-winning volleyball player Igor Vovchanchyn (born 1973) – Mixed martial artist Oleksandr Zhdanov (born 1984) – Ukrainian-Israeli footballer Nobel and Fields prize winners Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916) - a Russian/French zoologist; researched immunology; jointly awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Simon Kuznets (1901–1985) - an American economist and statistician; received the 1971 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences Lev Landau (1908–1968) - a Soviet physicist, made fundamental contributions to theoretical physics; Nobel Prize in Physics 1962 Vladimir Drinfeld (born 1954) - a mathematician now in the United States; awarded the Fields Medal in 1990 Twin towns – sister cities See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Ukraine Kharkiv is twinned with:[224] Italy Bologna, Italy (1966) Czech Republic Brno, Czech Republic (2005) Montenegro Cetinje, Montenegro (2011) United States Cincinnati, United States (1989) South Korea Daejeon, South Korea (2013) Latvia Daugavpils, Latvia (2006) Hungary Debrecen, Hungary (2016) Turkey Gaziantep, Turkey (2011) Cyprus Geroskipou, Cyprus (2018) China Jinan, China (2004) Lithuania Kaunas, Lithuania (2001) Georgia (country) Kutaisi, Georgia (2005) France Lille, France (1978) Slovenia Maribor, Slovenia (2012) Germany Nuremberg, Germany (1990) Cyprus Polis, Cyprus (2018) Poland Poznań, Poland (1998) Israel Rishon LeZion, Israel (2008) Georgia (country) Tbilisi, Georgia (2012) China Tianjin, China (1993) Albania Tirana, Albania (2017) Slovakia Trnava, Slovakia (2013) Bulgaria Varna, Bulgaria (1995) See also flagUkraine portal Grigoriev Institute for Medical Radiology Kharkiv fortress [uk; ru] References What Makes Kharkiv Ukrainian, The Ukrainian Week (23 November 2014) (in Ukrainian) Another 48 streets and 5 districts "decommunized" in Kharkiv, Ukrayinska Pravda (3 February 2015) (in Russian) Three districts renamed in Kharkiv, SQ (3 February 2015) (in Ukrainian) It was decided not to rename the Zhovtnevyi and the Frunzenskyi districts in Kharkiv, Korrespondent.net (3 February 2015) (in Ukrainian) Terekhov officially became the mayor of Kharkiv, Ukrayinska Pravda (11 November 2021) (in Ukrainian) Kernes' bloc nominated Terekhov as a candidate for mayor, Ukrayinska Pravda (6 September 2021) The number of the available population of Ukraine as of January 1, 2022 (PDF) Ukraine's second Winter Olympics: one medal, some good performances Archived 3 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine, The Ukrainian Weekly (1 March 1998) Kharkiv "never had eastern-western conflicts", Euronews (23 October 2014) Чисельність наявного населення України на 1 січня 2022 [Number of Present Population of Ukraine, as of January 1, 2022] (PDF) (in Ukrainian and English). 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ISBN 966-8768-00-0 (in Russian) Kharkov: Architecture, monuments, renovations: Travel guide. Ed. Aleksandr Jurevitsj Leybfreyd [ru], В. Реусов, А. Тиц. — Х.: Прапор, 1987(in Russian) N. T. Dyachenko (1977). Улицы и площади Харькова [Streets and squares of Kharkov]. dalizovut.narod.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 31 March 2015. А.В. Скоробогатов. Kharkov in times of German occupation (1941–1943). – X.: Прапор, 2006. ISBN 966-7880-79-6(in Ukrainian) Oleksandr Leibfreid, Yu. Poliakova. Kharkov. From fortress to capital. – Х.: Фолио, 2004(in Russian) State archives of Kharkov Oblast. Ф. Р-2982, оп. 2, file 16, pp 53–54 Colonel Н. И. Рудницкий. Военкоматы Харькова в предвоенные и военные годы.(in Russian) In reference to the German census of December 1941; without children and teenagers no older 16 years of age; numerous city-dwellers evaded the registration(in Russian) Nikita Khrushchev. Report to ЦК ВКП(б) of 30 August 1943. History: without «white spots». 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"Головна - ХАТОБ, ХНАТОБ, хатоб харьков, хатоб афиша, хатоб 2017, афиша хатоб 2017, хатоб сайт, хатоб харьков официальный, хатоб официальный сайт, хатоб харьков сайт, хатоб харьков официальный сайт, хатоб харьков афиша, хнатоб сайт, хнатоб официальный, хнатоб официальный сайт, афиша хнатоб, хнатоб сайт афиша, хнатоб билеты, хнатоб харьков, хнатоб купить билеты, хнатоб официальный сайт афиша, хнатоб афиша". hatob.com.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Home". hatob.com.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Харківський Державний Академічний Драматичний Театр ім. Т.Г.Шевченка". theatre-shevchenko.com.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "rusdrama.kh.ua/". rusdrama.kh.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Харьковский театр для детей и юношества" [Theatre for Children and Youth]. Retrieved 6 August 2018. "Kharkiv city guide". uefa.com. 25 January 2010. Retrieved 22 March 2015. "Ukraine Travel Guide: Kharkiv, Ukraine". ukrainetravel.co. Retrieved 22 March 2015. "Kharkiv International Festival of Science Fiction "Star Bridge - 2011"". V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. September 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2015. "Органный зал, Харьков – концерты, камерная и органная музыка | Харьковская филармония". filarmonia.kh.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Харківський національний університет мистецтв ім І.П.Котляревського". dum.kharkov.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Минкультуры запретил Харькову проводить конкурс им. Гната Хоткевича - Комментарии". Proua.com. 16 April 2010. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013. Retrieved 15 July 2012. "Фестиваль "Харків - місто добрих надій". Информация для участников | Харьковская филармония". filarmonia.kh.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Харьковская сирень - Главная". sirenfest.net.ua. Archived from the original on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "times.kh.ua/news/fresh/kharkovskaya_siren_2016_novye_ladoni_znamenitykh_akterov_na_allee_zvezd_foto/158954/". times.kh.ua. 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Каразина". univer.kharkov.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Музей історії Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна". vnz.univ.kiev.ua. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "www.maesu.org/". maesu.org. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Музей археології та етнографії Слобідської України". vnz.univ.kiev.ua. Archived from the original on 25 January 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "www.kpi.kharkov.ua/ru/home/muzeum/". kpi.kharkov.ua. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Музей НТУ "ХПI"". web.kpi.kharkov.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Архів подій | Музей НТУ "ХПI"". web.kpi.kharkov.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Фотогалерея | Музей НТУ "ХПI"". web.kpi.kharkov.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Музей історії Національного технічного університету "Харківський політехнічний інститут"". vnz.univ.kiev.ua. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2017. 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(in Russian) A monument to Sahaidachny in Kharkov, Status quo (23 August 2014) FlexKit. "The Spring". www.kharkovinfo.com. Retrieved 2 May 2020. "Губерния - деловой представительский журнал". guberniya.net. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Andrew Rybka (31 May 2008). "Харьков транспортный. Новости. Останови автомобиль. Сколько стоит минута простоя в ежедневных пробках. Харьковские изобретатели бьются над проблемой разгрузки города". Gortransport.kharkov.ua. Retrieved 12 March 2013. "Metro maps in Ukraine". Retrieved 5 May 2022. "Metro. Basic facts". City transportation Kharkiv (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 1 March 2011. Poroshenko opens new subway station in Kharkiv, Interfax-Ukraine (19 August 2016) "Railway Stations :: Euro-2012 :: Офіційний веб-сайт Укрзалізниці". uz.gov.ua. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Main | 5th Kharkiv International Marathon". kharkivmarathon.com. Retrieved 18 June 2017. 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Любители двухколесного транспорта выстроились в огромную фигуру велосипеда | Харьков | Вести". vesti-ukr.com. 24 May 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Веложизнь в Харькове - Харьков на Незабаром". kharkov.nezabarom.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Харьковский Велосипедный Завод им.Петровского - велосипеды, тележки, санки, товары для отдыха". usi.ua. Retrieved 18 June 2017. "Міста-партнери". city.kharkov.ua (in Ukrainian). Kharkiv. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Sources See also: Bibliography of the history of Kharkiv External links Kharkiv at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage "Kharkov (town)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 772. "Kharkov (government)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 772. Citynet UA – Official website of Kharkiv City Information Centre (in English and Ukrainian) Misto Kharkiv – Official website of Kharkiv City Council (in English and Ukrainian) Study in Kharkiv Archived 19 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Official website of Kharkiv national Universities (in English, French, and Spanish) Listen to this article (2 minutes) 1:38 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 7 January 2016, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) vte Subdivisions of Kharkiv Links to related articles Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: KharkivCities in Kharkiv OblastKharkovsky UyezdPopulated places established in 1654Former capitals of UkraineCities of regional significance in UkraineHolocaust locations in UkraineOblast centers in UkraineCities and towns built in the Sloboda Ukraine https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkiv Second Industrial Revolution Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Industry 2" redirects here. For the magazine, see Industry 2.0 (magazine). History of technology By technological eras By historical regions By type of technology Technology timelines Article indices vte A German railway in 1895 A telegraph key used to transmit text messages in Morse code The ocean liner SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, a steamboat. As the main means of trans-oceanic travel for more than a century, ocean liners were essential to the transport needs of national governments, commercial enterprises and the general public. The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution,[1] was a phase of rapid scientific discovery, standardization, mass production and industrialization from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the middle of the 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a machine tool industry, the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts, as well as the invention of the Bessemer process to produce steel, the Second Industrial Revolution is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the beginning of World War I).[2] Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks, gas and water supply, and sewage systems, which had earlier been limited to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of globalization. In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced, most significantly electrical power and telephones. The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line; it ended at the beginning of World War I. The Second Industrial Revolution is followed by the Third Industrial Revolution starting in 1947. Overview The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States, but also in France, the Low Countries, Italy and Japan. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe. It came to an end with the start of the Second World War. While the First Revolution was driven by limited use of steam engines, interchangeable parts and mass production, and was largely water-powered (especially in the United States), the Second was characterized by the build-out of railroads, large-scale iron and steel production, widespread use of machinery in manufacturing, greatly increased use of steam power, widespread use of the telegraph, use of petroleum and the beginning of electrification. It also was the period during which modern organizational methods for operating large scale businesses over vast areas came into use.[3] The concept was introduced by Patrick Geddes, Cities in Evolution (1910), and was being used by economists such as Erich Zimmermann (1951),[4] but David Landes' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in The Unbound Prometheus (1972) standardized scholarly definitions of the term, which was most intensely promoted by Alfred Chandler (1918–2007). However, some continue to express reservations about its use.[5] Landes (2003) stresses the importance of new technologies, especially, the internal combustion engine, petroleum, new materials and substances, including alloys and chemicals, electricity and communication technologies (such as the telegraph, telephone and radio).[citation needed] One author has called the period from 1867 to 1914 during which most of the great innovations were developed "The Age of Synergy" since the inventions and innovations were engineering and science-based.[6] Industry and technology A synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads allowed cheap transportation of materials and products, which in turn led to cheap rails to build more roads. Railroads also benefited from cheap coal for their steam locomotives. This synergy led to the laying of 75,000 miles of track in the U.S. in the 1880s, the largest amount anywhere in world history.[7] Iron The hot blast technique, in which the hot flue gas from a blast furnace is used to preheat combustion air blown into a blast furnace, was invented and patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 at Wilsontown Ironworks in Scotland. Hot blast was the single most important advance in fuel efficiency of the blast furnace as it greatly reduced the fuel consumption for making pig iron, and was one of the most important technologies developed during the Industrial Revolution.[8] Falling costs for producing wrought iron coincided with the emergence of the railway in the 1830s. The early technique of hot blast used iron for the regenerative heating medium. Iron caused problems with expansion and contraction, which stressed the iron and caused failure. Edward Alfred Cowper developed the Cowper stove in 1857.[9] This stove used firebrick as a storage medium, solving the expansion and cracking problem. The Cowper stove was also capable of producing high heat, which resulted in very high throughput of blast furnaces. The Cowper stove is still used in today's blast furnaces. With the greatly reduced cost of producing pig iron with coke using hot blast, demand grew dramatically and so did the size of blast furnaces.[10][11] Steel A diagram of the Bessemer converter. Air blown through holes in the converter bottom creates a violent reaction in the molten pig iron that oxidizes the excess carbon, converting the pig iron to pure iron or steel, depending on the residual carbon. The Bessemer process, invented by Sir Henry Bessemer, allowed the mass-production of steel, increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital material, and decreasing the labor requirements. The key principle was the removal of excess carbon and other impurities from pig iron by oxidation with air blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. The "acid" Bessemer process had a serious limitation in that it required relatively scarce hematite ore[12] which is low in phosphorus. Sidney Gilchrist Thomas developed a more sophisticated process to eliminate the phosphorus from iron. Collaborating with his cousin, Percy Gilchrist a chemist at the Blaenavon Ironworks, Wales, he patented his process in 1878;[13] Bolckow Vaughan & Co. in Yorkshire was the first company to use his patented process.[14] His process was especially valuable on the continent of Europe, where the proportion of phosphoric iron was much greater than in England, and both in Belgium and in Germany the name of the inventor became more widely known than in his own country. In America, although non-phosphoric iron largely predominated, an immense interest was taken in the invention.[14] The Barrow Hematite Steel Company operated 18 Bessemer converters and owned the largest steelworks in the world at the turn of the 20th century. The next great advance in steel making was the Siemens–Martin process. Sir Charles William Siemens developed his regenerative furnace in the 1850s, for which he claimed in 1857 to able to recover enough heat to save 70–80% of the fuel. The furnace operated at a high temperature by using regenerative preheating of fuel and air for combustion. Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel, but Siemens did not initially use it in that manner. French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin was the first to take out a license for the Siemens furnace and apply it to the production of steel in 1865. The Siemens–Martin process complemented rather than replaced the Bessemer process. Its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which would cause the steel to become brittle), it was easier to control, and that it permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap steel, lowering steel production costs and recycling an otherwise troublesome waste material. It became the leading steel making process by the early 20th century. The availability of cheap steel allowed building larger bridges, railroads, skyscrapers, and ships.[15] Other important steel products—also made using the open hearth process—were steel cable, steel rod and sheet steel which enabled large, high-pressure boilers and high-tensile strength steel for machinery which enabled much more powerful engines, gears and axles than were previously possible. With large amounts of steel it became possible to build much more powerful guns and carriages, tanks, armored fighting vehicles and naval ships. Rail A rail rolling mill in Donetsk, 1887 The increase in steel production from the 1860s meant that railways could finally be made from steel at a competitive cost. Being a much more durable material, steel steadily replaced iron as the standard for railway rail, and due to its greater strength, longer lengths of rails could now be rolled. Wrought iron was soft and contained flaws caused by included dross. Iron rails could also not support heavy locomotives and were damaged by hammer blow. The first to make durable rails of steel rather than wrought iron was Robert Forester Mushet at the Darkhill Ironworks, Gloucestershire in 1857. The first of Mushet's steel rails was sent to Derby Midland railway station. The rails were laid at part of the station approach where the iron rails had to be renewed at least every six months, and occasionally every three. Six years later, in 1863, the rail seemed as perfect as ever, although some 700 trains had passed over it daily.[16] This provided the basis for the accelerated construction of railways throughout the world in the late nineteenth century. The first commercially available steel rails in the US were manufactured in 1867 at the Cambria Iron Works in Johnstown, Pennsylvania.[17] Steel rails lasted over ten times longer than did iron,[18] and with the falling cost of steel, heavier weight rails were used. This allowed the use of more powerful locomotives, which could pull longer trains, and longer rail cars, all of which greatly increased the productivity of railroads.[19] Rail became the dominant form of transport infrastructure throughout the industrialized world,[20] producing a steady decrease in the cost of shipping seen for the rest of the century.[18] Electrification Main articles: Electrification and Electricity The theoretical and practical basis for the harnessing of electric power was laid by the scientist and experimentalist Michael Faraday. Through his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current, Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics.[21][22] His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices were the foundation of the practical use of electricity in technology. U.S. Patent#223898: Electric-Lamp. Issued 27 January 1880. In 1881, Sir Joseph Swan, inventor of the first feasible incandescent light bulb, supplied about 1,200 Swan incandescent lamps to the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.[23][24] Swan's lightbulb had already been used in 1879 to light Mosley Street, in Newcastle upon Tyne, the first electrical street lighting installation in the world.[25][26] This set the stage for the electrification of industry and the home. The first large scale central distribution supply plant was opened at Holborn Viaduct in London in 1882[27] and later at Pearl Street Station in New York City.[28] Three-phase rotating magnetic field of an AC motor. The three poles are each connected to a separate wire. Each wire carries current 120 degrees apart in phase. Arrows show the resulting magnetic force vectors. Three phase current is used in commerce and industry. The first modern power station in the world was built by the English electrical engineer Sebastian de Ferranti at Deptford. Built on an unprecedented scale and pioneering the use of high voltage (10,000V) alternating current, it generated 800 kilowatts and supplied central London. On its completion in 1891 it supplied high-voltage AC power that was then "stepped down" with transformers for consumer use on each street. Electrification allowed the final major developments in manufacturing methods of the Second Industrial Revolution, namely the assembly line and mass production.[29] Electrification was called "the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century" by the National Academy of Engineering.[30] Electric lighting in factories greatly improved working conditions, eliminating the heat and pollution caused by gas lighting, and reducing the fire hazard to the extent that the cost of electricity for lighting was often offset by the reduction in fire insurance premiums. Frank J. Sprague developed the first successful DC motor in 1886. By 1889 110 electric street railways were either using his equipment or in planning. The electric street railway became a major infrastructure before 1920. The AC motor (Induction motor) was developed in the 1890s and soon began to be used in the electrification of industry.[31] Household electrification did not become common until the 1920s, and then only in cities. Fluorescent lighting was commercially introduced at the 1939 World's Fair. Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of electro-chemicals, such as aluminium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium.[32] Machine tools Main article: Machine tool A graphic representation of formulas for the pitches of threads of screw bolts The use of machine tools began with the onset of the First Industrial Revolution. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron—and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. One of the first machine tools was John Wilkinson's boring machine, that bored a precise hole in James Watt's first steam engine in 1774. Advances in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth. Standardization of screw threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity. In 1841, Joseph Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British railway companies, became the world's first national machine tool standard called British Standard Whitworth.[33] During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards. The importance of machine tools to mass production is shown by the fact that production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools, most of which were powered by electricity.[34] Henry Ford is quoted as saying that mass production would not have been possible without electricity because it allowed placement of machine tools and other equipment in the order of the work flow.[35] Paper making Main article: Paper machine The first paper making machine was the Fourdrinier machine, built by Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers in London. In 1800, Matthias Koops, working in London, investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and began his printing business a year later. However, his enterprise was unsuccessful due to the prohibitive cost at the time.[36][37][38] It was in the 1840s, that Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia and Friedrich Gottlob Keller in Saxony both invented a successful machine which extracted the fibres from wood (as with rags) and from it, made paper. This started a new era for paper making,[39] and, together with the invention of the fountain pen and the mass-produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also allowed keeping personal diaries or writing letters and so, by 1850, the clerk, or writer, ceased to be a high-status job. By the 1880s chemical processes for paper manufacture were in use, becoming dominant by 1900. Petroleum The petroleum industry, both production and refining, began in 1848 with the first oil works in Scotland. The chemist James Young set up a tiny business refining the crude oil in 1848. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.[40] In 1850 Young built the first truly commercial oil-works and oil refinery in the world at Bathgate, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture naphtha and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856. Cable tool drilling was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which was used for evaporation of the brine. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828.[41] Although there were many efforts in the mid-19th century to drill for oil Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is considered the first "modern oil well".[42] Drake's well touched off a major boom in oil production in the United States.[43] Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in the U. S.[44] The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters.[32][45] Similar developments around Baku fed the European market. Kerosene lighting was much more efficient and less expensive than vegetable oils, tallow and whale oil. Although town gas lighting was available in some cities, kerosene produced a brighter light until the invention of the gas mantle. Both were replaced by electricity for street lighting following the 1890s and for households during the 1920s. Gasoline was an unwanted byproduct of oil refining until automobiles were mass-produced after 1914, and gasoline shortages appeared during World War I. The invention of the Burton process for thermal cracking doubled the yield of gasoline, which helped alleviate the shortages.[45] Chemical The BASF-chemical factories in Ludwigshafen, Germany, 1881 Synthetic dye was discovered by English chemist William Henry Perkin in 1856. At the time, chemistry was still in a quite primitive state; it was still a difficult proposition to determine the arrangement of the elements in compounds and chemical industry was still in its infancy. Perkin's accidental discovery was that aniline could be partly transformed into a crude mixture which when extracted with alcohol produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He scaled up production of the new "mauveine", and commercialized it as the world's first synthetic dye.[46] After the discovery of mauveine, many new aniline dyes appeared (some discovered by Perkin himself), and factories producing them were constructed across Europe. Towards the end of the century, Perkin and other British companies found their research and development efforts increasingly eclipsed by the German chemical industry which became world dominant by 1914. Maritime technology HMS Devastation, built in 1871, as it appeared in 1896 Propellers of the RMS Olympic, 1911 This era saw the birth of the modern ship as disparate technological advances came together. The screw propeller was introduced in 1835 by Francis Pettit Smith who discovered a new way of building propellers by accident. Up to that time, propellers were literally screws, of considerable length. But during the testing of a boat propelled by one, the screw snapped off, leaving a fragment shaped much like a modern boat propeller. The boat moved faster with the broken propeller.[47] The superiority of screw against paddles was taken up by navies. Trials with Smith's SS Archimedes, the first steam driven screw, led to the famous tug-of-war competition in 1845 between the screw-driven HMS Rattler and the paddle steamer HMS Alecto; the former pulling the latter backward at 2.5 knots (4.6 km/h). The first seagoing iron steamboat was built by Horseley Ironworks and named the Aaron Manby. It also used an innovative oscillating engine for power. The boat was built at Tipton using temporary bolts, disassembled for transportation to London, and reassembled on the Thames in 1822, this time using permanent rivets. Other technological developments followed, including the invention of the surface condenser, which allowed boilers to run on purified water rather than salt water, eliminating the need to stop to clean them on long sea journeys. The Great Western[48] ,[49][50] built by engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was the longest ship in the world at 236 ft (72 m) with a 250-foot (76 m) keel and was the first to prove that transatlantic steamship services were viable. The ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel added bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain the keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered paddle wheels, the ship carried four masts for sails. Brunel followed this up with the Great Britain, launched in 1843 and considered the first modern ship built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel.[51] Brunel's vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry. Highly efficient multiple expansion steam engines began being used on ships, allowing them to carry less coal than freight.[52] The oscillating engine was first built by Aaron Manby and Joseph Maudslay in the 1820s as a type of direct-acting engine that was designed to achieve further reductions in engine size and weight. Oscillating engines had the piston rods connected directly to the crankshaft, dispensing with the need for connecting rods. To achieve this aim, the engine cylinders were not immobile as in most engines, but secured in the middle by trunnions which allowed the cylinders themselves to pivot back and forth as the crankshaft rotated, hence the term oscillating. It was John Penn, engineer for the Royal Navy who perfected the oscillating engine. One of his earliest engines was the grasshopper beam engine. In 1844 he replaced the engines of the Admiralty yacht, HMS Black Eagle with oscillating engines of double the power, without increasing either the weight or space occupied, an achievement which broke the naval supply dominance of Boulton & Watt and Maudslay, Son & Field. Penn also introduced the trunk engine for driving screw propellers in vessels of war. HMS Encounter (1846) and HMS Arrogant (1848) were the first ships to be fitted with such engines and such was their efficacy that by the time of Penn's death in 1878, the engines had been fitted in 230 ships and were the first mass-produced, high-pressure and high-revolution marine engines.[53] The revolution in naval design led to the first modern battleships in the 1870s, evolved from the ironclad design of the 1860s. The Devastation-class turret ships were built for the British Royal Navy as the first class of ocean-going capital ship that did not carry sails, and the first whose entire main armament was mounted on top of the hull rather than inside it. Rubber The vulcanization of rubber, by American Charles Goodyear and Englishman Thomas Hancock in the 1840s paved the way for a growing rubber industry, especially the manufacture of rubber tyres[54] John Boyd Dunlop developed the first practical pneumatic tyre in 1887 in South Belfast. Willie Hume demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's newly invented pneumatic tyres in 1889, winning the tyre's first ever races in Ireland and then England.[55] [56] Dunlop's development of the pneumatic tyre arrived at a crucial time in the development of road transport and commercial production began in late 1890. Bicycles The modern bicycle was designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson in 1876, although it was John Kemp Starley who produced the first commercially successful safety bicycle a few years later.[57] Its popularity soon grew, causing the bike boom of the 1890s. Road networks improved greatly in the period, using the Macadam method pioneered by Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam, and hard surfaced roads were built around the time of the bicycle craze of the 1890s. Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley in 1901.[58] Automobile Benz Patent-Motorwagen, first production automobile, first built in 1885 1910 Ford Model T German inventor Karl Benz patented the world's first automobile in 1886. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones)[59] with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition [60] and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator.[60] Power was transmitted by means of two roller chains to the rear axle. It was the first automobile entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized-stage coach or horse carriage. Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen) in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history. Henry Ford built his first car in 1896 and worked as a pioneer in the industry, with others who would eventually form their own companies, until the founding of Ford Motor Company in 1903.[29] Ford and others at the company struggled with ways to scale up production in keeping with Henry Ford's vision of a car designed and manufactured on a scale so as to be affordable by the average worker.[29] The solution that Ford Motor developed was a completely redesigned factory with machine tools and special purpose machines that were systematically positioned in the work sequence. All unnecessary human motions were eliminated by placing all work and tools within easy reach, and where practical on conveyors, forming the assembly line, the complete process being called mass production. This was the first time in history when a large, complex product consisting of 5000 parts had been produced on a scale of hundreds of thousands per year.[29][34] The savings from mass production methods allowed the price of the Model T to decline from $780 in 1910 to $360 in 1916. In 1924 2 million T-Fords were produced and retailed $290 each.[61] Applied science Applied science opened many opportunities. By the middle of the 19th century there was a scientific understanding of chemistry and a fundamental understanding of thermodynamics and by the last quarter of the century both of these sciences were near their present-day basic form. Thermodynamic principles were used in the development of physical chemistry. Understanding chemistry greatly aided the development of basic inorganic chemical manufacturing and the aniline dye industries. The science of metallurgy was advanced through the work of Henry Clifton Sorby and others. Sorby pioneered the study of iron and steel under microscope, which paved the way for a scientific understanding of metal and the mass-production of steel. In 1863 he used etching with acid to study the microscopic structure of metals and was the first to understand that a small but precise quantity of carbon gave steel its strength.[62] This paved the way for Henry Bessemer and Robert Forester Mushet to develop the method for mass-producing steel. Other processes were developed for purifying various elements such as chromium, molybdenum, titanium, vanadium and nickel which could be used for making alloys with special properties, especially with steel. Vanadium steel, for example, is strong and fatigue resistant, and was used in half the automotive steel.[63] Alloy steels were used for ball bearings which were used in large scale bicycle production in the 1880s. Ball and roller bearings also began being used in machinery. Other important alloys are used in high temperatures, such as steam turbine blades, and stainless steels for corrosion resistance. The work of Justus von Liebig and August Wilhelm von Hofmann laid the groundwork for modern industrial chemistry. Liebig is considered the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his discovery of nitrogen as an essential plant nutrient and went on to establish Liebig's Extract of Meat Company which produced the Oxo meat extract. Hofmann headed a school of practical chemistry in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry, introduced modern conventions for molecular modeling and taught Perkin who discovered the first synthetic dye. The science of thermodynamics was developed into its modern form by Sadi Carnot, William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, William Thomson, James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs. These scientific principles were applied to a variety of industrial concerns, including improving the efficiency of boilers and steam turbines. The work of Michael Faraday and others was pivotal in laying the foundations of the modern scientific understanding of electricity. Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell was particularly influential—his discoveries ushered in the era of modern physics.[64] His most prominent achievement was to formulate a set of equations that described electricity, magnetism, and optics as manifestations of the same phenomenon, namely the electromagnetic field.[65] The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves and was the basis for the future development of radio technology by Hughes, Marconi and others.[66] Maxwell himself developed the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and published the first scientific treatment of control theory.[67][68] Control theory is the basis for process control, which is widely used in automation, particularly for process industries, and for controlling ships and airplanes.[69] Control theory was developed to analyze the functioning of centrifugal governors on steam engines. These governors came into use in the late 18th century on wind and water mills to correctly position the gap between mill stones, and were adapted to steam engines by James Watt. Improved versions were used to stabilize automatic tracking mechanisms of telescopes and to control speed of ship propellers and rudders. However, those governors were sluggish and oscillated about the set point. James Clerk Maxwell wrote a paper mathematically analyzing the actions of governors, which marked the beginning of the formal development of control theory. The science was continually improved and evolved into an engineering discipline. Fertilizer Justus von Liebig was the first to understand the importance of ammonia as fertilizer, and promoted the importance of inorganic minerals to plant nutrition. In England, he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating phosphate of lime in bone meal with sulfuric acid. Another pioneer was John Bennet Lawes who began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, leading to a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid; this was to be the first product of the nascent artificial manure industry.[70] The discovery of coprolites in commercial quantities in East Anglia, led Fisons and Edward Packard to develop one of the first large-scale commercial fertilizer plants at Bramford, and Snape in the 1850s. By the 1870s superphosphates produced in those factories, were being shipped around the world from the port at Ipswich.[71][72] The Birkeland–Eyde process was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist Kristian Birkeland along with his business partner Sam Eyde in 1903,[73] but was soon replaced by the much more efficient Haber process,[74] developed by the Nobel prize-winning chemists Carl Bosch of IG Farben and Fritz Haber in Germany.[75] The process used molecular nitrogen (N2) and methane (CH4) gas in an economically sustainable synthesis of ammonia (NH3). The ammonia produced in the Haber process is the main raw material for production of nitric acid. Engines and turbines The steam turbine was developed by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. His first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity.[76] The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare.[77] By the time of Parson's death, his turbine had been adopted for all major world power stations.[78] Unlike earlier steam engines, the turbine produced rotary power rather than reciprocating power which required a crank and heavy flywheel. The large number of stages of the turbine allowed for high efficiency and reduced size by 90%. The turbine's first application was in shipping followed by electric generation in 1903. The first widely used internal combustion engine was the Otto type of 1876. From the 1880s until electrification it was successful in small shops because small steam engines were inefficient and required too much operator attention.[6] The Otto engine soon began being used to power automobiles, and remains as today's common gasoline engine. The diesel engine was independently designed by Rudolf Diesel and Herbert Akroyd Stuart in the 1890s using thermodynamic principles with the specific intention of being highly efficient. It took several years to perfect and become popular, but found application in shipping before powering locomotives. It remains the world's most efficient prime mover.[6] Telecommunications Major telegraph lines in 1891 The first commercial telegraph system was installed by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in May 1837 between Euston railway station and Camden Town in London.[79] The rapid expansion of telegraph networks took place throughout the century, with the first undersea telegraph cable being built by John Watkins Brett between France and England. The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in London in 1856 to undertake construction of a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. This was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship SS Great Eastern, captained by Sir James Anderson after many mishaps along the away.[80] From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line.[81] The telephone was patented in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, and like the early telegraph, it was used mainly to speed business transactions.[82] As mentioned above, one of the most important scientific advancements in all of history was the unification of light, electricity and magnetism through Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. A scientific understanding of electricity was necessary for the development of efficient electric generators, motors and transformers. David Edward Hughes and Heinrich Hertz both demonstrated and confirmed the phenomenon of electromagnetic waves that had been predicted by Maxwell.[6] It was Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi who successfully commercialized radio at the turn of the century.[83] He founded The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in Britain in 1897[84][85] and in the same year transmitted Morse code across Salisbury Plain, sent the first ever wireless communication over open sea[86] and made the first transatlantic transmission in 1901 from Poldhu, Cornwall to Signal Hill, Newfoundland. Marconi built high-powered stations on both sides of the Atlantic and began a commercial service to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships in 1904.[87] The key development of the vacuum tube by Sir John Ambrose Fleming in 1904 underpinned the development of modern electronics and radio broadcasting. Lee De Forest's subsequent invention of the triode allowed the amplification of electronic signals, which paved the way for radio broadcasting in the 1920s. Modern business management Railroads are credited with creating the modern business enterprise by scholars such as Alfred Chandler. Previously, the management of most businesses had consisted of individual owners or groups of partners, some of whom often had little daily hands-on operations involvement. Centralized expertise in the home office was not enough. A railroad required expertise available across the whole length of its trackage, to deal with daily crises, breakdowns and bad weather. A collision in Massachusetts in 1841 led to a call for safety reform. This led to the reorganization of railroads into different departments with clear lines of management authority. When the telegraph became available, companies built telegraph lines along the railroads to keep track of trains.[88] Railroads involved complex operations and employed extremely large amounts of capital and ran a more complicated business compared to anything previous. Consequently, they needed better ways to track costs. For example, to calculate rates they needed to know the cost of a ton-mile of freight. They also needed to keep track of cars, which could go missing for months at a time. This led to what was called "railroad accounting", which was later adopted by steel and other industries, and eventually became modern accounting.[89] Workers on the first moving assembly line put together magnetos and flywheels for 1913 Ford autos in Michigan. Later in the Second Industrial Revolution, Frederick Winslow Taylor and others in America developed the concept of scientific management or Taylorism. Scientific management initially concentrated on reducing the steps taken in performing work (such as bricklaying or shoveling) by using analysis such as time-and-motion studies, but the concepts evolved into fields such as industrial engineering, manufacturing engineering, and business management that helped to completely restructure[citation needed] the operations of factories, and later entire segments of the economy. Taylor's core principles included:[citation needed] replacing rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks scientifically selecting, training, and developing each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves providing "detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task" dividing work nearly equally between managers and workers, such that the managers apply scientific-management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks Socio-economic impacts The period from 1870 to 1890 saw the greatest increase in economic growth in such a short period as ever in previous history. Living standards improved significantly in the newly industrialized countries as the prices of goods fell dramatically due to the increases in productivity. This caused unemployment and great upheavals in commerce and industry, with many laborers being displaced by machines and many factories, ships and other forms of fixed capital becoming obsolete in a very short time span.[52] "The economic changes that have occurred during the last quarter of a century -or during the present generation of living men- have unquestionably been more important and more varied than during any period of the world's history".[52] Crop failures no longer resulted in starvation in areas connected to large markets through transport infrastructure.[52] Massive improvements in public health and sanitation resulted from public health initiatives, such as the construction of the London sewerage system in the 1860s and the passage of laws that regulated filtered water supplies—(the Metropolis Water Act introduced regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum standards of water quality for the first time in 1852). This greatly reduced the infection and death rates from many diseases. By 1870 the work done by steam engines exceeded that done by animal and human power. Horses and mules remained important in agriculture until the development of the internal combustion tractor near the end of the Second Industrial Revolution.[90] Improvements in steam efficiency, like triple-expansion steam engines, allowed ships to carry much more freight than coal, resulting in greatly increased volumes of international trade. Higher steam engine efficiency caused the number of steam engines to increase several fold, leading to an increase in coal usage, the phenomenon being called the Jevons paradox.[91] By 1890 there was an international telegraph network allowing orders to be placed by merchants in England or the US to suppliers in India and China for goods to be transported in efficient new steamships. This, plus the opening of the Suez Canal, led to the decline of the great warehousing districts in London and elsewhere, and the elimination of many middlemen.[52] The tremendous growth in productivity, transportation networks, industrial production and agricultural output lowered the prices of almost all goods. This led to many business failures and periods that were called depressions that occurred as the world economy actually grew.[52] See also: Long depression The factory system centralized production in separate buildings funded and directed by specialists (as opposed to work at home). The division of labor made both unskilled and skilled labor more productive, and led to a rapid growth of population in industrial centers. The shift away from agriculture toward industry had occurred in Britain by the 1730s, when the percentage of the working population engaged in agriculture fell below 50%, a development that would only happen elsewhere (the Low Countries) in the 1830s and '40s. By 1890, the figure had fallen to under 10% and the vast majority of the British population was urbanized. This milestone was reached by the Low Countries and the US in the 1950s.[92] Like the first industrial revolution, the second supported population growth and saw most governments protect their national economies with tariffs. Britain retained its belief in free trade throughout this period. The wide-ranging social impact of both revolutions included the remaking of the working class as new technologies appeared. The changes resulted in the creation of a larger, increasingly professional, middle class, the decline of child labor and the dramatic growth of a consumer-based, material culture.[93] By 1900, the leaders in industrial production was Britain with 24% of the world total, followed by the US (19%), Germany (13%), Russia (9%) and France (7%). Europe together accounted for 62%.[94] The great inventions and innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution are part of our modern life. They continued to be drivers of the economy until after WWII. Major innovations occurred in the post-war era, some of which are: computers, semiconductors, the fiber optic network and the Internet, cellular telephones, combustion turbines (jet engines) and the Green Revolution.[95] Although commercial aviation existed before WWII, it became a major industry after the war. United Kingdom Relative per capita levels of industrialization, 1750–1910 (relative to G.B. in 1900 = 100)[96] New products and services were introduced which greatly increased international trade. Improvements in steam engine design and the wide availability of cheap steel meant that slow, sailing ships were replaced with faster steamship, which could handle more trade with smaller crews. The chemical industries also moved to the forefront. Britain invested less in technological research than the U.S. and Germany, which caught up. The development of more intricate and efficient machines along with mass production techniques (after 1910) greatly expanded output and lowered production costs. As a result, production often exceeded domestic demand. Among the new conditions, more markedly evident in Britain, the forerunner of Europe's industrial states, were the long-term effects of the severe Long Depression of 1873–1896, which had followed fifteen years of great economic instability. Businesses in practically every industry suffered from lengthy periods of low – and falling – profit rates and price deflation after 1873. United States The U.S. had its highest economic growth rate in the last two decades of the Second Industrial Revolution;[97] however, population growth slowed while productivity growth peaked around the mid 20th century. The Gilded Age in America was based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads and coal mining. The iconic event was the opening of the First transcontinental railroad in 1869, providing six-day service between the East Coast and San Francisco.[98] During the Gilded Age, American railroad mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and tripled again by 1920, opening new areas to commercial farming, creating a truly national marketplace and inspiring a boom in coal mining and steel production. The voracious appetite for capital of the great trunk railroads facilitated the consolidation of the nation's financial market in Wall Street. By 1900, the process of economic concentration had extended into most branches of industry—a few large corporations, some organized as "trusts" (e.g. Standard Oil), dominated in steel, oil, sugar, meatpacking, and the manufacture of agriculture machinery. Other major components of this infrastructure were the new methods for manufacturing steel, especially the Bessemer process. The first billion-dollar corporation was United States Steel, formed by financier J. P. Morgan in 1901, who purchased and consolidated steel firms built by Andrew Carnegie and others.[99] Increased mechanization of industry and improvements to worker efficiency, increased the productivity of factories while undercutting the need for skilled labor. Mechanical innovations such as batch and continuous processing began to become much more prominent in factories. This mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under the direction of skilled foremen and engineers. In some cases, the advancement of such mechanization substituted for low-skilled workers altogether. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew[100] Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise. Together with rapid growth of small business, a new middle class was rapidly growing, especially in northern cities.[101] Employment distribution In the early 1900s there was a disparity between the levels of employment seen in the northern and southern United States. On average, states in the North had both a higher population, and a higher rate of employment than states in the South. The higher rate of employment is easily seen by considering the 1909 rates of employment compared to the populations of each state in the 1910 census. This difference was most notable in the states with the largest populations, such as New York and Pennsylvania. Each of these states had roughly 5 percent more of the total US workforce than would be expected given their populations. Conversely, the states in the South with the best actual rates of employment, North Carolina and Georgia, had roughly 2 percent less of the workforce than one would expect from their population. When the averages of all southern states and all northern states are taken, the trend holds with the North over-performing by about 2 percent, and the South under-performing by about 1 percent.[102] Germany The German Empire came to rival Britain as Europe's primary industrial nation during this period. Since Germany industrialized later, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily than the British in research, especially in chemistry, motors and electricity. The German concern system (known as Konzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.[103] By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight firms produced almost 90 percent of the world supply of dyestuffs, and sold about 80 percent of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals and electrochemical. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers, leading Chandler to call the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".[104] There were many spin offs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.[105] Belgium Belgium during the Belle Époque showed the value of the railways for speeding the Second Industrial Revolution. After 1830, when it broke away from the Netherlands and became a new nation, it decided to stimulate industry. It planned and funded a simple cruciform system that connected major cities, ports and mining areas, and linked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. The system was soundly built along British lines, so that profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place.[106] Alternative uses This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) There have been other times that have been called "second industrial revolution". Industrial revolutions may be renumbered by taking earlier developments, such as the rise of medieval technology in the 12th century, or of ancient Chinese technology during the Tang dynasty, or of ancient Roman technology, as first. "Second industrial revolution" has been used in the popular press and by technologists or industrialists to refer to the changes following the spread of new technology after World War I. Excitement and debate over the dangers and benefits of the Atomic Age were more intense and lasting than those over the Space age but both were predicted to lead to another industrial revolution. At the start of the 21st century the term "second industrial revolution" has been used to describe the anticipated effects of hypothetical molecular nanotechnology systems upon society. In this more recent scenario, they would render the majority of today's modern manufacturing processes obsolete, transforming all facets of the modern economy. Subsequent industrial revolutions include the Digital revolution and Environmental revolution. See also in alphabetical order British Agricultural Revolution Capitalism in the nineteenth century Chemical Revolution Digital Revolution, also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, late 1990s until present Fourth Industrial Revolution Green Revolution Industrial Revolution Information Revolution Transport Revolution Nanotechnology Kondratiev wave List of steel producers Machine Age Neolithic Revolution Productivity improving technologies (historical) Scientific Revolution Suez Canal Economic history of selected countries: United Kingdom (19th century) & 1900–1945 United States (late 19th century) & Early 20th century France (1789–1914) & 1914–1944 Economic history of Germany#Industrial Revolution & Early 20th century Italy (1861–1918) Japan (Meiji period) & Early 20th century Notes Muntone, Stephanie. "Second Industrial Revolution". Education.com. The McGraw-Hill Companies. Archived from the original on 2013-10-22. Retrieved 2013-10-14. The Second Industrial Revolution: 1870–1914 Richmond Vale Academy (2022-05-16). "Second Industrial Revolution: The Technological Revolution". richmondvale.org. Retrieved 2021-12-27. History of Electricity, Institute for Energy Research James Hull, "The Second Industrial Revolution: The History of a Concept", Storia Della Storiografia, 1999, Issue 36, pp 81–90 Smil, Vaclav (2005). Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516874-7. Chandler 1993, pp. 171 Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. p. 92. ISBN 0-521-09418-6. Landes & year-1969, pp. 256–7 Landes & year-1969, pp. 218 Misa, Thomas J. (1995). A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1965-1925. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6502-2. Landes & year-1969, pp. 228 Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist at Welsh Biography Online Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 867. Alan Birch, Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry (2006) Rolt, L.T.C (1974). Victorian Engineering. London: Pelican. p. 183. Bianculli, Anthony J. (2003). Trains and Technology: Track and structures. Volume 3 of Trains and Technology: The American Railroad in the Nineteenth Century. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-87413-802-3. Fogel, Robert W. (1964). Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 0801811481. Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-521-27367-6. Grubler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-01. Maxwell, James Clerk (1911). "Faraday, Michael" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 173. "Archives Biographies: Michael Faraday", The Institution of Engineering and Technology. Archived 29 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine "The Savoy Theatre", The Times, 3 October 1881 Description of lightbulb experiment in The Times, 29 December 1881 "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan". home.frognet.net. Archived from the original on 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2010-10-16. "Sir Joseph Swan, The Literary & Philosophical Society of Newcastle". rsc.org. 2009-02-03. Retrieved 2010-10-16. "History of public supply in the UK". Archived from the original on 2010-12-01. Hunter & Bryant 1991, p. 191. Ford, Henry; Crowther, Samuel (1922). My Life and Work: An Autobiography of Henry Ford. Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-08908-5. (Viewable on line) *Nye, David E. (1990). Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology. Cambridge, MA; London: The MIT Press. pp. 14, 15. McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1. Roe 1916, pp. 9–10. Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN 83016269, OCLC 1104810110 Ford, Henry; Crowther, Samuel (1930). Edison as I Know Him. New York: Cosmopolitan Book Company. p. 30. Carruthers, George. Paper in the Making. Toronto: The Garden City Press Co-Operative, 1947. Matthew, H.C.G. and Brian Harrison. "Koops. Matthias." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: from the earliest times to the year 2000, Vol. 32. London: Oxford University Press, 2004: 80. Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8. pp. 30–32. Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8 Russell, Loris S. (2003). A Heritage of Light: Lamps and Lighting in the Early Canadian Home. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-3765-8. Temple, Robert; Joseph Needham (1986). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 52–4 M. S. Vassiliou, Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry, Scarecrow Press – 2009, page 13 Vassiliou, M. S. (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield), 700pp Temple 1986, pp. 54 Yergin, Daniel (1992). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power. "Sir William Henry Perkin". MSU Gallery of Chemists' Photo-Portraits and Mini-Biographies. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, Department of Chemistry. 2003-05-16. Archived from the original on 2007-10-30. "History and Design of Propellers: Part 1". the boatbuilding.community. 2004-02-07. Archived from the original on 2007-08-11. Retrieved 2007-09-03. Buchanan (2006), pp. 57–59 Beckett (2006), pp. 171–173 Dumpleton and Miller (2002), pp. 34–46 Lienhard, John H (2003). The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Oxford University Press (US). ISBN 978-0-19-516731-3. Wells, David A. (1890). Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society. New York: D. Appleton and Co. ISBN 0-543-72474-3. Osbon, G. A., 1965, The Crimean War gunboats. Part. 1. The Mariner's Mirror, The Journal of the Society of Nautical Research. 51, 103–116 & Preston, A., & Major, 1965, J., Send a gunboat. Longmans, London. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Random House Digital, Inc. 2011. pp. 244–245. ISBN 9780307265722. The Golden Book of Cycling – William Hume, 1938. Archive maintained by 'The Pedal Club'. Archived 3 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Dunlop, What sets Dunlop apart, History, 1889 "Icons of Invention: Rover safety bicycle, 1885". The Science Museum. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Ralph Morton (2002), Construction UK: Introduction to the Industry, Oxford: Blackwell Science, p. 51, ISBN 0-632-05852-8, retrieved 2010-06-22. G.N. Georgano Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985) G.N. Georgano Beaudreau, Bernard C. (1996). Mass Production, the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression. New York, Lincoln, Shanghi: Authors Choice Press. "Biography of Henry Clifton Sorby". Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2012-05-22. Steven Watts, The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (2006) p. 111 "Topology and Scottish mathematical physics". University of St Andrews. Retrieved 2013-09-09. "James Clerk Maxwell". IEEE Global History Network. Retrieved 2013-03-25. Maxwell, James Clerk (1865). "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 155: 459–512. Bibcode:1865RSPT..155..459C. doi:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008. S2CID 186207827. Maxwell, James Clerk (1868). "On Governors". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 16: 270–283. doi:10.1098/rspl.1867.0055. JSTOR 112510. Mayr, Otto (1971). "Maxwell and the Origins of Cybernetics". Isis. 62 (4): 424–444. doi:10.1086/350788. S2CID 144250314. Benett, Stuart (1986). A History of Control Engineering 1800–1930. Institution of Engineering and Technology. ISBN 978-0-86341-047-5. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lawes, Sir John Bennet" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 300. History of Fisons at Yara.com Archived 20 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine "Oxford DNB". Aaron John Ihde (1984). The development of modern chemistry. Courier Dover Publications. p. 678. ISBN 0486642356. Trevor Illtyd Williams; Thomas Kingston Derry (1982). A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950. Oxford University Press. pp. 134–135. ISBN 0198581599. Haber & Bosch Most influential persons of the 20th century, by Jürgen Schmidhuber [1] Archived 10 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine [2] Archived 10 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine Parsons, Sir Charles A. "The Steam Turbine". Archived from the original on 2011-01-14. The telegraphic age dawns Archived 19 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine BT Group Connected Earth Online Museum. Accessed December 2010, archived 10 February 2013 Wilson, Arthur (1994). The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since Earliest Times and Their Impact on Civilization. p. 203. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85573-301-5. Kennedy, P. M. (October 1971). "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870–1914". The English Historical Review. 86 (341): 728–752. doi:10.1093/ehr/lxxxvi.cccxli.728. JSTOR 563928. Richard John, Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications (2010) Roy, Amit (2008-12-08). "Cambridge 'pioneer' honour for Bose". The Telegraph. Kolkota. Archived from the original on 2009-01-23. Retrieved 2010-06-10. Icons of invention: the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates. ABC-CLIO. 2009. ISBN 9780313347436. Retrieved 2011-08-07. Ingenious Ireland: A County-by-County Exploration of the Mysteries and Marvels of the Ingenious Irish. Simon and Schuster. December 2003. ISBN 9780684020945. Retrieved 2011-08-07. BBC Wales, Marconi's Waves "The Clifden Station of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph System". Scientific American. 1907-11-23. Compare: Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0674940529. Retrieved 2017-06-29. "[...] the telegraph companies used the railroad for their rights-of-way, and the railroad used the services of the telegraph to coordinate the flow of trains and traffic. In fact, many of the first telegraph companies were subsidiaries of railroads, formed to carry out this essential operating service." Compare: Chandler, Alfred Jr. (1993). The Visible Hand. Harvard University Press. p. 115. ISBN 0674417682. Retrieved 2017-06-29. "[...] American railroad accounting overstated operating costs and understated capital consumption.[...] The basic innovations in financial and capital accounting appeared in the 1850s in response to specific needs and were perfected in the years after the Civil War. Innovations in a third type of accounting – cost accounting – came more slowly." Ayres, Robert U.; Warr, Benjamin (2004). "Accounting for Growth: The Role of Physical Work" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-24. Retrieved 2019-01-11. Wells, David A. (1890). Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society. New York: D. Appleton and Co. ISBN 0-543-72474-3. "RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS." David Grigg (1992). "Agriculture in the World Economy: an Historical Geography of Decline". Geography. 77 (3): 210–222. JSTOR 40572192. Hull (1996) Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p. 149, based on Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980," Journal of European Economic History (1982) v. 11 Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-08908-5.[permanent dead link]This link is to entire on line book. Data from Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980," Journal of European Economic History (1982) v. 11. Vatter, Harold G.; Walker, John F.; Alperovitz, Gar (June 1995). "The onset and persistence of secular stagnation in the U.S. economy: 1910–1990, Journal of Economic Issues". Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It in the World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863–1869 (2000) Edward C. Kirkland, Industry Comes of Age, Business, Labor, and Public Policy 1860–1897 (1961) Daniel Hovey Calhoun, The American Civil Engineer: Origins and Conflicts (1960) Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (1983) Steuart, William M. Abstract of the Census of Manufactures, 1914 .. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1917. Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010) Chandler (1990) p 474-5 Carsten Burhop, "Pharmaceutical Research in Wilhelmine Germany: the Case of E. Merck," Business History Review. Volume: 83. Issue: 3. 2009. pp 475+. in ProQuest Patrick O’Brien, Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830–1914 (1983) References Atkeson, Andrew and Patrick J. Kehoe. "Modeling the Transition to a New Economy: Lessons from Two Technological Revolutions," American Economic Review, March 2007, Vol. 97 Issue 1, pp 64–88 in EBSCO Appleby, Joyce Oldham. The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism (2010) excerpt and text search Beaudreau, Bernard C. The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes: How the Second Industrial Revolution Passed Great Britain (2006) Bernal, J. D. (1970) [1953]. Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20128-4. Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe (2 vol. 2010), covers 1700 to present Chandler, Jr., Alfred D. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (1990). Chant, Colin, ed. Science, Technology and Everyday Life, 1870–1950 (1989) emphasis on Britain Hobsbawm, E. J. (1999). Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the Present Day. rev. and updated with Chris Wrigley (2nd ed.). New York: New Press. ISBN 1-56584-561-7. Hull, James O. "From Rostow to Chandler to You: How revolutionary was the second industrial revolution?" Journal of European Economic History',' Spring 1996, Vol. 25 Issue 1, pp. 191–208 Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997) Kranzberg, Melvin; Carroll W. Pursell Jr (1967). Technology in Western Civilization (2 vols. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Landes, David (2003). The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53402-X. Licht, Walter. Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (1995) Mokyr, Joel The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914 (1998) Mokyr, Joel. The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain 1700–1850 (2010) Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920 (2 vol. 2007) Roberts, Wayne. "Toronto Metal Workers and the Second Industrial Revolution, 1889–1914," Labour / Le Travail, Autumn 1980, Vol. 6, pp 49–72 Smil, Vaclav. Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact External links Media related to Industrial revolution at Wikimedia Commons vte Industrial and technological revolution vte History of technology vte Economy of the United Kingdom vte Recessions in the United States and Commonwealth of Nations countries vte Financial bubbles vte Financial crises vte International relations (1814–1919) vte Population Categories: Second Industrial RevolutionIndustrial RevolutionIndustrial historyHistory of technology19th century in technology20th century in technologyElectric powerMass productionRevolutions by type https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution Natural History Museum, London Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other natural history museums, see List of natural history museums. Natural History MuseumNatural History Museum London logo (large).svg Natural History Museum London Jan 2006.jpg Front façade of the museum in January 2006 Natural History Museum, London is located in Central London Natural History Museum, London Location within Central London Established 1881; 142 years ago Location Kensington & Chelsea, London, SW7 United Kingdom Coordinates 51°29′46″N 00°10′35″WCoordinates: 51°29′46″N 00°10′35″W Type Natural history museum Visitors 4,654,608[1] Director Douglas Gurr Public transit access London Underground South Kensington London Buses Kensington Museums 360 Victoria & Albert Museum 14, 74, 414, C1 Website www.nhm.ac.uk The Natural History Museum in London is a museum that exhibits a vast range of specimens from various segments of natural history. It is one of three major museums on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, the others being the Science Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. The Natural History Museum's main frontage, however, is on Cromwell Road. The museum is home to life and earth science specimens comprising some 80 million items within five main collections: botany, entomology, mineralogy, palaeontology and zoology. The museum is a centre of research specialising in taxonomy, identification and conservation. Given the age of the institution, many of the collections have great historical as well as scientific value, such as specimens collected by Charles Darwin. The museum is particularly famous for its exhibition of dinosaur skeletons and ornate architecture—sometimes dubbed a cathedral of nature—both exemplified by the large Diplodocus cast that dominated the vaulted central hall before it was replaced in 2017 with the skeleton of a blue whale hanging from the ceiling. The Natural History Museum Library contains an extensive collection of books, journals, manuscripts, and artwork linked to the work and research of the scientific departments; access to the library is by appointment only. The museum is recognised as the pre-eminent centre of natural history and research of related fields in the world. Although commonly referred to as the Natural History Museum, it was officially known as British Museum (Natural History) until 1992, despite legal separation from the British Museum itself in 1963. Originating from collections within the British Museum, the landmark Alfred Waterhouse building was built and opened by 1881 and later incorporated the Geological Museum. The Darwin Centre is a more recent addition, partly designed as a modern facility for storing the valuable collections. Like other publicly funded national museums in the United Kingdom, the Natural History Museum does not charge an admission fee.[2] The museum is an exempt charity and a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.[3][4] The Princess of Wales is a patron of the museum.[5] There are approximately 850 staff at the museum. The two largest strategic groups are the Public Engagement Group and Science Group.[6] History Early history An 1881 plan showing the original arrangement of the museum. (Link to current floor plans). The foundation of the collection was that of the Ulster doctor Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753), who allowed his significant collections to be purchased by the British Government at a price well below their market value at the time. This purchase was funded by a lottery. Sloane's collection, which included dried plants, and animal and human skeletons, was initially housed in Montagu House, Bloomsbury, in 1756, which was the home of the British Museum. Most of the Sloane collection had disappeared by the early decades of the nineteenth century. Dr George Shaw (Keeper of Natural History 1806–1813) sold many specimens to the Royal College of Surgeons and had periodic cremations of material in the grounds of the museum. His successors also applied to the trustees for permission to destroy decayed specimens.[7] In 1833, the Annual Report states that, of the 5,500 insects listed in the Sloane catalogue, none remained. The inability of the natural history departments to conserve its specimens became notorious: the Treasury refused to entrust it with specimens collected at the government's expense. Appointments of staff were bedevilled by gentlemanly favouritism; in 1862 a nephew of the mistress of a Trustee was appointed Entomological Assistant despite not knowing the difference between a butterfly and a moth.[8][9][verification needed] J. E. Gray (Keeper of Zoology 1840–1874) complained of the incidence of mental illness amongst staff: George Shaw threatened to put his foot on any shell not in the 12th edition of Linnaeus' Systema Naturae; another had removed all the labels and registration numbers from entomological cases arranged by a rival. The huge collection of the conchologist Hugh Cuming was acquired by the museum, and Gray's own wife had carried the open trays across the courtyard in a gale: all the labels blew away. That collection is said never to have recovered.[10][page needed] The Principal Librarian at the time was Antonio Panizzi; his contempt for the natural history departments and for science in general was total. The general public was not encouraged to visit the museum's natural history exhibits. In 1835 to a Select Committee of Parliament, Sir Henry Ellis said this policy was fully approved by the Principal Librarian and his senior colleagues. Many of these faults were corrected by the palaeontologist Richard Owen, appointed Superintendent of the natural history departments of the British Museum in 1856. His changes led Bill Bryson to write that "by making the Natural History Museum an institution for everyone, Owen transformed our expectations of what museums are for".[11][page needed] Planning and architecture of new building The Natural History Museum, shown in wide-angle view here, has an ornate terracotta facade by Gibbs and Canning typical of high Victorian architecture. The terracotta mouldings represent the past and present diversity of nature. Owen saw that the natural history departments needed more space, and that implied a separate building as the British Museum site was limited. Land in South Kensington was purchased, and in 1864 a competition was held to design the new museum. The winning entry was submitted by the civil engineer Captain Francis Fowke, who died shortly afterwards. The scheme was taken over by Alfred Waterhouse who substantially revised the agreed plans, and designed the façades in his own idiosyncratic Romanesque style which was inspired by his frequent visits to the Continent.[12] The original plans included wings on either side of the main building, but these plans were soon abandoned for budgetary reasons. The space these would have occupied are now taken by the Earth Galleries and Darwin Centre. The Comic News reporting on the movement to South Kensington in 1863 Work began in 1873 and was completed in 1880. The new museum opened in 1881, although the move from the old museum was not fully completed until 1883. Both the interiors and exteriors of the Waterhouse building make extensive use of architectural terracotta tiles to resist the sooty atmosphere of Victorian London, manufactured by the Tamworth-based company of Gibbs and Canning. The tiles and bricks feature many relief sculptures of flora and fauna, with living and extinct species featured within the west and east wings respectively. This explicit separation was at the request of Owen, and has been seen as a statement of his contemporary rebuttal of Darwin's attempt to link present species with past through the theory of natural selection.[13] Though Waterhouse slipped in a few anomalies, such as bats amongst the extinct animals and a fossil ammonite with the living species. The sculptures were produced from clay models by a French sculptor based in London, M Dujardin, working to drawings prepared by the architect.[14] The central axis of the museum is aligned with the tower of Imperial College London (formerly the Imperial Institute) and the Royal Albert Hall and Albert Memorial further north. These all form part of the complex known colloquially as Albertopolis. Separation from the British Museum The central hall of the museum Even after the opening, the Natural History Museum legally remained a department of the British Museum with the formal name British Museum (Natural History), usually abbreviated in the scientific literature as B.M.(N.H.). A petition to the Chancellor of the Exchequer was made in 1866, signed by the heads of the Royal, Linnean and Zoological societies as well as naturalists including Darwin, Wallace and Huxley, asking that the museum gain independence from the board of the British Museum, and heated discussions on the matter continued for nearly one hundred years. Finally, with the passing of the British Museum Act 1963, the British Museum (Natural History) became an independent museum with its own board of trustees, although – despite a proposed amendment to the act in the House of Lords – the former name was retained. In 1989 the museum publicly re-branded itself as the Natural History Museum and stopped using the title British Museum (Natural History) on its advertising and its books for general readers. Only with the Museums and Galleries Act 1992 did the museum's formal title finally change to the Natural History Museum. Geological Museum Main article: Geological Museum In 1985, the museum merged with the adjacent Geological Museum of the British Geological Survey,[15][16] which had long competed for the limited space available in the area. The Geological Museum became world-famous for exhibitions including an active volcano model and an earthquake machine (designed by James Gardner), and housed the world's first computer-enhanced exhibition (Treasures of the Earth). The museum's galleries were completely rebuilt and relaunched in 1996 as The Earth Galleries, with the other exhibitions in the Waterhouse building retitled The Life Galleries. The Natural History Museum's own mineralogy displays remain largely unchanged as an example of the 19th-century display techniques of the Waterhouse building. The central atrium design by Neal Potter overcame visitors' reluctance to visit the upper galleries by "pulling" them through a model of the Earth made up of random plates on an escalator. The new design covered the walls in recycled slate and sandblasted the major stars and planets onto the wall. The museum's 'star' geological exhibits are displayed within the walls. Six iconic figures were the backdrop to discussing how previous generations have viewed Earth. These were later removed to make place for a Stegosaurus skeleton that was put on display in late 2015. The Darwin Centre Statue of Charles Darwin by Sir Joseph Boehm, 1885, in the main hall The Darwin Centre (named after Charles Darwin) was designed as a new home for the museum's collection of tens of millions of preserved specimens, as well as new work spaces for the museum's scientific staff and new educational visitor experiences. Built in two distinct phases, with two new buildings adjacent to the main Waterhouse building, it is the most significant new development project in the museum's history. Phase one of the Darwin Centre opened to the public in 2002, and it houses the zoological department's 'spirit collections'—organisms preserved in alcohol. Phase Two was unveiled in September 2008 and opened to the general public in September 2009. It was designed by the Danish architecture practice C. F. Møller Architects in the shape of a giant, eight-story cocoon and houses the entomology and botanical collections—the 'dry collections'.[17] It is possible for members of the public to visit and view non-exhibited items for a fee by booking onto one of the several Spirit Collection Tours offered daily.[18] Arguably the most famous creature in the centre is the 8.62-metre-long giant squid, affectionately named Archie.[19] The Attenborough Studio As part of the museum's remit to communicate science education and conservation work, a new multimedia studio forms an important part of Darwin Centre Phase 2. In collaboration with the BBC's Natural History Unit (holder of the largest archive of natural history footage) the Attenborough Studio—named after the broadcaster Sir David Attenborough—provides a multimedia environment for educational events. The studio holds regular lectures and demonstrations, including free Nature Live talks on Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays. Major specimens and exhibits Dippy in the Hintze Hall at the Natural History Museum in 2008 One of the most famous and certainly most prominent of the exhibits—nicknamed "Dippy"—is a 105-foot (32 m)-long replica of a Diplodocus carnegii skeleton which was on display for many years within the central hall. The cast was given as a gift by the Scottish-American industrialist Andrew Carnegie, after a discussion with King Edward VII, then a keen trustee of the British Museum. Carnegie paid £2,000 (equivalent to £229,250 in 2021) for the casting, copying the original held at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. The pieces were sent to London in 36 crates, and on 12 May 1905, the exhibit was unveiled to great public and media interest. The real fossil had yet to be mounted, as the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh was still being constructed to house it. As word of Dippy spread, Mr Carnegie paid to have additional copies made for display in most major European capitals and in Central and South America, making Dippy the most-viewed dinosaur skeleton in the world. The dinosaur quickly became an iconic representation of the museum, and has featured in many cartoons and other media, including the 1975 Disney comedy One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing. After 112 years on display at the museum, the dinosaur replica was removed in early 2017 to be replaced by the actual skeleton of a young blue whale, a 128-year-old skeleton nicknamed "Hope".[20] Dippy went on a tour of various British museums starting in 2018 and concluding in 2020 at Norwich Cathedral.[21][22][23] Whale skeleton, nicknamed Hope, in the Hintze Hall The blue whale skeleton, Hope, that has replaced Dippy, is another prominent display in the museum. The display of the skeleton, some 82 feet (25 m) long and weighing 4.5 tonnes, was only made possible in 1934 with the building of the New Whale Hall (now the Mammals (blue whale model) gallery). The whale had been in storage for 42 years since its stranding on sandbanks at the mouth of Wexford Harbour, Ireland in March 1891 after being injured by whalers.[22] At this time, it was first displayed in the Mammals (blue whale model) gallery, but now takes pride of place in the museum's Hintze Hall. Discussion of the idea of a life-sized model also began around 1934, and work was undertaken within the Whale Hall itself. Since taking a cast of such a large animal was deemed prohibitively expensive, scale models were used to meticulously piece the structure together. During construction, workmen left a trapdoor within the whale's stomach, which they would use for surreptitious cigarette breaks. Before the door was closed and sealed forever, some coins and a telephone directory were placed inside—this soon growing to an urban myth that a time capsule was left inside. The work was completed—entirely within the hall and in view of the public—in 1938. At the time it was the largest such model in the world, at 92 feet (28 m) in length. The construction details were later borrowed by several American museums, who scaled the plans further. The work involved in removing Dippy and replacing it with Hope was documented in a BBC Television special, Horizon: Dippy and the Whale, narrated by David Attenborough, which was first broadcast on BBC Two on 13 July 2017, the day before Hope was unveiled for public display.[24][unreliable source?] The Darwin Centre is host to Archie, an 8.62-metre-long giant squid taken alive in a fishing net near the Falkland Islands in 2004. The squid is not on general display, but stored in the large tank room in the basement of the Phase 1 building. It is possible for members of the public to visit and view non-exhibited items behind the scenes for a fee by booking onto one of the several Spirit Collection Tours offered daily.[18] On arrival at the museum, the specimen was immediately frozen while preparations commenced for its permanent storage. Since few complete and reasonably fresh examples of the species exist, "wet storage" was chosen, leaving the squid undissected. A 9.45-metre acrylic tank was constructed (by the same team that provide tanks to Damien Hirst), and the body preserved using a mixture of formalin and saline solution. The museum holds the remains and bones of the "River Thames whale", a northern bottlenose whale that lost its way on 20 January 2006 and swam into the Thames. Although primarily used for research purposes, and held at the museum's storage site at Wandsworth. Dinocochlea, one of the longer-standing mysteries of paleontology (originally thought to be a giant gastropod shell, then a coprolite, and now a concretion of a worm's tunnel), has been part of the collection since its discovery in 1921. The museum keeps a wildlife garden on its west lawn, on which a potentially new species of insect resembling Arocatus roeselii was discovered in 2007.[25] Galleries This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The museum is divided into four sets of galleries, or zones, each colour coded to follow a broad theme. Red Zone The entrance to the Earth Galleries, designed by Neal Potter This is the zone that can be entered from Exhibition Road, on the East side of the building. It is a gallery themed around the changing history of the Earth. Earth's Treasury shows specimens of rocks, minerals and gemstones behind glass in a dimly lit gallery. Lasting Impressions is a small gallery containing specimens of rocks, plants and minerals, of which most can be touched. Earth Hall (Stegosaurus skeleton) Human Evolution Earth's Treasury Lasting Impressions Restless Surface From the Beginning Volcanoes and Earthquakes The Waterhouse Gallery (temporary exhibition space) Green zone Dodo This zone is accessed from the Cromwell Road entrance via the Hintze Hall and follows the theme of the evolution of the planet. Birds Creepy Crawlies Fossil Marine Reptiles Hintze Hall (formerly the Central Hall, with blue whale skeleton and giant sequoia) Minerals The Vault Fossils from Britain Anning Rooms (exclusive space for members and patrons of the museum) Investigate East Pavilion (space for changing Wildlife Photographer of the Year exhibition) Blue zone Large Mammals Hall To the left of the Hintze Hall, this zone explores the diversity of life on the planet. Dinosaurs Fish, Amphibians and Reptiles Human Biology Images of Nature The Jerwood Gallery (temporary exhibition space) Marine Invertebrates Mammals Mammals Hall (blue whale model) Treasures in the Cadogan Gallery Orange zone Part of the spirit collection Enables the public to see science at work and also provides spaces for relaxation and contemplation. Accessible from Queens Gate. Wildlife Garden Darwin Centre Zoology Spirit Building Highlights of the collection This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Otumpa iron meteorite weighing 635 kg (1,400 lb), found in 1783 in Campo del Cielo, Argentina Latrobe nugget, one of the largest known clusters of cubic gold crystals Apollo 16 Moon rock sample collected in 1972 Ostro Stone, flawless blue topaz gemstone weighing 9,381 carats, about 2 kg (4.4 lb), the largest of its kind in the world Aurora Pyramid of Hope, a collection of 296 natural diamonds in a wide variety of colours First Iguanodon teeth ever discovered Dippy, plaster cast replica of the fossilised bones of a Diplodocus carnegii skeleton Mantellisaurus and American mastodon skeletons Full-sized animatronic model of a Tyrannosaurus rex The most intact Stegosaurus fossil skeleton ever discovered (nicknamed Sophie) Large skull of a Triceratops First specimen of Archaeopteryx ever discovered, one of only 12 found and generally accepted by palaeontologists to be the oldest known bird Rare dodo skeleton, reconstructed from bones over 1,000 years old Only surviving specimen of the Great Auk from the British Isles, collected in 1813 from Papa Westray in the Orkney Islands Broken Hill skull, Middle Paleolithic cranium now considered part of a Homo heidelbergensis, discovered in the mine of Broken Hill or Kabwe in Zambia Gibraltar 1 and Gibraltar 2, two Neanderthal skulls found at Forbes' Quarry in Gibraltar Cross-section of 1,300-year-old giant sequoia, at the museum since 1893 Rare copy of The Birds of America by John James Audubon, containing illustrations of a wide variety of birds from the United States Rare first edition of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species Education and research A young student at the museum The museum runs a series of educational and public engagement programmes. These include for example a highly praised "How Science Works" hands on workshop for school students demonstrating the use of microfossils in geological research. The museum also played a major role in securing designation of the Jurassic Coast of Devon and Dorset as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and has subsequently been a lead partner in the Lyme Regis Fossil Festivals. In 2005, the museum launched a project to develop notable gallery characters to patrol display cases, including 'facsimiles' of Carl Linnaeus, Mary Anning, Dorothea Bate and William Smith. They tell stories and anecdotes of their lives and discoveries and aim to surprise visitors.[26] In 2010, a six-part BBC documentary series was filmed at the museum entitled Museum of Life exploring the history and behind the scenes aspects of the museum.[27] Since May 2001, the Natural History Museum admission has been free for some events and permanent exhibitions. However, there are certain temporary exhibits and shows that require a fee. The Natural History museum combines the museum's life and earth science collections with specialist expertise in "taxonomy, systematics, biodiversity, natural resources, planetary science, evolution and informatics" to tackle scientific questions.[28] In 2011, the museum led the setting up of an International Union for Conservation of Nature Bumblebee Specialist Group, chaired by Dr. Paul H. Williams,[29] to assess the threat status of bumblebee species worldwide using Red List criteria.[30][31] Access Service Station/Stop Lines/Routes served London Buses London Buses Kensington Museums Disabled access 360 Victoria & Albert Museum Disabled access 14, 74, 414, C1 London Underground London Underground South Kensington Circle line District line Piccadilly line The closest London Underground station is South Kensington — there is a tunnel from the station that emerges close to the entrances of all three museums. Admission is free, though there are donation boxes in the foyer. Museum Lane immediately to the north provides disabled access to the museum.[32] A connecting bridge between the Natural History and Science museums closed to the public in the late 1990s. In popular culture The museum plays an important role in the 1975 London-based Disney live-action feature One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing; the eponymous skeleton is stolen from the museum, and a group of intrepid nannies hide inside the mouth of the museum's blue whale model (in fact a specially created prop – the nannies peer out from behind the whale's teeth, but a blue whale is a baleen whale and has no teeth). Additionally, the film is set in the 1920s, before the blue whale model was built.[33] The museum features as a base for Prodigium, a secret society which studies and fights monsters, first appearing on The Mummy.[33][34] In the 2014 film Paddington, Millicent Clyde is a devious and trecherous taxidermist at the museum. She kidnaps Paddington, intending to kill and stuff him, but is thwarted by the Brown family after scenes involving chases inside and on the roof of the building.[33][35] The museum features prominently in the level Lud's Gate from Tomb Raider III, with Core Design launching the game with Jonathan Ross at the museum on 15 October 1998.[36] Andy Day's CBeebies shows, Andy's Dinosaur Adventures and Andy's Prehistoric Adventures are filmed in the Natural History Museum.[33] The museum was site of the first Pit Stop on The Amazing Race 33.[37] Natural History Museum at Tring Main article: Natural History Museum at Tring The NHM also has an outpost in Tring, Hertfordshire, built by local eccentric Lionel Walter Rothschild. The NHM took ownership in 1938. In 2007, the museum announced that the name would be changed to the Natural History Museum at Tring, though the older name, the Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum, is still in widespread use. See also James John Joicey Keeper of Entomology, Natural History Museum Sophie the Stegosaurus Category:Employees of the Natural History Museum, London References TEA-AECOM Museum Index for 2022, ,published March 2023 "Natural History Museum scraps £9 fee". www.telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. "Museum governance". The Natural History Museum. Retrieved 14 March 2010. "Natural History Museum". gov.uk. Retrieved 4 April 2023. Harrison, Lily; Caldwell, Lindsey (22 April 2013). "Duchess Kate to become patron of three new charities". Today News. "Our vision". nhm.ac.uk. Harrison, Keith; Smith, Eric (2008). Rifle-Green by Nature: A Regency Naturalist and his Family, William Elford Leach. London: Ray Society. pp. 265–266. ISBN 9780903874359. Gunther, Albert E. (1975). A Century of Zoology at the British Museum through the Lives of Two Keepers, 1815–1914. London: Dawsons. ISBN 9780712906180. Gunther, Albert E. (1980). The Founders of Science at the British Museum, 1753–1900. Halesworth, Suffolk: Halesworth Press. ISBN 9780950727608. Barber, Lynn (1980). "Omnium Gatherum". The Heyday of Natural History: 1829–1870. London: Cape. ISBN 9780224014489. Bryson, Bill (2003). A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Doubleday. ISBN 9780385408189. "Interior of the NHM". Royal Institute of British Architects. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 14 December 2010. "Decoration". nhm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Nature's Cathedral. London: Natural History Museum. 2021. p. 19. ISBN 9780565094836. "Written Answer: Geological and British Museums HC Deb 31 July 1984". Hansard. 65: c185W. 1984. Hackett, Dennis (1999). Our corporate history. Key events affecting the British Geological Survey, 1967–1998 (Technical Report, WQ/99/1 ed.). British Geological Survey. "Museum 'cocoon' prepares to open". BBC News. 2 September 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2009. "Behind-the-Scenes Tour: Spirit Collection | Natural History Museum". www.nhm.ac.uk. Retrieved 20 October 2017. "Giant squid goes on display". nhm.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 20 April 2006. Retrieved 14 March 2006. "Coldplay prove they're not fossils as they play Natural History Museum gig". BBC. Retrieved 26 November 2019. McVeigh, Tracy (1 January 2017). "Dippy's last days: diplodocus leaves London after 112 years for farewell UK tour". The Observer. Fuller, George (4 January 2017). "Dippy the Diplodocus bids farewell to his public at the Natural History Museum". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. "Dippy on Tour: A Natural History Adventure". Natural History Museum. "Dippy and the Whale". DocuWiki. 15 July 2017. "Mystery Insect Bugs Experts". Sky news. 15 July 2008. Review by Miles Russell of Discovering Dorothea: the Life of the Pioneering Fossil-Hunter Dorothea Bate by Karolyn Shindler at ucl.ac.uk (accessed 23 November 2007) "Museum of Life". The Natural History Museum. 2010. Archived from the original on 30 August 2010. Retrieved 5 January 2011. Research and curation, Museum of Natural History, n.d., retrieved 22 December 2013 Bumblebee Specialist Group, London, UK: Natural History Museum, retrieved 23 December 2013 2011 Update (PDF), IUCN, archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2012, retrieved 7 October 2012 Paul H. Williams (1986). "Environmental change and the distributions of British bumble bees (Bombus Latr.)". Bee World. 67 (2): 50–61. doi:10.1080/0005772x.1986.11098871. Museum entrances, Natural History Museum. "The Museum at the movies: 13 chances to see us on screen". Natural History Museum. Retrieved 8 December 2021. Clarke, Donald. "Make it stop, Mummy! Tom Cruise movie a lumbering waste of time". The Irish Times. Retrieved 8 December 2021. O'Connor, Joanne (5 December 2014). "On location: Paddington". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2015. "Tomb Raider 3 Events". Retrieved 12 March 2022. Caruso, Nick (5 January 2022). "The Amazing Race Season 33 Premiere Recap: Has Anyone Seen (a) Bobby? — Plus, Who Was Eliminated First?". TVLine. Retrieved 5 January 2022. Bibliography Dr Martin Lister: A bibliography by Geoffrey Keynes. St Paul's Bibliographies (UK). ISBN 0-906795-04-4. (Includes illustrations by Lister's wife and daughter). The Travelling Naturalists (1985) by Clare Lloyd. (Study of 18th Century Natural History — includes Charles Waterton, John Hanning Speke, Henry Seebohm and Mary Kingsley). Contains colour and black and white reproductions. Croom Helm (UK). ISBN 0-7099-1658-2. Dry storeroom no 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum (2009) by Richard Fortey. HarperPress (UK). ISBN 978-0307275523. External links Wikidata has the property: ButMoth ID (P3060) (see uses) Wikimedia Commons has media related to British Natural History Museum. Official website Edit this at Wikidata Picture Library of the Natural History Museum The Natural History Museum on Google Cultural Institute Architectural history and description from the Survey of London Architecture and history of the NHM from the Royal Institute of British Architects Maps of grid reference TQ267792 Nature News article on proposed cuts, June 2010 vte Museums and galleries in London vte Department for Culture, Media and Sport vte London landmarks Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: Natural History Museum, LondonBritish MuseumNatural history museums in LondonMuseums sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and SportGrade I listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Kensington and ChelseaGrade I listed museum buildingsCultural infrastructure completed in 1880Alfred Waterhouse buildingsNon-departmental public bodies of the United Kingdom governmentExempt charitiesCharities based in LondonMuseums in the Royal Borough of Kensington and ChelseaRomanesque Revival architecture in EnglandTerracottaMuseums established in 18811881 establishments in EnglandNational museums of EnglandDinosaur museumsBrompton, LondonSouth Kensington https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London Heavy industry Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Integrated steel mill in the Netherlands. The two massive towers are blast furnaces. U. S. Steel Košice (in Slovakia) – a typical example of a heavy industry factory Heavy industry is an industry that involves one or more characteristics such as large and heavy products; large and heavy equipment and facilities (such as heavy equipment, large machine tools, huge buildings and large-scale infrastructure); or complex or numerous processes. Because of those factors, heavy industry involves higher capital intensity than light industry does, and it is also often more heavily cyclical in investment and employment. Though important to economic development and industrialization of economies, heavy industry can also have significant negative side effects: both local communities and workers frequently encounter health risks, heavy industries tend to produce byproducts that both pollute the air and water, and the industrial supply chain is often involved in other environmental justice issues from mining and transportation. Because of their intensity, heavy industries are also significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change, and certain parts of the industries, especially high-heat processes used in metal working and cement production, are hard to decarbonize.[1] Industrial activities such as mining also results in pollution of heavy metals. Heavy metals are very damaging to the environment because they cannot be chemically degraded.[2] Types Transportation and construction along with their upstream manufacturing supply businesses have been the bulk of heavy industry throughout the industrial age, along with some capital-intensive manufacturing. Traditional examples from the mid-19th century through the early 20th included steelmaking, artillery production, locomotive manufacturing, machine tool building, and the heavier types of mining. From the late 19th century through the mid-20th, as the chemical industry and electrical industry developed, they involved components of both heavy industry and light industry, which was soon also true for the automotive industry and the aircraft industry. Modern shipbuilding (since steel replaced wood) and large components such as ship turbochargers are also characteristic of heavy industry.[3] Large systems are often characteristic of heavy industry such as the construction of skyscrapers and large dams during the post–World War II era, and the manufacture/deployment of large rockets and giant wind turbines through the 21st century.[4] As part of economic strategy Many East Asian countries relied on heavy industry as key parts of their development strategies[5] and many still do for economic growth.[6] This reliance on heavy industry is typically a matter of government economic policy. Among Japanese and Korean firms with "heavy industry" in their names, many are also manufacturers of aerospace products and defense contractors to their respective countries' governments such as Japan's Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Fuji Heavy Industries, and Korea's Hyundai Rotem, a joint project of Hyundai Heavy Industries and Daewoo Heavy Industries.[7] In 20th-century communist states, the planning of the economy often focused on heavy industry as an area for large investments (at the expense of investing in the greater production of in-demand consumer goods), even to the extent of painful opportunity costs on the production–possibility frontier (classically, "lots of guns and not enough butter").[8] This was motivated by fears of failing to maintain military parity with foreign capitalist powers. For example, the Soviet Union's industrialization in the 1930s, with heavy industry as the favored emphasis, sought to bring its ability to produce trucks, tanks, artillery, aircraft, and warships up to a level that would make the country a great power. China under Mao Zedong pursued a similar strategy, eventually culminating in the Great Leap Forward of 1958–1960; an unsuccessful attempt to rapidly industrialize and collectivize, that lead to the largest famine in human history, killing up to 50 million people, whilst simultaneously severely depleting the production of agricultural products and not increasing the output of usable-quality industrial goods.[9][10] In zoning Heavy industry is also sometimes a special designation in local zoning laws, allowing placement of industries with heavy impacts (on environment, infrastructure, and employment) with planning. For example, the zoning restrictions for landfills usually take into account the heavy truck traffic that will exert expensive wear on the roads leading to the landfill.[11] Environmental impacts Greenhouse gas emissions [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2021) As of 2019, heavy industry emits about 22% of global greenhouse gas emissions: high temperature heat for heavy industry being about 10% of global emissions.[12] The steel industry alone was responsible for 7 to 9% of the global carbon dioxide emissions which is inherently related to the main production process via reduction of iron with coal.[13] In order to reduce these carbon dioxide emissions, carbon capture and utilization and carbon capture and storage technology is looked at. Heavy industry has the advantage to be a point source which is less energy-intensive to apply the latter technologies and results in a cheaper carbon capture compared to direct air capture. Pollution [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2021) Industrial activities such as the improper disposal of radioactive material, burning coal and fossil fuels, and releasing liquid waste into the environment contribute to the pollution of water, air, and wildlife.[14] In regards to water pollution, when waste is disposed of in the environment, it affects the quality of the available water supply which has a negative impact on the ecosystem along with water supply used by farms for irrigation which in turn affects our crops.[14] Heavy metal concentrations can become deadly once they pass certain thresholds, which lead to plant poisoning.[15] Heavy metals such as lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic form dust fall particles and are harmful to the human body, with the latter two being carcinogens.[16] Soil contamination also occurs as a result of heavy industry when those heavy metals sink into the ground contaminating the crops that reside among it.[17] Long-term or short-term exposure of children to industry-based air pollution can cause several adverse effects, such as cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and even death. Children are also more susceptible to air pollution detriments than adults.[18] Heavy metals have also been shown to pollute soil, deteriorating arable land quality and adversely impacting food safety (such as vegetables or grain).[19] As a result of pollution, the toxic chemicals released into the atmosphere also contributes to global warming due to the increase of radiation absorbed.[20] Heavy metals can affect many levels of the ecosystem through bioaccumulation. Plants can pick up these metals from the soil and begin the metal transfer to higher levels of the food chain, and eventually reaching humans.[21] Humans and many other animals rely on these plant species as sources of food. Sacrifice zones This section is an excerpt from Sacrifice zone.[edit] A sacrifice zone or sacrifice area (often termed a national sacrifice zone or national sacrifice area) is a geographic area that has been permanently impaired by heavy environmental alterations or economic disinvestment, often through locally unwanted land use (LULU). Commentators including Chris Hedges, Joe Sacco, and Steve Lerner have argued that corporate business practices contribute to producing sacrifice zones.[22][23][24] A 2022 report by the UN highlighted that millions of people globally are in pollution sacrifice zones, particularly in zones used for heavy industry and mining.[25] References Gross, Samantha (2021-06-24). "The challenge of decarbonizing heavy industry". Brookings. Retrieved 2021-10-04. Suman, Jachym; Uhlik, Ondrej; Viktorova, Jitka; Macek, Tomas (2018-10-16). "Phytoextraction of Heavy Metals: A Promising Tool for Clean-Up of Polluted Environment?". Frontiers in Plant Science. 9: 1476. doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.01476. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 6232834. PMID 30459775. "Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, LTD. Global Website | the Dynamism of Turbochargers". Teubal, Morris (1973). "Heavy and Light Industry in Economic Development". The American Economic Review. 63 (4): 588–596. ISSN 0002-8282. Park, Jong H. "The East Asian Model of Economic Development and Developing Countries." Journal of Developing Societies 18.4 (2002): 330-53. Print. Kumar, N. (2020). EAST ASIA’S PATHS TO INDUSTRIALIZATION AND PROSPERITY: LESSONS FOR INDIA AND OTHER LATE COMERS IN SOUTH ASIA. Wade, Robert (2003-11-30). Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization (With a New introduction by the author ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11729-4. Birman, Igor (1988-04-01). "The imbalance of the Soviet economy". Soviet Studies. 40 (2): 210–221. doi:10.1080/09668138808411750. ISSN 0038-5859. Walder, Andrew G. (2015-04-06). "5, 8". China Under Mao. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-28670-2. Naughton, Barry J. (2006-10-27). The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-64064-0. Committee, British Association Glossary (1952). "Some Definitions in the Vocabulary of Geography, IV". The Geographical Journal. 118 (3): 345–346. doi:10.2307/1790321. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1790321. Roberts, David (2019-10-10). "This climate problem is bigger than cars and much harder to solve". Vox. Retrieved 2019-10-20. De Ras, Kevin; Van De Vijver, Ruben; Galvita, Vladimir V.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (2019-12-01). "Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering". Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering. 26: 81–87. doi:10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001. ISSN 2211-3398. S2CID 210619173. "Causes, Effects and Solutions to Industrial Pollution on Our Environment - Conserve Energy Future". www.conserve-energy-future.com. 13 June 2013. Retrieved 2021-11-25. Okereafor, Uchenna; Makhatha, Mamookho; Mekuto, Lukhanyo; Uche-Okereafor, Nkemdinma; Sebola, Tendani; Mavumengwana, Vuyo (January 2020). "Toxic Metal Implications on Agricultural Soils, Plants, Animals, Aquatic life and Human Health". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (7): 2204. doi:10.3390/ijerph17072204. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 7178168. PMID 32218329. Wang, Jinhe; Zhang, Xi; Yang, Qing; Zhang, Kai; Zheng, Yue; Zhou, Guanhua (September 2018). "Pollution characteristics of atmospheric dustfall and heavy metals in a typical inland heavy industry city in China". Journal of Environmental Sciences (China). 71: 283–291. doi:10.1016/j.jes.2018.05.031. ISSN 1001-0742. PMID 30195686. S2CID 52178884. Retrieved 12 September 2022. Folk |, Emily (2021-04-27). "The Environmental Impacts of Industrialization | EcoMENA". Retrieved 2021-11-25. Bergstra, A.D., Brunekreef, B. & Burdorf, A. The effect of industry-related air pollution on lung function and respiratory symptoms in school children. Environ Health 17, 30 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0373-2 Impact of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution on Food Safety in China Zhang X, Zhong T, Liu L, Ouyang X (2015) Impact of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution on Food Safety in China. PLOS ONE 10(8): e0135182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135182 "How Can Factories Affect The Environment? | Field". 2018-10-12. Retrieved 2021-11-25. Tovar-Sánchez, Efraín; Hernández-Plata, Isela; Santoyo Martínez, Miguel; Valencia-Cuevas, Leticia; Galante, Patricia Mussali (2018-02-19). Heavy Metal Pollution as a Biodiversity Threat. IntechOpen. doi:10.5772/intechopen.74052. ISBN 978-1-78923-361-2. S2CID 134318754. Bullard, Robert D. (June 2011). "Sacrifice Zones: The Front Lines of Toxic Chemical Exposure in the United States by Steve Lerner . Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 2010. 346 pp., $29.95 ISBN: 978-0-262-01440-3". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6): A266. doi:10.1289/ehp.119-a266. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 3114843. Kane, Muriel (2012-07-20). "Chris Hedges: America's devastated 'sacrifice zones' are the future for all of us". www.rawstory.com. Retrieved 2019-09-16. Neal Conan (2 August 2012). "Drive For Profit Wreaks 'Days Of Destruction'". NPR.org. "Millions suffering in deadly pollution 'sacrifice zones', warns UN expert". the Guardian. 2022-03-10. Retrieved 2022-03-12. External links Definition of "heavy industry" according to Investopedia.com Look up heavy industry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. vte Major industries Natural sector Industrial sector Service sector Information sector Related Category Commons Outline Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Category: Heavy industry https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_industry Electronics industry Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Workers in an electronics factory in Shenzhen, China The electronics industry is the economic sector that produces electronic devices. It emerged in the 20th century and is today one of the largest global industries. Contemporary society uses a vast array of electronic devices built-in automated or semi-automated factories operated by the industry. Products are primarily assembled from metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors and integrated circuits, the latter principally by photolithography and often on printed circuit boards.[citation needed] The industry's size, the use of toxic materials, and the difficulty of recycling have led to a series of problems with electronic waste. International regulation and environmental legislation have been developed to address the issues. The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector,[1] which has annual sales of over $481 billion as of 2018.[2] The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in 2017.[3] History Main article: History of electronic engineering The electric power industry began in the 19th century, which led to the development of inventions such as gramaphones, radio transmitters, receivers and television. The vacuum tube was used for early electronic devices, before later being largely supplanted by semiconductor components as the fundamental technology of the industry.[4] The first working transistor, a point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Laboratories in 1947, which led to significant research in the field of solid-state semiconductors during the 1950s.[5] This led to the emergence of the home entertainment consumer electronics industry starting in the 1950s, largely due to the efforts of Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (now Sony) in successfully commercializing transistor technology for a mass market, with affordable transistor radios and then transistorized television sets.[6] The industry employs large numbers of electronics engineers and electronics technicians to design, develop, test, manufacture, install, and repair electrical and electronic equipment such as communication equipment, medical monitoring devices, navigational equipment, and computers. Common parts manufactured are connectors, system components, cell systems, and computer accessories, and these are made of alloy steel, copper, brass, stainless steel, plastic, steel tubing, and other materials.[7] Consumer electronics Main article: Consumer electronics Consumer electronics are products intended for everyday use, most often in entertainment, communications and office productivity. Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, the broadcast receiver. Later products include personal computers, telephones, MP3 players, cell phones, smart phones, audio equipment, televisions, calculators, GPS automotive electronics, digital cameras and players and recorders using video media such as DVDs, VCRs or camcorders. Increasingly these products have become based on digital technologies, and have largely merged with the computer industry in what is increasingly referred to as the consumerization of information technology. The CEA (Consumer Electronics Association) projected the value of annual consumer electronics sales in the United States to be over $170 billion in 2008.[8] Global annual consumer electronic sales are expected to reach $2.9 trillion by 2020.[9] Effects on the environment Electrical waste contains hazardous, valuable, and scarce materials, and up to 60 elements can be found in complex electronics. The United States and China are the world leaders in producing electronic waste, each tossing away about 3 million tons each year.[10] China also remains a major e-waste dumping ground for developed countries.[10] The UNEP estimate that the amount of e-waste being produced – including mobile phones and computers – could rise by as much as 500 percent over the next decade in some developing countries, such as India.[11] Further information: Electronic waste Increasing environmental awareness has led to changes in electronics design to reduce or eliminate toxic materials and reduce energy consumption. The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) were released by the European Commission in 2002. Manufacturing [icon] This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (March 2023) Largest electronics industry sectors Industry sector Annual revenue Year Ref B2B e-commerce (business-to-business) $25,516,000,000,000 2017 [3] Tech industry (high tech) $4,800,000,000,000 2018 [12] Mobile technology $3,900,000,000,000 2018 [13] B2C e-commerce (business-to-consumer) $3,851,000,000,000 2017 [3] Consumer electronics $1,712,900,000,000 2016 [9] Semiconductor industry $481,000,000,000 2018 [2] Television broadcasting services $407,700,000,000 2017 [14] Power electronics $216,000,000,000 2011 [15] TFT liquid-crystal displays (TFT LCD) $141,000,000,000 2017 [16] Video games $137,900,000,000 2018 [17] Home video film industry $55,700,000,000 2018 [18] Music streaming and music downloads $11,200,000,000 2018 [a] See also Consumer electronics Electronic engineering Electronics Microelectronics MOSFET Integrated circuit Nanoelectronics Power electronics Semiconductor Silicon Technology Notes Digital music – $11.2 billion[19] Streaming audio – $8.9 billion Paid downloads – $2.3 billion References "Annual Semiconductor Sales Increase 21.6 Percent, Top $400 Billion for First Time". Semiconductor Industry Association. 5 February 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2019. "Semiconductors – the Next Wave" (PDF). Deloitte. April 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2019. "Global e-Commerce sales surged to $29 trillion". United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 29 March 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2019. International Directory of Company Histories. Vol. 14. St. James Press. 1996 – via FundingUniverse. Manuel, Castells (1996). The information age : economy, society and culture. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631215943. OCLC 43092627. Hagiwara, Yoshiaki (2001). "Microelectronics for Home Entertainment". In Oklobdzija, Vojin G. (ed.). The Computer Engineering Handbook. CRC Press. p. 41-1. ISBN 978-0-8493-0885-7. "Industries and Markets", Bracalente Manufacturing Group, Retrieved April 26, 2016. CEA: Industry Statistics, archived from the original on 2009-04-21 "Global Consumer Electronics Market to Reach US$ 2.9 Trillion by 2020 - Persistence Market Research". PR Newswire. Persistence Market Research. 3 January 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2019. "Urgent need to prepare developing countries for surges in E-Waste". Section, United Nations News Service (2010-02-22). "As e-waste mountains soar, UN urges smart technologies to protect health". United Nations-DPI/NMD - UN News Service Section. Retrieved 2012-03-12. "IT Industry Outlook 2019". CompTIA. January 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2019. "The Mobile Economy". GSMA Intelligence. 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019. "Global Television Broadcasting Services Market Worth US$ 753.1 Billion With Key Industry Players A&E Television, BBC, CBS Interactive, CANAL+, AT&T, Channel 4, RTL Group, CenturyLink, 21st Century Fox". MarketWatch. February 14, 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-10-14. Retrieved 14 October 2019. "Power Electronics: A Strategy for Success" (PDF). Government of the United Kingdom. Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. October 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2019. "Power Electronics is a £135 billion direct global market" "TFT-LCD Market Size, Share, Growth and Global Forecast to 2023". Research Cosmos. BIS Report Consulting. December 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2019. "Global Games Market Revenues 2018". Newzoo. 30 April 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019. America, Motion Picture Association of (March 21, 2019). "New Report: Global Theatrical and Home Entertainment Market Reached $96.8 Billion in 2018". PR Newswire. Retrieved 14 October 2019. "IFPI Global Music Report 2019". International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. 2 April 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2019. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Electronics industry. Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition Global Electronics Industry: Poster Child of 21st Century Sweatshops and Despoiler of the Environment?, Garrett Brown Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata Germany Israel United States Czech Republic vte Electronics industry by country vte Major industries Natural sector Industrial sector Service sector Information sector Related Category Commons Outline Categories: Electronics industry20th-century introductionsIndustries (economics) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_industry Wood industry Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Globe icon. The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The wood industry or timber industry (sometimes lumber industry -- when referring mainly to sawed boards) is the industry concerned with forestry, logging, timber trade, and the production of primary forest products and wood products (e.g. furniture) and secondary products like wood pulp for the pulp and paper industry. Some of the largest producers are also among the biggest owners of timberland. The wood industry has historically been and continues to be an important sector in many economies. Distinction In the narrow sense of the terms, wood, forest, forestry and timber/lumber industry appear to point to different sectors, in the industrialized, internationalized world, there is a tendency toward huge integrated businesses that cover the complete spectrum from silviculture and forestry in private primary or secondary forests or plantations via the logging process up to wood processing and trading and transport (e.g. timber rafting, forest railways, logging roads).[citation needed] Processing and products differs especially with regard to the distinction between softwood and hardwood.[1][2][3][4][5] While softwood primarily goes into the production of wood fuel and pulp and paper, hardwood is used mainly for furniture, floors, etc.. Both types can be of use for building and (residential) construction purposes (e.g. log houses, log cabins, timber framing).[citation needed] Production chain This section is an excerpt from Wood production.[edit] Lumber and wood products, including timber for framing, plywood, and woodworking, are created in the wood industry from the trunks and branches of trees through several processes, commencing with the selection of appropriate logging sites and concluding with the milling and treatment processes of the harvested material. In order to determine which logging sites and milling sites are responsibly producing environmental, social and economic benefits, they must be certified under the Forests For All Forever (FCS) Certification that ensures these qualities.[6] Top producers See also: Category:Forest products companies As of 2019, the top timberland owners in the USA were structured as real-estate investment trusts and include:[7] Weyerhaeuser Co. Rayonier PotlatchDeltic In 2008 the largest lumber and wood producers in the USA were[8] Boise Cascade North Pacific Group[9] Sierra Pacific Industries As these companies are often publicly traded, their ultimate owners are a diversified group of investors. There are also timber-oriented real-estate investment trusts. According to sawmilldatabase, the world top producers of sawn wood in 2007 were:[10] Company Production or Capacity in m3/yr West Fraser Timber Co Ltd 8460000 Canfor 6900000 Weyerhaeuser 6449000 Stora Enso 4646000 Georgia Pacific 4300000 Resolute Forest Products 3760000 Interfor 3550000 Sierra Pacific Industries 3200000 Hampton Affiliates[11] 3100000 Arauco 2800000 Tolko Industries Ltd 2500000 Pfeifer Group[12] 2200000 Issues Safety Noise Workers within the forestry and logging industry sub-sector fall within the agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting (AFFH) industry sector as characterized by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS).[13] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has taken a closer look at the AFFH industry's noise exposures and prevalence of hearing loss. While the overall industry sector had a prevalence of hearing loss lower than the overall prevalence of noise-exposed industries (15% v. 19%), workers within forestry and logging exceeded 21%.[14] Thirty-six percent of workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products, a sub-sector within forestry and logging, experienced hearing loss, the most of any AFFH sub-sector. Workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products are tasked with growing trees for reforestation and gathering products such as rhizomes and barks. Comparatively, non-noise-exposed workers have only a 7% prevalence of hearing loss.[15] Worker noise exposures in the forestry and logging industry have been found to be up to 102 dBA.[16] NIOSH recommends that a worker have an 8-hour time-weighted average of noise exposure of 85 dBA.[17] Excessive noise puts workers at an increased risk of developing hearing loss. If a worker were to develop a hearing loss as a result of occupational noise exposures, it would be classified as occupational hearing loss. Noise exposures within the forestry and logging industry can be reduced by enclosing engines and heavy equipment, installing mufflers and silencers, and performing routine maintenance on equipment.[16] Noise exposures can also be reduced through the hierarchy of hazard controls where removal or replacement of noisy equipment serves as the best method of noise reduction.[citation needed] Injury Globe icon. The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (February 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has found that fatalities of forestry and logging workers have increased from 2013 to 2016, up from 81 to 106 per year. In 2016, there were 3.6 cases of injury and illness per 100 workers within this industry.[18] Illegal logging This section is an excerpt from Illegal logging.[edit] Part of a series on Environmental law The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png Pollution control law Environmental impact assessment Air quality law Water quality law Waste management law Environmental cleanup law Natural resources law Species protection Water resources law Mining law Forestry law Fisheries law Game law Reference materials Environmental journals International environmental agreements Environmental laws by country Environmental lawsuits Environmental ministries Supranational environmental agencies Related topics Administrative law Bankruptcy law Climate change litigation Earth jurisprudence Ecocide Energy law Environmental crime poaching Environmental personhood Environmental justice Insurance law International law Land law Land use Law of the sea Property law Public trust doctrine Rights of nature Right to a healthy environment War and environmental law Wild law vte Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such as deforestation, soil erosion and biodiversity loss which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such as climate change and other forms of environmental degradation. Illegality may also occur during transport, such as illegal processing and export (through fraudulent declaration to customs); the avoidance of taxes and other charges, and fraudulent certification.[19] These acts are often referred to as "wood laundering".[20] Illegal logging is driven by a number of economic forces, such as demand for raw materials, land grabbing and demand for pasture for cattle. Regulation and prevention can happen at both the supply size, with better enforcement of environmental protections, and at the demand side, such as an increasing regulation of trade as part of the international lumber Industry. Economy The existence of a wood economy, or more broadly, a forest economy (in many countries a bamboo economy predominates), is a prominent matter in many developing countries as well as in many other nations with a temperate climate and especially in those with low temperatures. These are generally the countries with greater forested areas so conditions allow for development of local forestry to harvest wood for local uses. The uses of wood in furniture, buildings, bridges, and as a source of energy are widely known. Additionally, wood from trees and bushes, can be used in a variety of products, such as wood pulp, cellulose in paper, celluloid in early photographic film, cellophane, and rayon (a substitute for silk).[citation needed] At the end of their normal usage, wood products can be burnt to obtain thermal energy or can be used as a fertilizer. The potential environmental damage that a wood economy could occasion include a reduction of biodiversity due to monoculture forestry (the intensive cultivation of very few trees types); and CO2 emissions. However, forests can aid in the reduction of atmospheric carbon dioxide and thus limit climate change.[21] The wood industry relied heavily on hard and at times dangerous manual labor for centuries. Two Swedish workers sawing a trunk in 1905. A massive log raft headed down the Columbia River in 1902, containing an entire year's worth of logs from one timber camp. Paper is today the most used wood product.[citation needed] History of use of wood The wood economy was the starting point of the civilizations worldwide, since eras preceding the Paleolithic[clarification needed] and the Neolithic. It necessarily preceded ages of metals by many millennia, as the melting of metals was possible only through the discovery of techniques to light fire (usually obtained by the scraping of two very dry wooden rods) and the building of many simple machines and rudimentary tools, as canes, club handles, bows, arrows, lances. One of the most ancient handmade articles ever found is a polished wooden spear tip (Clacton Spear) 250,000 years old (third interglacial period), that was buried under sediments in England, at Clacton-on-Sea.[22][23] Successive civilizations such as the Egyptians and Sumerians built sophisticated objects of furniture. Many types of furniture in ivory and valuable woods have survived to our time practically intact, because secluded in inviolated secret tombs, they were protected from decay also by the dry environment of desert.[24][better source needed]Many buildings and parts of these (above all roofs) contained elements in wood (often of oak) forming structural supports and covering; means of transport such as boats, ships; and later (with the invention of the wheel) wagons and carriages, winches, flour mills powered by water, etc.[citation needed] Dimensions and geography The main source of the lumber used in the world is forests, which can be classified as virgin, semivirgin and plantations. Much timber is removed for firewood by local populations in many countries, especially in the third world, but this amount can only be estimated, with wide margins of uncertainty.[citation needed] In 1998, the worldwide production of "Roundwood" (officially counted wood not used as firewood), was about 1,500,000,000 cubic metres (2.0×109 cu yd), amounting to around 45% of the wood cultivated in the world. Cut logs and branches destined to become elements for building construction accounted for approximately 55% of the world's industrial wood production. 25% became wood pulp (including wood powder and broccoli) mainly destined for the production of paper and paperboard, and approximately 20% became panels in plywood and valuable wood for furniture and objects of common use (FAO 1998).[25] The World's largest producer and consumer of officially accounted wood are the United States, although the country that possesses the greatest area of forest in Russia.[citation needed] In the 1970s, the countries with the largest forest area were: Soviet Union (approximately 8,800,000 km2), Brazil (5,150,000 km2), Canada (4,400,000 km2), United States (3,000,000 km2), Indonesia (1,200,000 km2) and Democratic Republic of Congo (1,000,000 km2). Other countries with important production and consumption of wood usually have a low density of population in relation to their territorial extension, here we can include countries as Argentina, Chile, Finland, Poland, Sweden, Ukraine.[citation needed] By 2001 the rainforest areas of Brazil were reduced by a fifth (respect of 1970), to around 4,000,000 km2; the ground cleared was mainly destined for cattle pasture—Brazil is the world's largest exporter of beef with almost 200,000,000 head of cattle.[26] The booming Brazilian ethanol economy based upon sugar cane cultivation, is likewise reducing forests area. Canadian forest was reduced by almost 30% to 3,101,340 km2 over the same period.[27] Importance in limiting climate change See also: Land use, land-use change, and forestry and Deforestation and climate change Regarding the problem of climate change, it is known that burning forests increase CO2 in the atmosphere, while intact virgin forest or plantations act as sinks for CO2, for these reasons wood economy fights greenhouse effect. The amount of CO2 absorbed depends on the type of trees, lands and the climate of the place where trees naturally grow or are planted. Moreover, by night plants do not photosynthesize, and produce CO2, eliminated the successive day. Paradoxically in summer oxygen created by photosynthesis in forests near to cities and urban parks, interacts with urban air pollution (from cars, etc.) and is transformed by solar beams in ozone (molecule of three oxygen atoms), that while in high atmosphere constitutes a filter against ultraviolet beams, in the low atmosphere is a pollutant, able to provoke respiratory disturbances.[28][29] In a low-carbon economy, forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil-based carbon reserves too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations to maximize output.[30] Production by country In Australia Eucalyptus: these are seven hundred tree species from Australia, that grow very fast in tropical, sub-tropical and semi-arid climates, and are very resistant to forest fires (with their tree cortex) and drought. Its essential oil is used in pharmacology, its wood for building, and the small branches as firewood and pulpwood.[citation needed] In Brazil Brazil has a long tradition in the harvesting of several types of trees with specific uses. Since the 1960s, imported species of pine tree and eucalyptus have been grown mostly for the plywood and paper pulp industries. Currently high-level research is being conducted, to apply the enzymes of sugar cane fermentation to cellulose in wood, to obtain methanol, but the cost is much higher when compared with ethanol derived from corn costs.[31] Brazilwood: has a dense, orange-red heartwood that takes a high red shine (brasa=ember), and it is the premier wood used for making bows for string instruments from the violin family. These trees soon became the biggest source of red dye, and they were such a large part of the economy and export of that country, that slowly it was known as Brazil.[32] Hevea brasiliensis: is the biggest source of the best latex, that is used to manufacture many objects in rubber, as an example gloves, condoms, anti-allergic mattresses and tires (vulcanized rubber). Latex has the ability to adjust to the exact shape of the body part, an advantage over polyurethane or polyethylene gloves.[citation needed] In Canada and the US There is a close relation in the forestry economy between these countries; they have many tree genera in common, and Canada is the main producer of wood and wooden items destined to the US, the biggest consumer of wood and its byproducts in the world. The water systems of the Great Lakes, Erie Canal, Hudson River and Saint Lawrence Seaway to the east coast and the Mississippi River to the central plains and Louisiana allows transportation of logs at very low costs. On the west coast, the basin of the Columbia River has plenty of forests with excellent timber.[citation needed] Canada The agency Canada Wood Council calculates that in the year 2005 in Canada, the forest sector employed 930,000 workers (1 job in every 17), making around $108 billion of value in goods and services. For many years products derived from trees in Canadian forests had been the most important export items of the country. In 2011, exports around the world totaled some $64.3 billion – the single largest contributor to Canadian trade balance.[27][33][better source needed] Canada is the world leader in sustainable forest management practices. Only 120,000,000 hectares (1,200,000 km2; 463,320 sq mi) (28% of Canadian forests) are currently managed for timber production while an estimated 32,000,000 hectares (320,000 km2; 123,550 sq mi) are protected from harvesting by the current legislation.[34][better source needed] The Canadian timber industry has led to environmental conflict with Indigenous people protecting their land from logging. For example, the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation set up the Grassy Narrows road blockade for twenty years beginning in 2002 to prevent clearcutting of their land.[35][36] United States Logging in Oregon Cherry: a hardwood prized for its high quality in grain, width, color, and rich warm glow.[37] The first trees were carried to the lands surrounding Rome (Latium) from Armenia.[38] In the United States, most cherry trees are grown in Washington, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, California and Oregon.[39] Cedar: this genus is a group of conifers of the family Pinaceae, originating from high mountain areas from the Carpathians, Lebanon and Turkey to the Himalayas. Their scented wood make them suitable for chests and closet lining. Cedar oil and wood is known to be a natural repellent to moths.[40] Actually are planted in western and southern US, mostly for ornamental purposes, but also for the production of pencils (specially incense-cedar).[citation needed] Douglas fir: a native tree of the United States west coast and Mountain States, with records in fast growth and high statures in brief time. The coast Douglas fir grows in coastal regions up to altitudes of about 1,800 meters; the Rocky Mountain Douglas fir grows farther inland, at altitudes ranging from 800 m to 3,000 m or higher. The wood is used for construction, for homebuilt aircraft, for paper pulp, and also as firewood.[citation needed] Hybrid poplar is being investigated by Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee[41][42] for genetic engineering to obtain a tree with a higher content of cellulose and a lower content in lignin, in such a way that the extraction of bioethanol (useful as a fuel) could be easier and less expensive. Walnut: a prized furniture and carving hardwood because of its colour, hardness, grain and durability. Walnut wood has been the timber of choice for gun makers for centuries. It remains one of the most popular choices for rifle and shotgun stocks.[43] In the Caribbean and Central America Mahogany: has a straight grain, usually free of voids and pockets. The most prized species come from Cuba and Honduras. It has a reddish-brown color, which darkens over time, and displays a beautiful reddish sheen when polished. It has excellent workability, is available in big boards, and is very durable. Mahogany is used in the making of many musical instruments, as drums, acoustic and electric guitars' back and side, and luxury headphones.[citation needed] In Europe Italy This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The species that are ideal for the many uses in this type of economy are those employed by arboriculture, that are very well known for their features and the need for certain types of ground and climates. Fraxinus: being a lightweight wood is easy to transport, as firewood burns easily, grows in damp environments like those present in river flooding areas, stands pollution of water and air. Larix: in Italy it grows at high altitudes around mountain tops, its timber stand sudden climatic change, from icy winds to high temperatures in sunny afternoon summers, it is excellent for use in the building of exposed structures as bridges, roofs, etc. Stone pine: "Mediterranean pine" could be the noble emblem of many coastal areas in Italy, originally giant forests of pines extended from the mouth of the Tiber river until Liguria and Provence in France, over soils with high salinity, not very apt for agriculture. Its trees produce a vast amount of dry branches that can be burnt, cones (used for Christmas decoration) and needle-like foliage that can be burnt, or used as mulch. Oils and resins can be used in scents and ointments. The pinoli are useful elements in Italian cooking (along with basil are tritured to make pesto sauce). Currently, "progress" has brought to a severe reduction of this magnificent tree extensions, and in many places cheap beach buildings, car-parking and semi-abandoned areas have taken their place. Poplar: in Italy is the most important species for tree plantations, is used for several purposes as plywood manufacture, packing boxes, paper, matches, etc. It needs good quality grounds with good drainage, but can be used to protect the cultivations if disposed in windbreak lines. More than 70% of Italian poplar cultivations are located in the pianura Padana. Constantly the extension of the cultivation is being reduced, from 650 km2 in the 1980s to current 350 km2. The yield of poplars is about 1,500 t/km2 of wood every year.[44] The production from poplars is around 45–50% of the total Italian wood production.[45] In the history of art poplar was the wood of choice for painting surfaces as panels, as in Renaissance (The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci). Because of this reason, many of the products with the highest added value, extremely expensive, are made with wood from the humble but durable poplar. Because of the presence of tannic acid, poplar cortex was often used in Europe for the tanning of leather. Portugal Oak for cork: are trees with a slow growth, but long life, are cultivated in warm hill areas (min. temp. > −5°Celsius) in all the west area of Mediterranean shores. Cork is popular as a material for bulletin boards. Even if the production as stoppers for wine bottles is diminishing in favor of nylon stoppers, in the sake of energy saving granules of cork can be mixed into concrete. These composites have low thermal conductivity, low density and good energy absorption (earthquake resistant). Some of the property ranges of the composites are density (400–1500 kg/m3), compressive strength (1–26 MPa) and flexural strength (0.5–4.0 MPa).[46] Because of this cork can be used as thermal isolation in buildings (as well in its natural form and as a mixture), useful also as sound insulation. In the shoe industry cork is used for soles and insoles. In the world there are 20,000 km2 of cork oak plantations, and every year are extracted around 300,000 tons of cork, 50% in Portugal, 15,000 in Italy (12,000 in the island of Sardinia). The advantage of this natural industry is that the extraction of cork from layers outer to the cortex does not kill the tree.[citation needed] In Fennoscandia[47] and Russia A sawmill with floating logs in Kotka, Finland In Sweden, Finland and to an extent Norway, much of the land area is forested, and the pulp and paper industry is one of the most significant industrial sectors. Chemical pulping produces an excess of energy, since the organic matter in black liquor, mostly lignin and hemicellulose breakdown products, is burned in the recovery boiler. Thus, these countries have high proportions of renewable energy use (25% in Finland, for instance). Considerable effort is directed towards increasing the value and usage of forest products by companies and by government projects.[citation needed] Scots pine and Norway spruce: These species comprise most of the boreal forest, and together as a softwood mixture they are converted into chemical pulp for paper.[citation needed] Birch is a genus with many species of trees in Scandinavia and Russia, excellent for acid soils. These act as pioneer species in the frozen border between taiga and tundra, and are very resistant to periods of drought and icy conditions. The species Betula nana has been identified as the ideal tree for the acid, nutrient-poor soils of mountain slopes, where these trees can be used to restrain landslides, including in southern Europe. Dissolving pulp is produced from birch. Xylitol can be produced by the hydrogenation of xylose, which is a byproduct of chemical birch pulping.[citation needed] Outputs This section is an excerpt from Forest product.[edit] A forest product is any material derived from forestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such as lumber, paper, or fodder for livestock. Wood, by far the dominant product of forests, is used for many purposes, such as wood fuel (e.g. in form of firewood or charcoal) or the finished structural materials used for the construction of buildings, or as a raw material, in the form of wood pulp, that is used in the production of paper. All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a broad variety of other forest products, are collectively described as non-timber forest products (NTFP).[48][49][50] Non-timber forest products are viewed to have fewer negative effects on forest ecosystem when providing income sources for local community.[51] Globally, about 1.15 billion ha of forest is managed primarily for the production of wood and non-wood forest products. In addition, 749 million is designated for multiple use, which often includes production.[52] Worldwide, the area of forest designated primarily for production has been relatively stable since 1990 but the area of multiple-use forest has decreased by about 71 million ha.[52] Forest Log Piles Combustion Main article: Wood fuel The burning of wood is currently the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass. Wood fuel may be available as firewood (e.g. logs, bolts, blocks), charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets and sawdust. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating through stoves and fireplaces, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. For many centuries many types of traditional ovens were used to benefit from the heat generated by wood combustion. Now, more efficient and clean solutions have been developed: advanced fireplaces (with heat exchangers), wood-fired ovens, wood-burning stoves and pellet stoves, that are able to filter and separate pollutants (centrifuging ashes with rotative filters), thus eliminating many emissions, also allowing to recover a higher quantity of heat that escaped with the chimney fumes.[citation needed] Mean energy density of wood, was calculated at around 6–17 Megajoule/Kilogram, depending on species and moisture content.[citation needed] Combustion of wood is, however, linked to the production of micro-environmental pollutants, as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) (an invisible gas able to provoke irreversible saturation of blood's hemoglobine), as well as nanoparticles.[53] In Italy poplar has been proposed as a tree cultivated to be transformed into biofuels, because of the excellent ratio of energy extracted from its wood because of poplar's fast growing and capture of atmospheric carbon dioxide to the small amount of energy needed to cultivate, cut and transport the trees. Populus x canadensis 'I-214', grows so fast that is able to reach 14 inches (36 cm) in diameter and heights of 100 feet (30 m) in ten years.[citation needed] Charcoal Main article: Charcoal Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen. Charcoal can then be used as a fuel with a higher combustion temperature.[citation needed] Wood gasogen Wood gas generator (gasogen): is a bulky and heavy device (but technically simple) that transforms burning wood in a mix of molecular hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), molecular nitrogen (N2) and water vapor (H2O). This gas mixture, known as "wood gas", "poor gas" or "syngas" is obtained after the combustion of dry wood in a reductive environment (low in oxygen) with a limited amount of atmospheric air, at temperatures of 900° Celsius, and can fuel an internal combustion engine.[54] A car built in the 1940s by Ilario Bandini, with a wood gas generator device. In the time between World War I and World War II included, because of the lack of oil, in many countries, like Italy, France, Great Britain and Sweden, several gasoline-powered cars were modified, with the addition of a wood gas generator (a "gasogen"), a device powered by wood, coal, or burnable waste, able to produce (and purify) gas that immediately, in the same vehicle, could power a slightly modified ICE engine of a standard car (low-compression engine). Carburetor had to be changed with an air-gas mixer). There were several setbacks, as the great reduction of maximum speed and the need to drive using low gears and wisely dosing the amount of air. In modern cars, modified with a wood gas generator, gas emissions (CO, CO2 and NOx) are lower to those of the same vehicle running with gasoline (keeping the same catalytic converter).[citation needed] Methanol Main article: Methanol economy Methanol (the simplest alcohol) behaves as a liquid at 25 °C, is toxic and corrosive, and in organic chemistry basic books is often called "the spirit of wood", since it can be obtained from wood fermentation. Rarely, when unwise wine-makers mix small chunks of wood and leaves with grapes, methanol can be found as a pollutant of the blend of water, ethanol and other substances derived from grape's fermentation.[citation needed] The best way to obtain methanol from wood is through syngas (CO, CO2, H2) produced by the anhydrous pyrolysis of wood, a method discovered by ancient Egyptians.[citation needed] Methanol can be used as an oxygen-rich additive for gasoline. However, it is usually much cheaper to produce methanol from methane or from syngas. Methanol is the most important base material for industrial chemistry, where it is often used to make more complex molecules through reactions of halogenation and chemical addition reaction.[citation needed] Gas turbine Tanks The American M1 Abrams main battle tank is powered by a gas turbine of 1,500 hp (1,100 kW),[55] that it is able to function also with a mix at 50% of wood powder and biodiesel, diesel fuel or kerosene. Its advantages over turbo-diesel engine, are the small size and light weight, the lack of a radiator (which gives an advantage against the effect of gun and cannon shots and missile strikes suffered in battle). A setback is the high fuel consumption, since the turbine engine has not the ability to work at a low revolutions per minute rate, much lower than ideal, and during the march this engine consumes twice as much fuel as a modern turbo-diesel engine with intercooler and direct injection.[citation needed] Construction Main article: Lumber Wood is relatively light in weight, because its specific weight is less than 500 kg/m3, this is an advantage, when compared against 2,000–2,500 kg/m3 for reinforced concrete or 7,800 kg/m3 for steel.[citation needed] Wood is strong, because the efficiency of wood for structural purposes has qualities that are similar to steel.[citation needed] Material E/f Concrete (Rck300, fck 25 M-Pascal) 1250 Structural steel Fe430 (ft = 430 MPa) 480 Glued laminated timber (BS 11 ÷ BS 18) 470 Aluminium (alloy 7020, ft 355 MPa) 200 Bridges, levees, microhydro, piers Wood is used to build bridges (as the Magere bridge in Amsterdam), as well as water and air mills, and microhydro generators for electricity.[citation needed] Housing Hardwood is used as a material in wooden houses, and other structures with a broad range of dimensions. In traditional homes wood is preferred for ceilings, doors, floorings and windows. Wooden frames were traditionally used for home ceilings, but they risk collapse during fires.[citation needed] The development of energy efficient houses including the "passive house" has revamped the importance of wood in construction, because wood provides acoustic and thermal insulation, with much better results than concrete.[citation needed] Earthquake resistant buildings In Japan, ancient buildings, of relatively high elevation, like pagodas, historically had shown to be able to resist earthquakes of high intensity, thanks to the traditional building techniques, employing elastic joints, and to the excellent ability of wooden frames to elastically deform and absorb severe accelerations and compressive shocks.[citation needed] In 2006, Italian scientists from CNR patented[56] a building system that they called "SOFIE",[57] a seven-storey wooden building, 24 meters high, built by the "Istituto per la valorizzazione del legno e delle specie arboree" (Ivalsa) of San Michele all'Adige. In 2007 it was tested with the hardest Japanese antiseismic test for civil structures: the simulation of Kobe's earthquake (7.2 Richter scale), with the building placed over an enormous oscillating platform belonging to the NIED-Institute, located in Tsukuba science park, near the city of Miki in Japan. This Italian project, employed very thin and flexible panels in glued laminated timber, and according to CNR researchers could lead to the construction of much more safe houses in seismic areas.[58] Shipbuilding One of the most enduring materials is the lumber from virginian southern live oak and white oak, specially live oak is 60% stronger than white oak and more resistant to moisture. As an example, the main component in the structure of battle ship USS Constitution, the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat (launched in 1797) is white oak.[59] Woodworking Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making (cabinetry and furniture), wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Millions of people make a livelihood on woodworking projects.[citation needed] See also Autarchy Canada–United States softwood lumber dispute Forest Stewardship Council Low-carbon economy Notes and references "Hardwood Industries – The Pacific Northwest's Source for Hardwood Lumber". Hardwoodind.com. Government of Canada, Foreign Affairs Trade and Development Canada (3 November 2008). "Softwood Lumber". GAC. Scott Bowe (6 June 2012). "Industry Trends and Marketing Strategies for the Hardwood Lumber Industry : Great Lakes Forest, Industry Products, and Resources Summit" (PDF). Sustainabledevelopmentinstitute.org. Retrieved 14 September 2018. "Softwood Lumber, Binational Softwood Lumber Council". Softwoodlumber.org. Roos, Anders; Flinkman, Matti; Jäppinen, Armas; Lönner, Göran; Warensjö, Mats (2001). "Production strategies in the Swedish softwood sawmilling industry". Forest Policy and Economics. 3 (3–4): 189–197. doi:10.1016/S1389-9341(01)00063-6. "FCS". Forests For All Forever. "Timberland REITs | Nareit". www.reit.com. Retrieved 2 September 2019. "America's Largest Private Companies – Industry is Lumber, Wood Production sorted by Rank". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on 4 January 2010. "America's Largest Private Companies: #425 North Pacific Group". Forbes.com. "The World's Top Producers – The Sawmill Database". Sawmilldatabase.com. "Home – Hampton Lumber". Hampton Lumber. "Pfeifer Group • Holzverarbeitung • Export in 90 Länder". Pfeifergroup.com. ESMD, US Census Bureau Classification Development Branch. "US Census Bureau Site North American Industry Classification System main page". Census.gov. Retrieved 12 August 2018. Masterson, Elizabeth A.; Themann, Christa L.; Calvert, Geoffrey M. (January 2018). "Prevalence of hearing loss among noise-exposed workers within the agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting sector, 2003–2012". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 61 (1): 42–50. doi:10.1002/ajim.22792. ISSN 1097-0274. PMC 5905332. PMID 29152771. Masterson, Elizabeth A.; Themann, Christa L.; Luckhaupt, Sara E.; Li, Jia; Calvert, Geoffrey M. (28 January 2016). "Hearing difficulty and tinnitus among U.S. workers and non-workers in 2007". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 59 (4): 290–300. doi:10.1002/ajim.22565. ISSN 0271-3586. PMID 26818136. Pyykkö, I.; Koskimies, K.; Starck, J.; Pekkarinen, J.; Färkkilä, M.; Inaba, R. (July 1989). "Risk factors in the genesis of sensorineural hearing loss in Finnish forestry workers". British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 46 (7): 439–446. doi:10.1136/oem.46.7.439. ISSN 0007-1072. PMC 1009807. PMID 2765417. "NIOSHTIC-2 Publications Search - 20000050 - Criteria for a recommended standard... occupational noise exposure, revised criteria 1998". Cdc.gov. Retrieved 12 August 2018. "Industries at a Glance: Forestry and Logging: NAICS 113". Bls.gov. Retrieved 12 August 2018. Jonathan Watts (24 August 2015). "Dawn timber-laundering raids cast doubt on 'sustainable' Brazilian wood". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 August 2015. "Most of the laundering was reportedly done through the creation of fake or inflated creditos florestais, a document that defines how much timber a landowner is entitled to extract from his property." Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Wood laundering brings illegal Amazon timber to Europe — report | DW | 21.03.2018". DW.COM. Retrieved 11 May 2021. "Adaptation of Forests and Forest Management to Changing Climate with Emphasis on Forest Health: a Review of Science, Policies, and Practices. Umeå, Sweden. August 25–28, 2008". Retrieved 13 May 2017. Tecnologia Dalle Origini al 2000, pag. 18 "The Clacton Spear". Natural History Museum. Archived from the original on 28 October 2014. Retrieved 16 February 2012. "History of Egyptian Furniture". 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009. FAO 1998 Archived 24 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine "Brazil seizes cattle illegally grazing on Amazon forest lands". Retrieved 13 May 2017. "Canadian Forests – Quick Facts". Retrieved 13 May 2017. "Air quality levels in Europe — European Environment Agency". "YourLungHealth.org – The Effects of Ozone Pollution". Trees and their role in carbon management for land and business Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, The Woodland Trust. "Brazzil Mag – Trying to understand Brazil since 1989". "Harvesting wood in Brazil". Retrieved 13 May 2017. "Wood-Works – Program of the Canadian Wood Council". "Canadian Forests Website – Home Page". Turner, Logan (2023). "Grassy Narrows marks 20 years of the blockade protecting its land from logging". CBC. "Resistance recognized: Grassy Narrows' blockade wins award". CBC News. Retrieved 26 November 2017. "Classic American Furniture for the Home and Office from Green Design Furniture". A History of the Vegetable Kingdom – Page 334 Cherry Production National Agricultural Statistics Service, USDA, Retrieved on 19 August 2008. "Cedarwood Oils". "Biofuels from Trees: Renewable Energy Research Branches Out". Graham, R. L.; Walsh, M. E. (1 February 1999). "A National Assessment of Promising Areas for Switchgrass, Hybrid Poplar, or Willow Energy Crop Production". doi:10.2172/5051. OSTI 5051. S2CID 109090412. "Walnut Council—Growing Walnut and Other Fine Hardwoods". "Federlegno – Italian federation of wood producers and industry". Retrieved 13 May 2017. Fonte:http://www.federlegno.it/tool/home.php?s=0,1,29,37,417,1042 Karade SR. 2003. An Investigation of Cork Cement Composites. PhD Thesis. BCUC. Brunel University, UK. Tomlin, Amanda (24 July 2022). "What is Fennoscandia, and where is it?". Routes North. Retrieved 3 January 2023. Belcher, B. M. (1 June 2005). "Forest product markets, forests and poverty reduction" (PDF). International Forestry Review. 7 (2): 82–89. doi:10.1505/ifor.2005.7.2.82. hdl:10170/476. ISSN 1465-5489. S2CID 54083558. Ticktin, T. (2004). "The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products". Journal of Applied Ecology. 41 (1): 11–21. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2004.00859.x. ISSN 1365-2664. Belcher, Brian; Schreckenberg, Kathrin (2007). "Commercialisation of Non-timber Forest Products: A Reality Check" (PDF). Development Policy Review. 25 (3): 355–377. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2007.00374.x. ISSN 1467-7679. S2CID 154953328. Endress, Bryan A.; Gorchov, David L.; Noble, Robert B. (2004). "Non‐timber forest product extraction: effects of harvest and browsing on an understory palm". Ecological Applications. 14 (4): 1139–1153. doi:10.1890/02-5365. JSTOR 4493611. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings. Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. S2CID 130116768. Olivares G, Ström J, Johansson C, Gidhagen L (June 2008). "Estimates of black carbon and size-resolved particle number emission factors from residential wood burning based on ambient monitoring and model simulations". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 58 (6): 838–48. doi:10.3155/1047-3289.58.6.838. PMID 18581814. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Gasogens Report (Original report dated 1944): now in the possession of the University of Wisconsin "AGT1500 Turbine Technology on Honeywell.com" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2017. Girodivite.it. "Girodivite: Terremoti: dal Cnr arriva il palazzo antisismico". PROGETTOSOFIE: Edificio Antisismico in Legno "Dalla ricerca italiana la casa di legno che resiste al terremoto – Il Sole 24 ORE". "HMS Victory Service Life". HMS Victory website. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Bibliography Diamond, Jared. 2005. Collapse. How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-14-303655-6. "Construction of a Simplified Wood Gas Generator for Fueling Internal Combustion Engines in a Petroleum Emergency" External links Fast Growing Trees Forestry Encyclopedia – Forests and Forestry in the Americas Canadian Forests – Quick Facts Canadian Forests – Information Reseources UNECE – FAO – Timber Committee – European Forestry Commission WOODGAS: Biomass Energy Foundation (BEF) website Oldest Wood house at Czech Republic http://www.globalwood.org/ See also Deforestation Forest Products Association of Canada Forest Stewardship Council Hardwood/softwood Illegal logging Lumber industry on the Ottawa River National Hardwood Lumber Association Pulp and paper industry in the United States vte Forestry vte Major industries Natural sector Industrial sector Service sector Information sector Related Category Commons Outline Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata Israel United States Czech Republic Categories: Timber industryForestryIndustries (economics)Agricultural economicsAlternative energy economyLow-carbon economySustainable technologiesResource economics https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_industry EMV Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the amusement ride vehicle, see Enhanced motion vehicle. For the Mexican school, see Escuela Mexicana del Valle. For the Australian agency, see Emergency Management Victoria. An EMV credit card An EMV credit card EMV is a payment method based on a technical standard for smart payment cards and for payment terminals and automated teller machines which can accept them. EMV stands for "Europay, Mastercard, and Visa", the three companies that created the standard.[1] EMV cards are smart cards, also called chip cards, integrated circuit cards, or IC cards, which store their data on integrated circuit chips, in addition to magnetic stripes for backward compatibility. These include cards that must be physically inserted or "dipped" into a reader, as well as contactless cards that can be read over a short distance using near-field communication technology. Payment cards which comply with the EMV standard are often called chip and PIN or chip and signature cards, depending on the authentication methods employed by the card issuer, such as a personal identification number (PIN) or digital signature. Standards exist, based on ISO/IEC 7816, for contact cards, and based on ISO/IEC 14443 for contactless cards (Mastercard Contactless, Visa PayWave, American Express ExpressPay).[2][better source needed] History See also: Payment card and Smart card Until the introduction of Chip & PIN, all face-to-face credit or debit card transactions involved the use of a magnetic stripe or mechanical imprint to read and record account data, and a signature for purposes of identity verification. The customer hands their card to the cashier at the point of sale who then passes the card through a magnetic reader or makes an imprint from the raised text of the card. In the former case, the system verifies account details and prints a slip for the customer to sign. In the case of a mechanical imprint, the transaction details are filled in, a list of stolen numbers is consulted, and the customer signs the imprinted slip. In both cases the cashier must verify that the customer's signature matches that on the back of the card to authenticate the transaction. Using the signature on the card as a verification method has a number of security flaws, the most obvious being the relative ease with which cards may go missing before their legitimate owners can sign them. Another involves the erasure and replacement of legitimate signature, and yet another involves the forgery of the correct signature. The invention of the silicon integrated circuit chip in 1959 led to the idea of incorporating it onto a plastic smart card in the late 1960s by two German engineers, Helmut Gröttrup and Jürgen Dethloff.[3] The earliest smart cards were introduced as calling cards in the 1970s, before later being adapted for use as payment cards.[4][5] Smart cards have since used MOS integrated circuit chips, along with MOS memory technologies such as flash memory and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory).[6] The first standard for smart payment cards was the Carte Bancaire B0M4 from Bull-CP8 deployed in France in 1986, followed by the B4B0' (compatible with the M4) deployed in 1989. Geldkarte in Germany also predates EMV. EMV was designed to allow cards and terminals to be backwardly compatible with these standards. France has since migrated all its card and terminal infrastructure to EMV. EMV stands for Europay, Mastercard, and Visa, the three companies that created the standard. The standard is now managed by EMVCo, a consortium with control split equally among Visa, Mastercard, JCB, American Express, China UnionPay, and Discover.[7] EMVCo accepts public comment on its draft standards and processes, but also allows other organizations to become "Associates" and "Subscribers" for deeper collaboration.[8] JCB joined the consortium in February 2009, China UnionPay in May 2013,[9] and Discover in September 2013.[10] The top vendors of EMV cards and chips are: ABnote (American Bank Corp), CPI Card Group, IDEMIA (from the merger of Oberthur Technologies and Safran Identity & Security (Morpho) in 2017), Gemalto (acquired by the Thales Group in 2019) Giesecke & Devrient and Versatile Card Technology.[11] Differences and benefits There are two major benefits to moving to smart-card-based credit card payment systems: improved security (with associated fraud reduction), and the possibility for finer control of "offline" credit-card transaction approvals. One of the original goals of EMV was to provide for multiple applications on a card: for a credit and debit card application or an e-purse. New issue debit cards in the US[when?] contain two applications — a card association (Visa, Mastercard etc.) application, and a common debit application. The common debit application ID is somewhat of a misnomer as each "common" debit application actually uses the resident card association application.[12] EMV chip card transactions improve security against fraud compared to magnetic stripe card transactions that rely on the holder's signature and visual inspection of the card to check for features such as hologram. The use of a PIN and cryptographic algorithms such as Triple DES, RSA and SHA provide authentication of the card to the processing terminal and the card issuer's host system. The processing time is comparable to online transactions, in which communications delay accounts for the majority of the time, while cryptographic operations at the terminal take comparatively little time. The supposed increased protection from fraud has allowed banks and credit card issuers to push through a "liability shift", such that merchants are now liable (as of 1 January 2005 in the EU region and 1 October 2015 in the US) for any fraud that results from transactions on systems that are not EMV-capable.[1][13][14] The majority of implementations of EMV cards and terminals confirm the identity of the cardholder by requiring the entry of a personal identification number (PIN) rather than signing a paper receipt. Whether or not PIN authentication takes place depends upon the capabilities of the terminal and programming of the card. When credit cards were first introduced, merchants used mechanical rather than magnetic portable card imprinters that required carbon paper to make an imprint. They did not communicate electronically with the card issuer, and the card never left the customer's sight. The merchant had to verify transactions over a certain currency limit by telephoning the card issuer. During the 1970s in the United States, many merchants subscribed to a regularly-updated list of stolen or otherwise invalid credit card numbers. This list was commonly printed in booklet form on newsprint, in numerical order, much like a slender phone book, yet without any data aside from the list of invalid numbers. Checkout cashiers were expected to thumb through this booklet each and every time a credit card was presented for payment of any amount, prior to approving the transaction, which incurred a short delay.[15] Later, equipment electronically contacted the card issuer, using information from the magnetic stripe to verify the card and authorize the transaction. This was much faster than before, but required the transaction to occur in a fixed location. Consequently, if the transaction did not take place near a terminal (in a restaurant, for example) the clerk or waiter had to take the card away from the customer and to the card machine. It was easily possible at any time for a dishonest employee to swipe the card surreptitiously through a cheap machine that instantly recorded the information on the card and stripe; in fact, even at the terminal, a thief could bend down in front of the customer and swipe the card on a hidden reader. This made illegal cloning of cards relatively easy and a more common occurrence than before.[citation needed] Since the introduction of payment card Chip and PIN, cloning of the chip is not feasible; only the magnetic stripe can be copied, and a copied card cannot be used by itself on a terminal requiring a PIN. The introduction of Chip and PIN coincided with wireless data transmission technology becoming inexpensive and widespread. In addition to mobile-phone-based magnetic readers, merchant personnel can now bring wireless PIN pads to the customer, so the card is never out of the cardholder's sight. Thus, both chip-and-PIN and wireless technologies can be used to reduce the risks of unauthorized swiping and card cloning.[16] Chip and PIN vis-à-vis chip and signature Chip and PIN is one of the two verification methods that EMV enabled cards can employ.[15] Rather than physically signing a receipt for identification purposes, the user enters a personal identification number (PIN), typically of four to six digits in length. This number must correspond to the information stored on the chip or PIN at Host. Chip and PIN technology makes it much harder for fraudsters to use a found card, inasmuch as if someone steals a card, they are unable to make fraudulent purchases unless they know the PIN. Chip and signature, on the other hand, differentiates itself from chip and PIN by verifying a consumer's identity with a signature.[17] As of 2015, chip and signature cards are more common in the US, Mexico, parts of South America (such as Argentina, Colombia, Peru) and some Asian countries (such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, South Korea, Singapore, and Indonesia), whereas chip and PIN cards are more common in most European countries (e.g., the UK, Ireland, France, Portugal, Finland and the Netherlands) as well as in Iran, Brazil, Venezuela, India, Sri Lanka, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.[18][19] Online, phone, and mail order transactions While EMV technology has helped reduce crime at the point of sale, fraudulent transactions have shifted to more vulnerable telephone, Internet, and mail order transactions—known in the industry as card-not-present or CNP transactions.[20] CNP transactions made up at least 50% of all credit card fraud.[21] Because of physical distance, it is not possible for the merchant to present a keypad to the customer in these cases, so alternatives have been devised, including Software approaches for online transactions that involve interaction with the card-issuing bank or network's website, such as Verified by Visa and Mastercard SecureCode (implementations of Visa's 3-D Secure protocol). 3-D Secure is now being replaced by Strong Customer Authentication as defined in the European Second Payment Services Directive. Creating a one-time virtual card linked to a physical card with a given maximum amount. Additional hardware with keypad and screen that can produce a one-time password, such as the Chip Authentication Program. Keypad and screen integrated into complex cards to produce a one-time password. Since 2008, Visa has been running pilot projects using the Emue card where the generated number replaces the code printed on the back of standard cards.[22] As for which is faster, The New York Times explained that it's a matter of perception: While the chip method requires that the chip stay in the machine until the transaction and the authorization process is completed, the phone swipe method does the authorization in the background; a receipt starts coming out right away.[23] Commands ISO/IEC 7816-3 defines the transmission protocol between chip cards and readers. Using this protocol, data is exchanged in application protocol data units (APDUs). This comprises sending a command to a card, the card processing it, and sending a response. EMV uses the following commands: application block application unblock card block external authenticate (7816-4) generate application cryptogram get data (7816-4) get processing options internal authenticate (7816-4) PIN change / unblock read record (7816-4) select (7816-4) verify (7816-4). Commands followed by "7816-4" are defined in ISO/IEC 7816-4 and are interindustry commands used for many chip card applications such as GSM SIM cards. Transaction flow An EMV transaction has the following steps:[24][third-party source needed] Application selection Initiate application processing Read application data Processing restrictions Offline data authentication Certificates Cardholder verification Terminal risk management Terminal action analysis First card action analysis Online transaction authorization (only carried out if required by the result of the previous steps; mandatory in ATMs) Second card action analysis Issuer script processing. Application selection ISO/IEC 7816 defines a process for application selection. The intent of application selection was to let cards contain completely different applications—for example GSM and EMV. However, EMV developers implemented application selection as a way of identifying the type of product, so that all product issuers (Visa, Mastercard, etc.) must have their own application. The way application selection is prescribed in EMV is a frequent source of interoperability problems between cards and terminals. Book 1[25] of the EMV standard devotes 15 pages to describing the application selection process. An application identifier (AID) is used to address an application in the card or Host Card Emulation (HCE) if delivered without a card. An AID consists of a registered application provider identifier (RID) of five bytes, which is issued by the ISO/IEC 7816-5 registration authority. This is followed by a proprietary application identifier extension (PIX), which enables the application provider to differentiate among the different applications offered. The AID is printed on all EMV cardholder receipts. Card issuers can alter the application name from the name of the card network. Chase, for example, renames the Visa application on its Visa cards to "CHASE VISA", and the Mastercard application on its Mastercard cards to "CHASE MASTERCARD". Capital One renames the Mastercard application on its Mastercard cards to "CAPITAL ONE", and the Visa application on its Visa cards to "CAPITAL ONE VISA". The applications are otherwise the same.[a] List of applications: Card scheme / payment network RID Product PIX AID Danmønt (Denmark) A000000001 Cash card 1010 A0000000011010 Visa A000000003 Visa credit or debit 1010 A0000000031010 Visa Electron 2010 A0000000032010 V Pay 2020 A0000000032020 Plus 8010 A0000000038010 Mastercard A000000004 Mastercard credit or debit 1010 A0000000041010 Mastercard[26] 9999 A0000000049999 Maestro 3060 A0000000043060 Cirrus ATM card only 6000 A0000000046000 Chip Authentication Program Securecode 8002 A0000000048002 Mastercard A000000005 Maestro UK (formerly Switch) 0001 A0000000050001 American Express A000000025 American Express 01 A00000002501 American Express A000000790 American Express (China debit and credit cards) 01 A00000079001 U.S. Debit (all interbank networks) (USA) A000000098 Visa-branded card 0840 A0000000980840 A000000004 Mastercard-branded card 2203 A0000000042203 A000000152 Discover-branded card 4010 A0000001524010 Menards Credit Card (store card) (USA) A000000817 002001 A000000817002001 LINK ATM network (UK) A000000029 ATM card 1010 A0000000291010 CB (France) A000000042 CB (credit or debit card) 1010 A0000000421010 CB (Debit card only) 2010 A0000000422010 JCB (Japan) A000000065 Japan Credit Bureau 1010 A0000000651010 Dankort (Denmark) A000000121 Dankort 1010 A0000001211010 VisaDankort 4711 A0000001214711 Dankort (J/speedy) 4712 A0000001214712 Consorzio Bancomat (Italy) A000000141 Bancomat/PagoBancomat 0001 A0000001410001 Diners Club/Discover A000000152 Diners Club/Discover 3010 A0000001523010 Banrisul (Brazil) A000000154 Banricompras Debito 4442 A0000001544442 SPAN2 (Saudi Arabia) A000000228 SPAN 1010 A0000002281010 Interac (Canada) A000000277 Debit card 1010 A0000002771010 Discover (USA) A000000324 ZIP 1010 A0000003241010 UnionPay (China) A000000333 Debit 010101 A000000333010101 Credit 010102 A000000333010102 Quasi-credit 010103 A000000333010103 Electronic cash 010106 A000000333010106 DK (Germany) A000000359 Girocard 1010028001 A0000003591010028001 EAPS Bancomat (Italy) A000000359 PagoBancomat 10100380 A00000035910100380 Verve (Nigeria) A000000371 Verve 0001 A0000003710001 The Exchange Network ATM network (Canada/USA) A000000439 ATM card 1010 A0000004391010 RuPay (India) A000000524 RuPay 1010 A0000005241010 Dinube (Spain) A000000630 Dinube Payment Initiation (PSD2) 0101 A0000006300101 MIR (Russia) A000000658 MIR Debit 2010 A0000006582010 MIR Credit 1010 A0000006581010 Edenred (Belgium) A000000436 Ticket Restaurant 0100 A0000004360100 eftpos (Australia) A000000384 Savings (debit card) 10 A00000038410 Cheque (debit card) 20 A00000038420 GIM-UEMOA (Eight West African countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Togo) A000000337 Retrait 01 000001 A000000337301000 Standard 01 000002 A000000337101000 Classic 01 000003 A000000337102000 Prepaye Online 01 000004 A000000337101001 Prepaye Possibile Offline 01 000005 A000000337102001 Porte Monnaie Electronique 01 000006 A000000337601001 meeza (Egypt) A000000732 meeza Card 100123 A000000732100123 Mercury (UAE) A000000529 Mercury Card 1010 A0000005291010 Initiate application processing The terminal sends the get processing options command to the card. When issuing this command, the terminal supplies the card with any data elements requested by the card in the processing options data objects list (PDOL). The PDOL (a list of tags and lengths of data elements) is optionally provided by the card to the terminal during application selection. The card responds with the application interchange profile (AIP), a list of functions to perform in processing the transaction. The card also provides the application file locator (AFL), a list of files and records that the terminal needs to read from the card.[citation needed] Read application data Smart cards store data in files. The AFL contains the files that contain EMV data. These all must be read using the read record command. EMV does not specify which files data is stored in, so all the files must be read. Data in these files is stored in BER TLV format. EMV defines tag values for all data used in card processing.[27] Processing restrictions The purpose of the processing restrictions is to see if the card should be used. Three data elements read in the previous step are checked: Application version number, Application usage control (this shows whether the card is only for domestic use, etc.), Application effective/expiration dates checking.[citation needed] If any of these checks fails, the card is not necessarily declined. The terminal sets the appropriate bit in the terminal verification results (TVR), the components of which form the basis of an accept/decline decision later in the transaction flow. This feature lets, for example, card issuers permit cardholders to keep using expired cards after their expiry date, but for all transactions with an expired card to be performed on-line.[citation needed] Offline data authentication (ODA) Offline data authentication is a cryptographic check to validate the card using public-key cryptography. There are three different processes that can be undertaken depending on the card:[citation needed] Static data authentication (SDA) ensures data read from the card has been signed by the card issuer. This prevents modification of data, but does not prevent cloning. Dynamic data authentication (DDA) provides protection against modification of data and cloning. Combined DDA/generate application cryptogram (CDA) combines DDA with the generation of a card's application cryptogram to assure card validity. Support of CDA in devices may be needed, as this process has been implemented in specific markets. This process is not mandatory in terminals and can only be carried out where both card and terminal support it.[citation needed] EMV certificates To verify the authenticity of payment cards, EMV certificates are used. The EMV Certificate Authority[28] issues digital certificates to payment card issuers. When requested, the payment card chip provides the card issuer's public key certificate and SSAD to the terminal. The terminal retrieves the CA's public key from local storage and uses it to confirm trust for the CA and, if trusted, to verify the card issuer's public key was signed by the CA. If the card issuer's public key is valid, the terminal uses the card issuer's public key to verify the card's SSAD was signed by the card issuer.[29] Cardholder verification Cardholder verification is used to evaluate whether the person presenting the card is the legitimate cardholder. There are many cardholder verification methods (CVMs) supported in EMV. They are[citation needed] Signature Offline plaintext PIN Offline enciphered PIN Offline plaintext PIN and signature Offline enciphered PIN and signature Online PIN No CVM required Consumer Device CVM Fail CVM processing The terminal uses a CVM list read from the card to determine the type of verification to perform. The CVM list establishes a priority of CVMs to use relative to the capabilities of the terminal. Different terminals support different CVMs. ATMs generally support online PIN. POS terminals vary in their CVM support depending on type and country.[citation needed] For offline enciphered PIN methods, the terminal encrypts the cleartext PIN block with the card's public key before sending it to the card with the Verify command. For the online PIN method, the cleartext PIN block is encrypted by the terminal using its point-to-point encryption key before sending it to the acquirer processor in the authorization request message. All offline methods are vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks. In 2017, EMVCo added support for biometric verification methods in version 4.3 of the EMV specifications.[30] Terminal risk management Terminal risk management is only performed in devices where there is a decision to be made whether a transaction should be authorised on-line or offline. If transactions are always carried out on-line (e.g., ATMs) or always off-line, this step can be skipped. Terminal risk management checks the transaction amount against an offline ceiling limit (above which transactions should be processed on-line). It is also possible to have a 1 in an online counter, and a check against a hot card list (which is only necessary for off-line transactions). If the result of any of these tests is positive, the terminal sets the appropriate bit in the terminal verification results (TVR).[31] Terminal action analysis The results of previous processing steps are used to determine whether a transaction should be approved offline, sent online for authorization, or declined offline. This is done using a combination of data objects known as terminal action codes (TACs) held in the terminal and issuer action codes (IACs) read from the card. The TAC is logically OR'd with the IAC, to give the transaction acquirer a level of control over the transaction outcome. Both types of action code take the values Denial, Online, and Default. Each action code contains a series of bits which correspond to the bits in the Terminal verification results (TVR), and are used in the terminal's decision whether to accept, decline or go on-line for a payment transaction. The TAC is set by the card acquirer; in practice card schemes advise the TAC settings that should be used for a particular terminal type depending on its capabilities. The IAC is set by the card issuer; some card issuers may decide that expired cards should be rejected, by setting the appropriate bit in the Denial IAC. Other issuers may want the transaction to proceed on-line so that they can in some cases allow these transactions to be carried out.[32][better source needed] When an online-only device performs IAC-Online and TAC-Online processing the only relevant TVR bit is "Transaction value exceeds the floor limit". Because the floor limit is set to zero, the transaction should always go online and all other values in TAC-Online or IAC-Online are irrelevant. Online-only devices do not need to perform IAC-default processing. An online-only device such as an ATM always attempts to go on-line with the authorization request, unless declined off-line due to IAC-Denial settings. During IAC-Denial and TAC-Denial processing, for an online only device, the only relevant Terminal verification results bit is "Service not allowed".[33] First card action analysis One of the data objects read from the card in the Read application data stage is CDOL1 (Card Data object List). This object is a list of tags that the card wants to be sent to it to make a decision on whether to approve or decline a transaction (including transaction amount, but many other data objects too). The terminal sends this data and requests a cryptogram using the generate application cryptogram command. Depending on the terminal's decision (offline, online, decline), the terminal requests one of the following cryptograms from the card:[citation needed] Transaction certificate (TC)—offline approval Authorization Request Cryptogram (ARQC)—online authorization Application Authentication Cryptogram (AAC)—offline decline This step gives the card the opportunity to accept the terminal's action analysis or to decline a transaction or force a transaction on-line. The card cannot return a TC when an ARQC has been asked for, but can return an ARQC when a TC has been asked for.[33] Online transaction authorization Transactions go online when an ARQC has been requested. The ARQC is sent in the authorisation message. The card generates the ARQC. Its format depends on the card application. EMV does not specify the contents of the ARQC. The ARQC created by the card application is a digital signature of the transaction details, which the card issuer can check in real time. This provides a strong cryptographic check that the card is genuine. The issuer responds to an authorization request with a response code (accepting or declining the transaction), an authorisation response cryptogram (ARPC) and optionally an issuer script (a string of commands to be sent to the card).[33] ARPC processing is not performed in contact transactions processed with Visa Quick Chip[34] for EMV and Mastercard M/Chip Fast,[35] and in contactless transactions across schemes because the card is removed from the reader after the ARQC has been generated. Second card action analysis CDOL2 (Card data object list) contains a list of tags that the card wanted to be sent after online transaction authorisation (response code, ARPC, etc.). Even if for any reason the terminal could not go online (e.g., communication failure), the terminal should send this data to the card again using the generate authorisation cryptogram command. This lets the card know the issuer's response. The card application may then reset offline usage limits. Issuer script processing If a card issuer wants to update a card post issuance it can send commands to the card using issuer script processing. Issuer scripts are meaningless to the terminal and can be encrypted between the card and the issuer to provide additional security. Issuer script can be used to block cards, or change card parameters.[36] Issuer script processing is not available in contact transactions processed with Visa Quick Chip[34] for EMV and Mastercard M/Chip Fast,[35] and for contactless transactions across schemes. EMV chip specification Contact pad for the electrical interface on the front side of a credit card The first version of EMV standard was published in 1995. Now the standard is defined and managed by the privately owned corporation EMVCo LLC. The current members of EMVCo[37] are American Express, Discover Financial, JCB International, Mastercard, China UnionPay, and Visa Inc. Each of these organizations owns an equal share of EMVCo and has representatives in the EMVCo organization and EMVCo working groups. Recognition of compliance with the EMV standard (i.e., device certification) is issued by EMVCo following submission of results of testing performed by an accredited testing house.[citation needed] EMV Compliance testing has two levels: EMV Level 1, which covers physical, electrical and transport level interfaces, and EMV Level 2, which covers payment application selection and credit financial transaction processing.[citation needed] After passing common EMVCo tests, the software must be certified by payment brands to comply with proprietary EMV implementations such as Visa VSDC, American Express AEIPS, Mastercard MChip, JCB JSmart, or EMV-compliant implementations of non-EMVCo members such as LINK in the UK, or Interac in Canada.[citation needed] List of EMV documents and standards This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2020) As of 2011, since version 4.0, the official EMV standard documents which define all the components in an EMV payment system are published as four "books" and some additional documents: Book 1: Application Independent ICC to Terminal Interface Requirements[25] Book 2: Security and Key Management[38] Book 3: Application Specification[39] Book 4: Cardholder, Attendant, and Acquirer Interface Requirements[40] Common Payment Application Specification[41] EMV Card Personalisation Specification[42] Versions The first EMV standard came into view in 1995 as EMV 2.0. This was upgraded to EMV 3.0 in 1996 (sometimes referred to as EMV '96) with later amendments to EMV 3.1.1 in 1998. This was further amended to version 4.0 in December 2000 (sometimes referred to as EMV 2000). Version 4.0 became effective in June 2004. Version 4.1 became effective in June 2007. Version 4.2 is in effect since June 2008. Version 4.3 is in effect since November 2011.[43] Vulnerabilities Opportunities to harvest PINs and clone magnetic stripes In addition to the track-two data on the magnetic stripe, EMV cards generally have identical data encoded on the chip, which is read as part of the normal EMV transaction process. If an EMV reader is compromised to the extent that the conversation between the card and the terminal is intercepted, then the attacker may be able to recover both the track-two data and the PIN, allowing construction of a magnetic stripe card, which, while not usable in a Chip and PIN terminal, can be used, for example, in terminal devices that permit fallback to magstripe processing for foreign customers without chip cards, and defective cards. This attack is possible only where (a) the offline PIN is presented in plaintext by the PIN entry device to the card, where (b) magstripe fallback is permitted by the card issuer and (c) where geographic and behavioural checking may not be carried out by the card issuer.[citation needed] APACS, representing the UK payment industry, claimed that changes specified to the protocol (where card verification values differ between the magnetic stripe and the chip – the iCVV) rendered this attack ineffective and that such measures would be in place from January 2008.[44] Tests on cards in February 2008 indicated this may have been delayed.[45] Successful attacks Conversation capturing is a form of attack which was reported to have taken place against Shell terminals in May 2006, when they were forced to disable all EMV authentication in their filling stations after more than £1 million was stolen from customers.[46] In October 2008, it was reported that hundreds of EMV card readers for use in Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Belgium had been expertly tampered with in China during or shortly after manufacture. For 9 months details and PINs of credit and debit cards were sent over mobile phone networks to criminals in Lahore, Pakistan. United States National Counterintelligence Executive Joel Brenner said, "Previously only a nation state's intelligence agency would have been capable of pulling off this type of operation. It's scary." Data were typically used a couple of months after the card transactions to make it harder for investigators to pin down the vulnerability. After the fraud was discovered it was found that tampered-with terminals could be identified as the additional circuitry increased their weight by about 100 g. Tens of millions of pounds sterling are believed to have been stolen.[47] This vulnerability spurred efforts to implement better control of electronic POS devices over their entire life cycle, a practice endorsed by electronic payment security standards like those being developed by the Secure POS Vendor Alliance (SPVA).[48] PIN harvesting and stripe cloning In a February 2008 BBC Newsnight programme Cambridge University researchers Steven Murdoch and Saar Drimer demonstrated one example attack, to illustrate that Chip and PIN is not secure enough to justify passing the liability to prove fraud from the banks onto customers.[49][50] The Cambridge University exploit allowed the experimenters to obtain both card data to create a magnetic stripe and the PIN. APACS, the UK payments association, disagreed with the majority of the report, saying "The types of attack on PIN entry devices detailed in this report are difficult to undertake and not currently economically viable for a fraudster to carry out."[51] They also said that changes to the protocol (specifying different card verification values between the chip and magnetic stripe – the iCVV) would make this attack ineffective from January 2008. The fraud reported in October 2008 to have operated for 9 months (see above) was probably in operation at the time, but was not discovered for many months. In August 2016, NCR Corporation security researchers showed how credit card thieves can rewrite the code of a magnetic strip to make it appear like a chipless card, which allows for counterfeiting.[citation needed] 2010: Hidden hardware disables PIN checking on stolen card Wikinews has related news: Chip and PIN 'not fit for purpose', says Cambridge researcher On 11 February 2010 Murdoch and Drimer's team at Cambridge University announced that they had found "a flaw in chip and PIN so serious they think it shows that the whole system needs a re-write" that was "so simple that it shocked them". A stolen card is connected to an electronic circuit and to a fake card which is inserted into the terminal ("man-in-the-middle attack"). Any four digits can be typed in and accepted as a valid PIN.[52][53] A team from the BBC's Newsnight programme visited a Cambridge University cafeteria (with permission) with the system, and were able to pay using their own cards (a thief would use stolen cards) connected to the circuit, inserting a fake card and typing in "0000" as the PIN. The transactions were registered as normal, and were not picked up by banks' security systems. A member of the research team said, "Even small-scale criminal systems have better equipment than we have. The amount of technical sophistication needed to carry out this attack is really quite low." The announcement of the vulnerability said, "The expertise that is required is not high (undergraduate level electronics) ... We dispute the assertion by the banking industry that criminals are not sophisticated enough, because they have already demonstrated a far higher level of skill than is necessary for this attack in their miniaturized PIN entry device skimmers." It was not known if this vulnerability had been exploited, but it could explain unresolved cases of claimed fraud.[53] EMVCo disagreed and published a response saying that, while such an attack might be theoretically possible, it would be extremely difficult and expensive to carry out successfully, that current compensating controls are likely to detect or limit the fraud, and that the possible financial gain from the attack is minimal while the risk of a declined transaction or exposure of the fraudster is significant.[54] The Cambridge team disagrees: they carried it out without the banks noticing, with off-the-shelf equipment with some non-sophisticated additions. Less bulky versions could easily be made. The ones producing such equipment for the attack need not put themselves at risk, but can sell it to anybody via the net.[53] When approached for comment, several banks (Co-operative Bank, Barclays and HSBC) each said that this was an industry-wide issue, and referred the Newsnight team to the banking trade association for further comment.[55] According to Phil Jones of the Consumers' Association, Chip and PIN has helped to bring down instances of card crime, but many cases remain unexplained. "What we do know is that we do have cases that are brought forward from individuals which seem quite persuasive."[citation needed] The attack uses the fact that the choice of authentication method is unauthenticated, which allows the man in the middle. The terminal asks for a PIN, gets it and gets the transaction confirmed by the card – which thinks it is doing a card-and-signature transaction, which could indeed success offline. It works also online, perhaps because of insufficient checks.[56] Originally, bank customers had to prove that they had not been negligent with their PIN before getting redress, but UK regulations in force from 1 November 2009 placed the onus firmly on the banks to prove that a customer has been negligent in any dispute, with the customer given 13 months to make a claim.[57] Murdoch said that "[the banks] should look back at previous transactions where the customer said their PIN had not been used and the bank record showed it has, and consider refunding these customers because it could be they are victim of this type of fraud."[53] 2011: CVM downgrade allows arbitrary PIN harvest At the CanSecWest conference in March 2011, Andrea Barisani and Daniele Bianco presented research uncovering a vulnerability in EMV that would allow arbitrary PIN harvesting despite the cardholder verification configuration of the card, even when the supported CVMs data is signed.[58] The PIN harvesting can be performed with a chip skimmer. In essence, a CVM list that has been modified to downgrade the CVM to Offline PIN is still honoured by POS terminals, despite its signature being invalid.[59] PIN bypass In 2020, researchers David Basin, Ralf Sasse, and Jorge Toro from ETH Zurich reported[60][61] a critical security issue affecting Visa contactless cards: lack of cryptographic protection of critical data sent by the card to the terminal during an EMV transaction. The data in question determines the cardholder verification method (CVM, such as PIN verification) to be used for the transaction. The team demonstrated that it is possible to modify this data to trick the terminal into believing that no PIN is required because the cardholder was verified using their device (e.g. smartphone). The researchers developed a proof-of-concept Android app that effectively turns a physical Visa card into a mobile payment app (e.g. Apple Pay, Google Pay) to perform PIN-free, high-value purchases. The attack is carried out using two NFC-enabled smartphones, one held near the physical card and the second held near the payment terminal. The attack might affect cards by Discover and China's UnionPay but this was not demonstrated in practice, in contrast to Visa cards. In early 2021, the same team disclosed that Mastercard cards are also vulnerable to a PIN bypass attack. They showed that criminals can trick a terminal into transacting with a Mastercard contactless card while believing it to be a Visa card. This card brand mixup has critical consequences since it can be used in combination with the PIN bypass for Visa to also bypass the PIN for Mastercard cards.[61] "Complex systems such as EMV must be analyzed by automated tools, like model checkers[61]", researchers point out as the main takeaway of their findings. As opposed to humans, model-checking tools like Tamarin are up to the task since they can deal with the complexity of real-world systems like EMV.[citation needed] Implementation EMV stands for "Europay, Mastercard, and Visa", the three companies that created the standard. The standard is now managed by EMVCo, a consortium of financial companies. [1] Additional widely known chips of the EMV standard are: AEIPS: American Express UICS: China Union Pay J Smart: JCB D-PAS: Discover/Diners Club International Rupay: NPCI Verve Visa and Mastercard have also developed standards for using EMV cards in devices to support card not present transactions (CNP) over the telephone and Internet. Mastercard has the Chip Authentication Program (CAP) for secure e-commerce. Its implementation is known as EMV-CAP and supports a number of modes. Visa has the Dynamic Passcode Authentication (DPA) scheme, which is their implementation of CAP using different default values. In many countries of the world, debit card and/or credit card payment networks have implemented liability shifts.[citation needed] Normally, the card issuer is liable for fraudulent transactions. However, after a liability shift is implemented, if the ATM or merchant's point of sale terminal does not support EMV, the ATM owner or merchant is liable for the fraudulent transaction. Chip and PIN systems can cause problems for travellers from countries that do not issue Chip and PIN cards as some retailers may refuse to accept their chipless cards.[62] While most terminals still accept a magnetic strip card, and the major credit card brands require vendors to accept them,[63] some staff may refuse to take the card, under the belief that they are held liable for any fraud if the card cannot verify a PIN. Non-chip-and-PIN cards may also not work in some unattended vending machines at, for example, train stations, or self-service check-out tills at supermarkets.[64] Africa Mastercard's liability shift among countries within this region took place on 1 January 2006.[65] By 1 October 2010, a liability shift had occurred for all point of sale transactions.[66] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 January 2006. For ATMs, the liability shift took place on 1 January 2008.[67] South Africa Mastercard's liability shift took place on 1 January 2005.[65] Asian and Pacific countries Mastercard's liability shift among countries within this region took place on 1 January 2006.[65] By 1 October 2010, a liability shift had occurred for all point of sale transactions, except for domestic transactions in China and Japan.[66] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 October 2010.[67] For ATMs, the liability shift date took place on 1 October 2015, except in China, India, Japan, and Thailand, where the liability shift was on 1 October 2017.[68] Domestic ATM transactions in China are not currently not subject to a liability shift deadline. Australia Mastercard required that all point of sale terminals be EMV capable by April 2013. For ATMs, the liability shift took place in April 2012. ATMs must be EMV compliant by the end of 2015.[69] Visa's liability shift for ATMs took place 1 April 2013.[67] Malaysia Malaysia is the first country in the world to completely migrate to EMV-compliant smart cards two years after its implementation in 2005.[70][71] New Zealand Mastercard required all point of sale terminals to be EMV compliant by 1 July 2011. For ATMs, the liability shift took place in April 2012. ATMs are required to be EMV compliant by the end of 2015.[69] Visa's liability shift for ATMs was 1 April 2013.[67] Europe Mastercard's liability shift took place on 1 January 2005.[65] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 January 2006. For ATMs, the liability shift took place on 1 January 2008.[67] France has cut card fraud by more than 80% since its introduction in 1992 (see Carte Bleue). United Kingdom Green rectangle containing a row of four white asterisks in black squares; the outline of a hand points to and obscures the second asterisk. Chip and PIN UK logo Chip and PIN was trialled in Northampton, England from May 2003,[72] and as a result was rolled out nationwide in the United Kingdom on 14 February 2006[73] with advertisements in the press and national television touting the "Safety in Numbers" slogan. During the first stages of deployment, if a fraudulent magnetic swipe card transaction was deemed to have occurred, the retailer was refunded by the issuing bank, as was the case prior to the introduction of Chip and PIN. On January 1, 2005, the liability for such transactions was shifted to the retailer; this acted as an incentive for retailers to upgrade their point of sale (PoS) systems, and most major high-street chains upgraded on time for the EMV deadline. Many smaller businesses were initially reluctant to upgrade their equipment, as it required a completely new PoS system—a significant investment. New cards featuring both magnetic strips and chips are now issued by all major banks. The replacement of pre-Chip and PIN cards was a major issue, as banks simply stated that consumers would receive their new cards "when their old card expires" — despite many people having had cards with expiry dates as late as 2007. The card issuer Switch lost a major contract with HBOS to Visa, as they were not ready to issue the new cards as early as the bank wanted. The Chip and PIN implementation was criticised as designed to reduce the liability of banks in cases of claimed card fraud by requiring the customer to prove that they had acted "with reasonable care" to protect their PIN and card, rather than on the bank having to prove that the signature matched. Before Chip and PIN, if a customer's signature was forged, the banks were legally liable and had to reimburse the customer. Until 1 November 2009 there was no such law protecting consumers from fraudulent use of their Chip and PIN transactions, only the voluntary Banking Code. There were many reports that banks refused to reimburse victims of fraudulent card use, claiming that their systems could not fail under the circumstances reported, despite several documented successful large-scale attacks.[citation needed] The Payment Services Regulations 2009 came into force on 1 November 2009[74] and shifted the onus onto the banks to prove, rather than assume, that the cardholder is at fault.[57] The Financial Services Authority (FSA) said "It is for the bank, building society or credit card company to show that the transaction was made by you, and there was no breakdown in procedures or technical difficulty" before refusing liability. Latin America and the Caribbean Mastercard's liability shift among countries within this region took place on 1 January 2005.[65] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 October 2012, for any countries in this region that had not already implemented a liability shift. For ATMs, the liability shift took place on 1 October 2014, for any countries in this region that had not already implemented a liability shift.[67] Brazil Mastercard's liability shift took place on 1 March 2008.[65] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 April 2011. For ATMs, the liability shift took place on 1 October 2012.[67] Colombia Mastercard's liability shift took place on 1 October 2008.[65] Mexico Discover implemented a liability shift on 1 October 2015. For pay at the pump at gas stations, the liability shift was on 1 October 2017.[75] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 April 2011. For ATMs, the liability shift took place on 1 October 2012.[67] Venezuela Mastercard's liability shift took place on 1 July 2009.[65] Middle East Mastercard's liability shift among countries within this region took place on 1 January 2006.[65] By 1 October 2010, a liability shift had occurred for all point of sale transactions.[66] Visa's liability shift for points of sale took place on 1 January 2006. For ATMs, the liability shift took place on 1 January 2008.[67] North America Canada American Express implemented a liability shift on 31 October 2012.[1][76] Discover implemented a liability shift on 1 October 2015 for all transactions except pay-at-the-pump at gas stations; those transactions shifted on 1 October 2017.[75][third-party source needed] Interac (Canada's debit card network) stopped processing non-EMV transactions at ATMs on 31 December 2012, and mandated EMV transactions at point-of-sale terminals on 30 September 2016, with a liability shift taking place on 31 December 2015.[77][failed verification][third-party source needed] Mastercard implemented domestic transaction liability shift on 31 March 2011, and international liability shift on 15 April 2011. For pay at the pump at gas stations, the liability shift was implemented 31 December 2012.[76] Visa implemented domestic transaction liability shift on 31 March 2011, and international liability shift on 31 October 2010. For pay at the pump at gas stations, the liability shift was implemented 31 December 2012.[76] Over a five-year period post-EMV migration, domestic card-card present fraudulent transactions significantly reduced in Canada. According to Helcim's reports, card-present domestic debit card fraud reduced 89.49% and credit card fraud 68.37%.[1][78] United States After widespread identity theft due to weak security in the point-of-sale terminals at Target, Home Depot, and other major retailers, Visa, Mastercard and Discover[79] in March 2012 – and American Express[80] in June 2012 – announced their EMV migration plans for the United States.[81] Since the announcement, multiple banks and card issuers have announced cards with EMV chip-and-signature technology, including American Express, Bank of America, Citibank, Wells Fargo,[82] JPMorgan Chase, U.S. Bank, and several credit unions. In 2010, a number of companies began issuing pre-paid debit cards that incorporate Chip and PIN and allow Americans to load cash as euros or pound sterling.[83][1] United Nations Federal Credit Union was the first United States issuer to offer Chip and PIN credit cards.[84] In May 2010, a press release from Gemalto (a global EMV card producer) indicated that United Nations Federal Credit Union in New York would become the first EMV card issuer in the United States, offering an EMV Visa credit card to its customers.[85] JPMorgan was the first major bank to introduce a card with EMV technology, namely its Palladium card, in mid-2012.[86] As of April 2016, 70% of U.S. consumers had EMV cards and as of December 2016 roughly 50% of merchants were EMV compliant.[87][88] However, deployment has been slow and inconsistent across vendors. Even merchants with EMV hardware may not be able to process chip transactions due to software or compliance deficiencies.[89] Bloomberg has also cited issues with software deployment, including changes to audio prompts for Verifone machines which can take several months to release and deploy software out. Industry experts, however, expect more standardization in the United States for software deployment and standards. Visa and Mastercard have both implemented standards to speed up chip transactions with a goal of reducing the time for these to be under three seconds. These systems are labelled as Visa Quick Chip and Mastercard M/Chip Fast.[90] American Express implemented liability shift for point of sale terminals on 1 October 2015.[91][promotional source?] For pay at the pump, at gas stations, the liability shift was 16 April 2021. This was extended from 1 October 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[92] Discover implemented liability shift on 1 October 2015. For pay at the pump, at gas stations, the liability shift was 1 October 2020.[75] Maestro implemented liability shift of 19 April 2013, for international cards used in the United States.[93] Mastercard implemented liability shift for point of sale terminals on 1 October 2015.[91] For pay at the pump, at gas stations, the liability shift formally was on 1 October 2020.[94] For ATMs, the liability shift date was on 1 October 2016.[95][96] Visa implemented liability shift for point of sale terminals on 1 October 2015. For pay at the pump, at gas stations, the liability shift formally was on 1 October 2020.[94][97] For ATMs, the liability shift date was on 1 October 2017.[68][1] Notes These application names are not found on the Apple Pay versions of these cards. Instead, they retain the original network name. See also Contactless payment Supply chain attack Two-factor authentication MM code References Stacy Cowley (23 September 2015). 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"SB CPA Specification v1 Plus Bulletins" (PDF). EMVCo. 1 March 2008. Retrieved 20 September 2018. "EMV® Card Personalization Specification" (PDF). EMVCo. 1 July 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2018. "Integrated Circuit Card Specifications for Payment Systems". EMVCo. Retrieved 26 March 2012. "How secure is Chip and PIN?". BBC Newsnight. 26 February 2008. Saar Drimer; Steven J. Murdoch; Ross Anderson. "PIN Entry Device (PED) vulnerabilities". University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. Retrieved 10 May 2015. "Petrol firm suspends chip-and-pin". BBC News. 6 May 2006. Retrieved 13 March 2015. "Organized crime tampers with European card swipe devices". The Register. 10 October 2008. "Technical Working Groups, Secure POS Vendor Alliance". 2009. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. "Is Chip and Pin really secure?". BBC News. 26 February 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010. "Chip and pin". 6 February 2007. Archived from the original on 5 July 2007. John Leyden (27 February 2008). "Paper clip attack skewers Chip and PIN". The Channel. Retrieved 10 May 2015. Steven J. Murdoch; Saar Drimer; Ross Anderson; Mike Bond. "EMV PIN verification "wedge" vulnerability". Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 12 February 2010. Susan Watts (11 February 2010). "New flaws in chip and pin system revealed". BBC News. Retrieved 12 February 2010. "Response from EMVCo to the Cambridge University Report on Chip and PIN vulnerabilities ('Chip and PIN is Broken' – February 2010)" (PDF). EMVCo. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2010. Retrieved 26 March 2010. Susan, Watts. "New flaws in chip and pin system revealed (11 February 2010)". Newsnight. BBC. Retrieved 9 December 2015. Ross Anderson (11 February 2010). "Chip and PIN is broken". "It's no surprise to us or bankers that this attack works offline [...] the real shocker is that it works online too" Richard Evans (15 October 2009). "Card fraud: banks now have to prove your guilt". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 21 October 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2015. Andrea Barisani; Daniele Bianco; Adam Laurie; Zac Franken (2011). "Chip & PIN is definitely broken" (PDF). Aperture Labs. Retrieved 10 May 2015. Adam Laurie; Zac Franken; Andrea Barisani; Daniele Bianco. "EMV – Chip & Pin CVM Downgrade Attack". Aperture Labs and Inverse Path. Retrieved 10 May 2015. D. Basin, R. Sasse, J. Toro-Pozo (2020). "The EMV Standard: Break, Fix, Verify". 2021 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP): 1766–1781. arXiv:2006.08249. "The EMV Standard: Break, Fix, Verify". "US credit cards outdated, less useful abroad, as 'Chip and PIN' cards catch on". creditcards.com.[permanent dead link] "Visa Australia". visa-asia.com. Higgins, Michelle (29 September 2009). "For Americans, Plastic Buys Less Abroad". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 April 2017. "Chargeback Guide" (PDF). MasterCard Worldwide. 3 November 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2015. "Operating Regulations" (PDF). Visa International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2013. "The Journey To Dynamic Data". Visa. Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. "Visa Expands U.S. Roadmap for EMV Chip Adoption to Include ATM and a Common Debit Solution" (Press release). Foster City, Calif.: Visa. 4 February 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2015. "MasterCard Announces Five Year Plan to Change the Face of the Payments Industry in Australia". Mastercard Australia. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. "Malaysia first to complete chip-based card migration". The Star Online. "US learns from Malaysia, 10 years later". The Rakyat Post. 14 October 2015. "Anti-fraud credit cards on trial". BBC Business News. 11 April 2003. Retrieved 27 May 2015. The UK Cards Association. "The chip and PIN guide" (PDF). Retrieved 27 May 2015. Foundation, Internet Memory. "[ARCHIVED CONTENT] UK Government Web Archive – The National Archives". Archived from the original on 12 November 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2017. "Discover to enforce EMV liability shift by 2015" (Press release). Finextra Research. 12 November 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2015. "Chip Liability Shift". globalpayments. Archived from the original on 30 July 2013. "Interac - For Merchants". Retrieved 17 April 2017. "EMV Reduces Card-Present Fraud in Canada (Infographic) - The Official Helcim™ Blog". Retrieved 17 April 2017. "Discover Implements EMV Mandate for U.S., Canada and Mexico". Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. "American Express Announces U.S. EMV Roadmap to Advance Contact, Contactless and Mobile Payments" (Press release). New York: American Express. 29 June 2012. Archived from the original on 10 May 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015. "EMV's Uncertain Fate in the US". Protean Payment. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2012. Camhi, Jonathan (3 August 2012). "Wells Fargo Introduces New EMV Card for Consumers". Bank Systems & Technology. Archived from the original on 5 June 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2015. "Travelex Offers America's First Chip & PIN Enabled Prepaid Foreign Currency Card". Business Wire. Business Wire. 1 December 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2014. "UNFCU to be first issuer in the US to offer credit cards with a high security chip". United Nations Federal Credit Union. Ray Wizbowski (13 May 2010). "United Nations Federal Credit Union Selects Gemalto for First U.S. Issued Globally Compliant Payment Card" (Press release). Austin, Texas: Gemalto. Retrieved 10 May 2015. Paul Riegler (25 July 2013). "Chip-and-Pin and Chip-and-Signature Credit Card Primer for 2013". Frequent Business Traveler. Retrieved 10 May 2015. Goldman, Sharon (20 March 2017). "Is the rocky road to EMV retail adoption getting smoother?". CIO magazine. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017. "EMV Credit Cards Poll". "Retailers have chip card readers -- why aren't they using them?". Retrieved 22 November 2017. 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External links Official website BBC: What's inside a bank card, November 2022 vte Credit, charge and debit cards Major cards American Express Mastercard Debit Maestro Mondex Cirrus Visa Debit Electron Cash Plus Regional and specialty cards Bancomat BC Card BCA Card Cabcharge Carte Bleue (CB) Dankort Discover Diners Club Pulse EFTPOS Electronic Payment Services (EPS) Elo European Payments Initiative (EPI) Forbrugsforeningen Girocard Isracard JCB Mir MEPS Meeza NETS PayPak RuPay Troy UnionPay UATP V Pay Verve Defunct cards Access Bankcard Carte Blanche Carte Bleue Chipknip Choice enRoute Eurocard Everything Laser Rail Travel Card Revolution Card Solo Switch PIN Proton Accounts Payment card number Card association Card enclosure Credit card balance transfer Credit limit Installment loan Revolving account Deposit account Current/checking account Savings account ATM card Fees Debt Cash advance Charge-off Interest Grace period Introductory rate Universal default Payment Card not present transaction Chargeback Controlled payment number Dispute Interchange Fee Surcharge Card scheme Network Cirrus Interac Pulse Plus Security Card security code Chargeback fraud Credit card fraud Credit card hijacking Technology Automated teller machine Contactless payment Credit card imprinter EMV Hardware security module Interbank network Magnetic stripe card Payment terminal Personal identification number Secure cryptoprocessor Smart card Banking Issuing bank Acquiring bank Categories: EMVGerman inventionsFrench inventions1986 introductions https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMV Textile industry Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Rag trade" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Rag Trade (horse). For the television series, see The Rag Trade. This article is about the production of fibres and fabric. For the production of apparel, clothing and garments, see Clothing industry. An old textile factory ("Cvernovka") in Bratislava, Slovakia (1901-2004). Textile factory (Germany, c. 1975). The textile industry is primarily concerned with the design, production and distribution of textiles: yarn, cloth and clothing. The raw material may be natural, or synthetic using products of the chemical industry. Industry process Main article: Textile manufacturing Cotton manufacturing Cotton manufacturing processes FCIcon odo.svg Bale breaker Blowing room FCIcon orh.svg FCIcon h.svg FCIcon h1o.svg Willowing FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Breaker scutcher Batting FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Finishing scutcher Lapping Teasing FCIcon ozh.svg FCIcon A.svg FCIcon h2o.svg Carding Carding room FCIcon orh.svg FCIcon h.svg FCIcon h1o.svg Sliver lap FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Combing FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ozh.svg FCIcon A.svg FCIcon h2o.svg Drawing FCIcon ovo.svg Slubbing FCIcon ovo.svg Intermediate FCIcon ovo.svg Roving FCIcon h.svg Fine roving FCIcon orh.svg FCIcon h.svg FCIcon hzo.svg Mule spinning Ring spinning Spinning FCIcon ozh.svg FCIcon A.svg FCIcon h2o.svg FCIcon orh.svg FCIcon h.svg FCIcon hrh.svg FCIcon h.svg FCIcon h1o.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Reeling FCIcon a.svg Doubling FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Winding Bundling Bleaching FCIcon orh.svg FCIcon h.svg FCIcon 1vo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Weaving shed FCIcon vvo.svg Winding FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon vvo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Beaming FCIcon vvo.svg Cabling FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon vvo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Warping FCIcon vvo.svg Gassing FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon vvo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Sizing/slashing/dressing FCIcon vvo.svg Spooling FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon vvo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg Weaving FCIcon vvo.svg FCIcon ovo.svg FCIcon odo.svg FCIcon ddo.svg FCIcon odo.svg Cloth Yarn (cheese) Bundle Sewing thread Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries.[1] There are five stages of cotton manufacturing:[2] Cultivating and Harvesting Preparatory Processes Spinning — giving yarn Weaving — giving fabrics[a] Finishing — giving textiles Synthetic fibres Artificial fibres can be made by extruding a polymer, through a spinneret (polymers) into a medium where it hardens. Wet spinning (rayon) uses a coagulating medium. In dry spinning (acetate and triacetate), the polymer is contained in a solvent that evaporates in the heated exit chamber. In melt spinning (nylons and polyesters) the extruded polymer is cooled in gas or air and then sets.[3] Some examples of synthetic fibers are; polyester, rayon, acrylic fibers and microfibers. All these fibres will be of great length, often kilometres long. Synthetic fibers are more durable than most natural fibers and will readily pick-up different dyes . Artificial fibres can be processed as long fibres or batched and cut so they can be processed like a natural fibre. Natural fibres Sheep, goats, rabbits, silkworms, and other animals, as well as minerals like asbestos, are sources of natural fibers (cotton, flax, sisal). These vegetable fibers can originate from the seed (cotton), the stem (bast fibres: flax, hemp, jute), or the leaf (sisal). All of these sources require a number of steps, each of which has a distinct name, before a clean, even staple is produced. All of these fibers, with the exception of silk, are short, only a few centimeters long, and have a rough surface that allows them to adhere to other like staples . History Cottage stage Main article: Textile manufacturing by pre-industrial methods There are some indications that weaving was already known in the Palaeolithic. An indistinct textile impression has been found at Pavlov, Moravia. Neolithic textiles were found in pile dwellings excavations in Switzerland and at El Fayum, Egypt at a site which dates to about 5000 BC. In Roman times, wool, linen and leather clothed the European population, and silk, imported along the Silk Road from China, was an extravagant luxury. The use of flax fiber in the manufacturing of cloth in Northern Europe dates back to Neolithic times. During the late medieval period, cotton began to be imported into Northern Europe. Without any knowledge of what it came from, other than that it was a plant, noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew in India a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the edges of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungry." This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool". By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions of Asia and the Americas. The main steps in the production of cloth are producing the fibre, preparing it, converting it to yarn, converting yarn to cloth, and then finishing the cloth. The cloth is then taken to the manufacturer of garments. The preparation of the fibres differs the most, depending on the fibre used. Flax requires retting and dressing, while wool requires carding and washing. The spinning and weaving processes are very similar between fibers, however. Spinning evolved from twisting the fibers by hand, to using a drop spindle, to using a spinning wheel. Spindles or parts of them have been found in archaeological sites and may represent one of the first pieces of technology available.[4] The spinning wheel was most likely invented in the Islamic world by the 11th century.[5] India Textile workers in Tiruppur, South India Main article: Textile industry in India Further information: Economic history of India The textile industry in India traditionally, after agriculture, is the only industry that has generated huge employment for both skilled and unskilled labour in textiles. The textile industry continues to be the second-largest employment generating sector in India. It offers direct employment to over 35 million in the country.[6] According to the Ministry of Textiles, the share of textiles in total exports during April–July 2010 was 11.04%. During 2009–2010, the Indian textile industry was pegged at US$55 billion, 64% of which services domestic demand.[6] In 2010, there were 2,500 textile weaving factories and 4,135 textile finishing factories in all of India.[7] According to AT Kearney’s ‘Retail Apparel Index’, India was ranked as the fourth most promising market for apparel retailers in 2009.[8] India is first in global jute production and shares 63% of the global textile and garment market. India is second in global textile manufacturing and also second in silk and cotton production. 100% FDI is allowed via automatic route in textile sector. Rieter, Trutzschler, Saurer, Soktas, Zambiati, Bilsar, Monti, CMT, E-land, Nisshinbo, Marks & Spencer, Zara, Promod, Benetton, and Levi’s are some of the foreign textile companies invested or working in India.[9] Britain Main articles: Calico Acts and Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution The key British industry at the beginning of the 18th century was the production of textiles made with wool from the large sheep-farming areas in the Midlands and across the country (created as a result of land-clearance and enclosure). This was a labour-intensive activity providing employment throughout Britain, with major centres being the West Country; Norwich and environs; and the West Riding of Yorkshire. The export trade in woolen goods accounted for more than a quarter of British exports during most of the 18th century, doubling between 1701 and 1770.[10] The British textile industry drove the Industrial revolution, triggering advancements in technology, stimulating the coal and iron industries, boosting raw material imports, and improving transportation, which made Britain the global leader of industrialization, trade, and scientific innovation.[11] Exports by the cotton industry – centered in Lancashire – had grown tenfold during this time, but still accounted for only a tenth of the value of the woolen trade. Before the 17th century, the manufacture of goods was performed on a limited scale by individual workers, usually on their own premises (such as weavers' cottages). Goods were transported around the country by clothiers who visited the village with their trains of packhorses. Some of the cloth was made into clothes for people living in the same area, and a large amount of cloth was exported. River navigations were constructed, and some contour-following canals. In the early 18th century, artisans were inventing ways to become more productive. Silk, wool, fustian, and linen were being eclipsed by cotton, which was becoming the most important textile. This set the foundations for the changes.[12] Catalonia Main article: History of the cotton industry in Catalonia The cotton industry in Catalonia was the first industry in Spain to industrialise and led, by the mid 19th century, to Catalonia becoming the main industrial region of Spain, a position it maintained until well into the 20th century. Catalonia is the one Mediterranean exception to the tendency of early industrialisation to be concentrated in northern Europe.[13] The industry began in the early 18th century in Barcelona, when printed cloth chintz (Catalan: indianes) was produced as an import substitution. The market quickly expanded to the American colonies from where dyes and (later) cotton raw materials could be sourced. Spinning was a late addition to the industry and took off after English spinning technology was introduced at the turn of the 19th century. Industrialisation of the industry occurred in the 1830s after adoption of the factory system, and the removal of restrictions by Britain on the emigration of expert labour (1825) and of machinery (1842). Steam power was introduced but the cost of imported coal and steam engines, led to the extensive use of hydraulic power from the late 1860s. Industrial revolution Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution The woven fabric portion of the textile industry grew out of the industrial revolution in the 18th century as mass production of yarn and cloth became a mainstream industry.[14] In 1734 in Bury, Lancashire John Kay invented the flying shuttle — one of the first of a series of inventions associated with the cotton woven fabric industry. The flying shuttle increased the width of cotton cloth and speed of production of a single weaver at a loom.[15] Resistance by workers to the perceived threat to jobs delayed the widespread introduction of this technology, even though the higher rate of production generated an increased demand for spun cotton. Shuttles In 1761, the Duke of Bridgewater's canal connected Manchester to the coal fields of Worsley and in 1762, Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Foundry engineering works in Handsworth, Birmingham. His partnership with Scottish engineer James Watt resulted, in 1775, in the commercial production of the more efficient Watt steam engine which used a separate condenser.[citation needed] In 1764, James Hargreaves is credited as inventor of the spinning jenny which multiplied the spun thread production capacity of a single worker — initially eightfold and subsequently much further. Others[16] credit the invention to Thomas Highs. Industrial unrest and a failure to patent the invention until 1770 forced Hargreaves from Blackburn, but his lack of protection of the idea allowed the concept to be exploited by others. As a result, there were over 20,000 spinning jennies in use by the time of his death. Also in 1764, Thorp Mill, the first water-powered cotton mill in the world was constructed at Royton, Lancashire, and was used for carding cotton. With the spinning and weaving process now mechanized, cotton mills cropped up all over the North West of England. The stocking frame invented in 1589 for silk became viable when in 1759, Jedediah Strutt introduced an attachment for the frame which produced what became known as the Derby Rib,[17] that produced a knit and purl stitch. This allowed stockings to be manufactured in silk and later in cotton. In 1768, Hammond modified the stocking frame to weave weft-knitted openworks or nets by crossing over the loops, using a mobile tickler bar- this led in 1781 to Thomas Frost's square net. Cotton had been too coarse for lace, but by 1805 Houldsworths of Manchester were producing reliable 300 count cotton thread.[18] 19th-century developments For further details of the operation and history of looms, see Power loom. For further details of the operation and history of spinning mules, see Spinning mule. With the Cartwright Loom, the Spinning Mule and the Boulton & Watt steam engine, the pieces were in place to build a mechanised woven fabric textile industry. From this point there were no new inventions, but a continuous improvement in technology as the mill-owner strove to reduce cost and improve quality. Developments in the transport infrastructure; that is the canals and after 1831 the railways facilitated the import of raw materials and export of finished cloth. Firstly, the use of water power to drive mills was supplemented by steam driven water pumps, and then superseded completely by the steam engines. For example, Samuel Greg joined his uncle's firm of textile merchants, and, on taking over the company in 1782, he sought out a site to establish a mill.Quarry Bank Mill was built on the River Bollin at Styal in Cheshire. It was initially powered by a water wheel, but installed steam engines in 1810. Quarry Bank Mill in Cheshire still exists as a well-preserved museum, having been in use from its construction in 1784 until 1959. It also illustrates how the mill owners exploited child labour, taking orphans from nearby Manchester to work the cotton. It shows that these children were housed, clothed, fed and provided with some education. In 1830, the average power of a mill engine was 48 hp, but Quarry Bank mill installed a new 100 hp water wheel.[19] William Fairbairn addressed the problem of line-shafting and was responsible for improving the efficiency of the mill. In 1815 he replaced the wooden turning shafts that drove the machines at 50rpm, to wrought iron shafting working at 250 rpm, these were a third of the weight of the previous ones and absorbed less power.[19] A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Note the wrought iron shafting, fixed to the cast iron columns Secondly, in 1830, using an 1822 patent, Richard Roberts manufactured the first loom with a cast iron frame, the Roberts Loom.[15] In 1842 James Bullough and William Kenworthy, made the Lancashire Loom, a semiautomatic power loom: although it is self-acting, it has to be stopped to recharge empty shuttles. It was the mainstay of the Lancashire cotton industry for a century, until the Northrop Loom (invented in 1894, with an automatic weft replenishment function) gained ascendancy. Roberts self-acting mule with quadrant gearing Thirdly, also in 1830, Richard Roberts patented the first self-acting mule. Stalybridge mule spinners strike was in 1824; this stimulated research into the problem of applying power to the winding stroke of the mule.[20] The draw while spinning had been assisted by power, but the push of the wind had been done manually by the spinner, the mule could be operated by semiskilled labor. Before 1830, the spinner would operate a partially powered mule with a maximum of 400 spindles; after, self-acting mules with up to 1300 spindles could be built.[21] Number of looms in the UK[22] Year 1803 1820 1829 1833 1857 Looms 2400 14650 55500 100000 250000 The industrial revolution changed the nature of work and society The three key drivers in these changes were textile manufacturing, iron founding and steam power.[23][24][25][26] The geographical focus of textile manufacture in Britain was Manchester and the small towns of the Pennines and southern Lancashire. Textile production in England peaked in 1926, and as mills were decommissioned, many of the scrapped mules and looms were bought up and reinstated in India. 20th century See also: Clothing industry Textile factory workers in Poland, 1950s Textile workers at Finlayson factory in Tampere, Finland in 1951 Manila hemp warp yarns being prepared for weaving in a modern textile factory Major changes came to the textile industry during the 20th century, with continuing technological innovations in machinery, synthetic fibre, logistics, and globalization of the business. The business model that had dominated the industry for centuries was to change radically. Cotton and wool producers were not the only source for fibres, as chemical companies created new synthetic fibres that had superior qualities for many uses, such as rayon, invented in 1910, and DuPont's nylon, invented in 1935 as in inexpensive silk substitute, and used for products ranging from women's stockings to tooth brushes and military parachutes. The variety of synthetic fibres used in manufacturing fibre grew steadily throughout the 20th century. In the 1920s, the computer was invented; in the 1940s, acetate, modacrylic, metal fibres, and saran were developed; acrylic, polyester, and spandex were introduced in the 1950s. Polyester became hugely popular in the apparel market, and by the late 1970s, more polyester was sold in the United States than cotton.[27] By the late 1980s, the apparel segment was no longer the largest market for fibre products, with industrial and home furnishings together representing a larger proportion of the fibre market.[28] Industry integration and global manufacturing led to many small firms closing for good during the 1970s and 1980s in the United States; during those decades, 95 percent of the looms in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia shut down, and Alabama and Virginia also saw many factories close.[28] The largest exporters of textiles in 2013 were China ($274 billion), India ($40 billion), Italy ($36 billion), Germany ($35 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion) and Pakistan ($27 Billion).[29] Pakistan The textile sector accounts for 70% of Pakistan's exports. The industry's contribution in the nation's exports account for 8.5% of the total GDP. Textile exports stood at $4.4 billion in 2017-2018. The industry employs a large section of the labour force in the country. Pakistan is the 4th largest producer of cotton with the third largest spinning capacity in Asia. It contributes 5% to the global spinning capacity. At present, there are 1,221 ginning units, 442 spinning units and 124 large spinning units in addition to 425 small units which produce textiles. Pakistan is the third largest consumer of cotton. Exports of $3.5 billion were recorded in 2017- 2018(6.5% of the total exported cotton on the world) In 1950, textile manufacturing emerged as the central of Pakistan industrialisation. Between 1947 and 2000, the number of textile Mills increased from 3 to 600. In the same time, spindles increased in number from 177,000 to 805 million. The textile industry provides 45% of the bank redit in Pakistan. Bangladesh Many Western multinationals use labor in Bangladesh, which is one of the cheapest in the world: 30 euros per month compared to 150 or 200 in China. Four days is enough for the CEO of one of the top five global textile brands to earn what a Bangladeshi garment worker will earn in her lifetime. In April 2013, at least 1,135 textile workers died in the collapse of their factory. Other fatal accidents due to unsanitary factories have affected Bangladesh: in 2005 a factory collapsed and caused the death of 64 people. In 2006, a series of fires killed 85 people and injured 207 others. In 2010, some 30 people died of asphyxiation and burns in two serious fires. In 2006, tens of thousands of workers mobilized in one of the country's largest strike movements, affecting almost all of the 4,000 factories. The Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) uses police forces to crack down. Three workers were killed, and hundreds more were wounded by bullets, or imprisoned. In 2010, after a new strike movement, nearly 1,000 people were injured among workers as a result of the repression.[30] Ethiopia Employees of Ethiopian garment factories, who work for brands such as Guess, H&M or Calvin Klein, receive a monthly salary of 26 dollars per month. These very low wages have led to low productivity, frequent strikes and high turnover. Some factories have replaced all their employees on average every 12 months, according to the 2019 report of the Stern Centre for Business and Human Rights at New York University. The report states:" Rather than the docile and cheap labour force promoted in Ethiopia, foreign-based suppliers have met employees who are unhappy with their pay and living conditions and who want to protest more and more by stopping work or even quitting. In their eagerness to create a "made in Ethiopia" brand, the government, global brands and foreign manufacturers did not anticipate that the base salary was simply too low for workers to make a living from. »[31] Commerce and regulation The Multi Fibre Arrangement (MFA) governed the world trade in textiles and garments from 1974 through 2004, imposing quotas on the amount developing countries could export to developed countries. It expired on 1 January 2005. The MFA was introduced in 1974 as a short-term measure intended to allow developed countries to adjust to imports from the developing world. Developing countries have a natural advantage in textile production because it is labor-intensive and they have low labor costs. According to a World Bank/International Monetary Fund (IMF) study, the system has cost the developing world 27 million jobs and $40 billion a year in lost exports.[32] However, the Arrangement was not negative for all developing countries. For example, the European Union (EU) imposed no restrictions or duties on imports from the very poor countries, such as Bangladesh, leading to a massive expansion of the industry there. At the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Uruguay Round, it was decided to bring the textile trade under the jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing provided for the gradual dismantling of the quotas that existed under the MFA. This process was completed on 1 January 2005. However, large tariffs remain in place on many textile products. Women work in a textile factory outside Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bangladesh was expected to suffer the most from the ending of the MFA, as it was expected to face more competition, particularly from China. However, this was not the case. It turns out that even in the face of other economic giants, Bangladesh's labor is “cheaper than anywhere else in the world.” While some smaller factories were documented making pay cuts and layoffs, most downsizing was essentially speculative – the orders for goods kept coming even after the MFA expired. In fact, Bangladesh's exports increased in value by about $500 million in 2006.[33] Regulatory standards For textiles, like for many other products, there are certain national and international standards and regulations that need to be complied with to ensure quality, safety and sustainability. The following standards amongst others apply to textiles: CPSIA, e.g. Standard for the Flammability of Clothing Textiles[34] ASTM Textile Standards[35] REACH Regulations for Textiles[36] China Product Standard for Textiles[37] See also Drapers and cloth merchants Textile industry in Bangladesh List of textile fibres Notes includes Knitting processes References Citations Majeed, A (January 19, 2009), Cotton and textiles — the challenges ahead, Dawn-the Internet edition, archived from the original on January 23, 2009, retrieved 2009-02-12 "Machin processes", Spinning the Web, Manchester City Council: Libraries, archived from the original on 2008-10-23, retrieved 2009-01-29 Collier 1970, p. 33 Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production By C. Wayne Smith, Joe Tom Cotton. Page viii. Published 1999. John Wiley and Sons. Technology & Industrial Arts. 864 pages. ISBN 0-471-18045-9 Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (First MIT Press paperback ed.). Cambridge MA: The MIT Press. pp. 23–24. "A brief history of Textile Industry in India, January, 2010" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2012. "Wearing Apparel Manufacturing Report". AnythingResearch India. "Emerging Markets Offer Growth Opportunities for Apparel Retailers Battling Declines in Domestic Consumer Spending". SECTORS - Make In India Toynbee, Arnold (1884). Lectures On The Industrial Revolution In England: Public Addresses, Notes and Other Fragments, together with a Short Memoir by B. Jowett. London: Rivington's. ISBN 978-1-4191-2952-0. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. "Textile Manufacturing | Boundless World History". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2021-10-29. Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Archived 2008-02-21 at the Wayback Machine, Library of Economics and Liberty Thomson, J.K.J. (1992). A distinctive industrialisation. Cotton in Barcelona 1728-1832. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39482-1. Retrieved 14 July 2022. Hammond, J.L.; Hammond, Barbara (1919), The Skilled Labourer 1760-1832 (pdf), London: Longmans, Green and co., p. 51 Williams & Farnie 1992, p. 11 Great Industries of Great Britain, Volume I, published by Cassell Petter and Galpin, (London, Paris, New York, c1880). Earnshaw 1986, p. 17. Earnshaw 1986, pp. 24–26. Hills 1993, p. 113 Hills 1993, p. 118 Williams & Farnie 1992, p. 9 Hills 1993, p. 117 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. ISBN 0-349-10484-0 Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01079-9 Read it Berg, Maxine (1992). "Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution" (PDF). The Economic History Review. 45 (1): 24–50. doi:10.2307/2598327. JSTOR 2598327. Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution Archived 2006-11-09 at the Wayback Machine by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006. The U.S. textile and apparel industry : a revolution in progress : special report. United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. 1987. p. 39. ISBN 9781428922945. The U.S. textile and apparel industry : a revolution in progress : special report. United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. 1987. pp. 31–2. ISBN 9781428922945. TNN (3 June 2014). "India overtakes Germany and Italy, is new world No. 2 in textile exports". Times of India. Archived from the original on 30 June 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2016. "Au Bangladesh, une ouvrière du textile meurt tous les deux jours". "En Ethiopie, les petites mains de H&M ou Calvin Klein gagnent 23 euros par mois". Le Monde.fr. 8 May 2019. Presentation by H.E. K.M. Chandrasekhar, Chairman ITCB, EC Conference on the Future of Textiles and Clothing after 2004, Brussels, 5 – 6 May 2003. "後遺症が残りそうな交通事故で気をつけるポイント" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-12-21. Retrieved 2011-10-05. Haider, Mahtab. “Defying predictions, Bangladesh’s garment factories thrive.” The Christian Science Monitor. 7 Feb 2006. 11 Feb 2007. "Defying predictions, Bangladesh's garment factories thrive". Christian Science Monitor. 2006-02-07. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-02-11. "Standard for the Flammability of Clothing Textiles" (PDF). cpsc.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2018. "Textile Standards". www.astm.org. Archived from the original on 30 April 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018. "REACH Regulations - How they apply to Textile and Leather articles (hktdc.com)". info.hktdc.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018. "GB Standards - China Certification – CCC mark certificate (3C) for China – Your expert for China Compulsory Certification". china-certification.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018. Sources Collier, Ann M. (1970), A Handbook of Textiles, Pergamon Press, p. 258, ISBN 978-0-08-018057-1 Copeland, Melvin Thomas. The cotton manufacturing industry of the United States (Harvard University Press, 1912) online Cameron, Edward H. Samuel Slater, Father of American Manufactures (1960) scholarly biography Conrad Jr., James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History," Technology and Culture, Vol. 36, No. 1 (January 1995), pp. 1–28 in JSTOR Earnshaw, Pat (1986). Lace Machines and Machine Laces. Batsford. ISBN 978-0713446845. Griffiths, T., Hunt, P.A., and O’Brien, P. K. "Inventive activity in the British textile industry", Journal of Economic History, 52 (1992), pp. 881–906. Griffiths, Trevor; Hunt, Philip; O’Brien, Patrick. "Scottish, Irish, and imperial connections: Parliament, the three kingdoms, and the mechanization of cotton spinning in eighteenth-century Britain," Economic History Review, Aug 2008, Vol. 61 Issue 3, pp 625–650 Hills, Richard Leslie (1993), Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press, p. 244, ISBN 9780521458344 Smelser; Neil J. Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry (1959) Tucker, Barbara M. "The Merchant, the Manufacturer, and the Factory Manager: The Case of Samuel Slater," Business History Review, Vol. 55, No. 3 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 297–313 in JSTOR Tucker, Barbara M. Samuel Slater and the Origins of the American Textile Industry, 1790-1860 (1984) Williams, Mike; Farnie (1992), Cotton Mills of Greater Manchester, Carnegie Publishing, ISBN 978-0-948789-89-2 Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 1051–98; with many tables and maps on the worldwide textile industry in 19508 vte Textile arts vte Major industries Natural sector Industrial sector Service sector Information sector Related Category Commons Outline Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: Textile industryIndustries (economics) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_industry Vacheron Constantin Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Vacheron Constantin SAVacheron Constantin logo.svg Type Subsidiary Industry Luxury watchmaking Founded 1755 1819 (became Vacheron & Constantin) 1970 (became Vacheron Constantin) Founder Jean-Marc Vacheron Headquarters Plan-les-Ouates, Canton of Geneva, Switzerland 46.16597°N 6.10054°ECoordinates: 46.16597°N 6.10054°E Area served Worldwide Key people Louis Ferla (CEO) Products Mechanical watches, clocks Production output Around 20,000 (2018) Number of employees Around 1,200 (2018) Parent Richemont (since 1996) Website vacheron-constantin.com Vacheron Constantin SA (French pronunciation: ​[vaʃəʁɔ̃ kɔ̃stɑ̃tɛ̃]) is a Swiss luxury watch and clock manufacturer founded in 1755.[1][2] Since 1996, it has been a subsidiary of the Swiss Richemont Group.[3] Vacheron Constantin is the second oldest Swiss manufacturer and one of the oldest watch manufacturers in the world with an uninterrupted watchmaking history since its foundation in 1755.[1][4] It employs around 1,200 people worldwide as of 2018, most of whom are based in the company's manufacturing plants in the Canton of Geneva and Vallée de Joux in Switzerland.[5] Vacheron Constantin is a highly regarded watch manufacturer.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11] The Vacheron Constantin pocket watch No. 402833 (1929), which was owned by King Fuad I of Egypt, ranks as one of the most expensive watches ever sold at auction, fetching US$2.77 million (3,306,250 CHF) in Geneva on April 3, 2005.[12] In 2015, Vacheron Constantin introduced the pocket watch Reference 57260, which currently holds the title of the most complicated mechanical watch ever made, with 57 horological complications.[13] History Early history François Constantin The business was founded in 1755 by Jean-Marc Vacheron, an independent watchmaker in Geneva, Switzerland.[1][14][15] He was a close friend of leading Enlightenment philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire due to their common interests in philosophy, science and watchmaking.[16][17][18] In 1770, Vacheron's company created the world's first horological complication, and nine years later he designed the first engine-turned dials. The son of Jean-Marc Vacheron, Abraham Vacheron took over the family business in 1785.[15] In 1810, Jacques-Barthélemy Vacheron, the grandson of the founder, became the head of the company.[1][19] He was the first to initiate the company's exports to France and Italy. Later, Jacques-Barthélemy realized that he was not able to handle the business alone. In order to travel overseas and sell the company's products, he needed a partner. Consequently, in 1819, François Constantin became an associate of Vacheron.[1] The company continued its activities under the new name Vacheron & Constantin. The company's motto (which remains today), "Faire mieux si possible, ce qui est toujours possible (Do better if possible and that is always possible)", first appeared in Constantin's letter to Jacques-Barthélémy.[20] The letter was dated July 5, 1819.[19] François Constantin traveled around the world and marketed watches. The main market at the time was North America.[1] In 1833, Vacheron and Constantin hired Georges-Auguste Leschot, whose job was to supervise the manufacturing operations. In particular, Leschot was an inventor and his creations turned out to be a success for the company. His inventions had significant impact on the watchmaking industry in general, and he was the first person to standardize watch movements into Calibers. In 1844, Georges-Auguste Leschot was awarded with a gold medal from the Arts Society of Geneva, which highly appreciated Leschot's pantographic device - a device that was able to mechanically engrave small watch parts and dials.[20] Re-organization Advertisement from 1896 promoting their observatory trial results After François Constantin's death in 1854 and Jacques-Barthélemy Vacheron's death in 1863, the company was taken over by a series of heirs. At one point, the company was headed by two women. In 1862, Vacheron Constantin became a member of the Association for Research into non-magnetic materials. In 1877, Vacheron & Constantin, Fabricants, Geneve became the official name of the company.[21] In 1880, the company started using the Maltese cross as its symbol until today.[1] This was inspired by a component of the barrel, which had a cross-shape and was used for limiting the tension within the mainspring. In 1887, Vacheron & Constantin was reorganized into a joint-stock company.[22] Notably, in the same year, Fabergé's 1887 Third Imperial Egg contained a Vacheron Constantin Lady's watch as the surprise. For the remarkable achievements of the company, Vacheron & Constantin was awarded a gold medal at the Swiss National Exhibition in Geneva in 1887.[23] The first Vacheron & Constantin boutique in Geneva was opened in 1906. During the Great Depression, Vacheron & Constantin found itself in a difficult situation.[20] In 1936, Charles Constantin became the head of the company, the first time since 1850s that a representative from the Constantin family became the president of Vacheron & Constantin. However, in 1940, Georges Ketterer acquired the majority portion of the stock of Vacheron & Constantin from Charles Constantin.[24] Recent development Vacheron Constantin shop in Hanoi, Vietnam. George Ketterer died in 1969, and his son, Jacques Ketterer, succeeded as the head of Vacheron & Constantin. In 1970, the company officially changed its name to Vacheron Constantin.[24] Vacheron Constantin was affected by the quartz crisis during 1970s and 1980s.[25] When Jacques Ketterer died in 1987, Vacheron Constantin changed hands. Sheik Ahmed Zaki Yamani, the former Oil Minister of Saudi Arabia and avid watch collector, became the company's majority shareholder, who then folded Vacheron Constantin into his personal portfolio of holdings.[26] In 1996, the entire share capital of Vacheron Constantin was bought by the Swiss Richemont Group.[3][27] In 2004, Vacheron Constantin opened its new headquarters and manufacture in Plan-les-Ouates, Geneva.[28] The Vacheron Constantin headquarters building in Geneva was designed by Bernard Tschumi, and has been noted for its architectural significance.[29][30][31][32] In October 2005, the Richemont Group named Juan Carlos Torres as the chief executive officer of the company.[33] Currently, the company is an active member of the Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH, and produces about 20,000 timepieces per year.[34][35][36] Motto and slogan The company motto of Vacheron Constantin is "Faire mieux si possible, ce qui est toujours possible (Do better if possible, and that is always possible)".[20][37][38] The motto first appeared in a François Constantin's letter to Jacques-Barthélémy, and the letter was dated July 5, 1819.[20][37] Watch manufacturing A Vacheron Constantin pocket watch in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Notable inventions and patents The following are some of the notable achievements of Vacheron Constantin in watch manufacturing. In 1790, created the world's first watch complication.[1] In 1824, created a jumping-hour watch.[1] In 1885, created the first nonmagnetic timepiece which included a complete lever assortment made of materials able to withstand magnetic fields. Its construction included a balance wheel, balance spring and lever shaft that were made of palladium, the lever arms—in bronze and the escape wheel was in gold. In 1901, received the first Geneva Seal (Hallmark of Geneva) for its timepieces.[1] In 1929, created a "Grande Complication" pocket watch, No. 402833, for King Fuad I of Egypt.[1][39] In 1955, produced the world's thinnest manual-winding movement, the Calibre 1003.[1] In 1992, created the world's thinnest minute repeater, the Calibre 1755.[1] In 2015, created Reference 57260, the most complicated mechanical watch/pocket watch ever made, with 57 complications.[13][40] Environmental rating In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released a report assigning environmental ratings to 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland.[41][42] Vacheron Constantin was given an average environmental rating as "Upper Midfield", suggesting that the manufacturer has taken first actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.[41] Notable models Most expensive pieces A Vacheron Constantin pocket watch in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Main article: List of most expensive watches sold at auction In 1979, Vacheron Constantin made Kallista, one of the most expensive wristwatches in the world. Its initial price was $5 million, but in 2016 the watch was valued at about $11 million.[43] Kallista had 118 emerald-cut diamonds. It took about 6,000 hours for the watch masters to make this watch and about 20 months for jewelers to enrich the watch.[44] On April 3, 2005, the Vacheron Constantin pocket watch Ref. 402833 (1929), which was owned by King Fuad I of Egypt, fetched a final price of 2.77 million US dollars (3,306,250 CHF) in Antiquorum's Geneva auction.[12][45][39] On April 3, 2005, a Vacheron Constantin mysterious clock was auctioned by Antiquorum for 1.83 million US dollars (2,206,250 CHF) in Geneva.[46] On April 3, 2005, a Vacheron Constantin wristwatch Tour de I'lle fetched 1.56 million US dollars (1,876,250 CHF) in Antiquorum's Geneva auction.[47][48] On June 15, 2011, a Vacheron Constantin minute repeater pocket watch (1918), which was owned by James Ward Packard, was auctioned for 1.76 million US dollars in Christie's New York auction.[49] Overseas wristwatch In 1996, Vacheron Constantin formally introduced a new high-end sports line called Overseas.[50][51] The precursor of Overseas collection, however, was originally introduced in 1977 during the quartz crisis.[51][52] The precursor was the wristwatch Ref. 222, which was designed by a 23-year-old designer named Jorg Hysek.[51][52][53] The original version of Overseas was revamped in 2004, and was re-invented again in 2016.[54] Some of the Overseas wristwatches also come with complications such as chronograph, World Time, tourbillon, moon phase, and so on.[53][54] Patrimony wristwatch A Vacheron Constantin Patrimony wristwatch The Patrimony wristwatch is a model of Vacheron Constantin. The collection was introduced in 2004, and is known for its simple and elegant design as well as its ultra-thin case.[55] The designer was inspired by some of the company's watch models back in 1950s.[56] In 2009, Vacheron Constantin decided to integrate the minute repeating complication into some of the Patrimony wristwatches, and the end product was the Patrimony Calibre 1731, the world's thinnest minute repeater.[1][57] The current Patrimony collection also includes some other complications such as perpetual calendars, moon phase indicators, and so on.[55] Métiers d'Art wristwatch In 2007, Vacheron Constantin introduced the Métiers d'Art 'Les Masques' collection of timepieces featuring miniature reproductions of primitive art masks.[58] The company selected 12 masks from a private museum collection and reproduced them on a small scale. The miniaturized masks are featured in the dial centre of every watch from the 'Les Masques' collection.[59] In 2012, Vacheron Constantin introduced the Métiers d'Art 'Les Univers Infinis' collection of timepieces featuring tessellation, a design of interlocking shapes inspired by the work of the Dutch artist M. C. Escher. 250th anniversary edition Main article: Tour de I'lle In 2005, Vacheron Constantin created the wristwatch "Tour de I'lle" to mark the anniversary of 250 years of Vacheron Constantin.[60] The watch includes 834 parts and 16 horological complications, including tourbillon, minute repeater, moon phase as well as moon age, and took over 10,000 hours of research and development.[47][60] The Tour de l'lle wristwatch is one of the most complicated wristwatches in the world.[47] In total, only seven pieces were manufactured, each of which had a sale price over US$1 million.[61] On April 3, 2005, a Tour de I'lle wristwatch fetched a final price of 1.56 million US dollars (1,876,250 CHF) in Antiquorum's Geneva auction.[47][48] The auctioned piece has a unique black dial. A Vacheron Constantin pocket watch (1901) 260th anniversary edition Main article: Reference 57260 In 2015, during the manufacturer's 260th anniversary, Vacheron Constantin revealed the world's most complicated mechanical watch, named Reference 57260. The pocket watch took three watchmakers eight years to build the 57-complication pocket watch at the request of a client. Vacheron Constantin would not disclose the exact price of this watch but did confirm that it was between 8 million and 20 million US dollars.[62] The Reference 57260 is part of Vacheron Constantin's lineage of tailor-made grand complicated pocket watches since James W. Packard's pocket watch (1918), which was auctioned for US$1.763 million by Christie's in New York on June 15, 2011.[63][64] In addition, the Vacheron Constantin pocket watch Ref. 402833 (1929), which was tailored for King Fuad I of Egypt, ranks as one of the most expensive watches ever sold at auction, fetching US$2.77 million (3,306,250 CHF) in Geneva on April 3, 2005.[12][45] In 1946, Vacheron Constantin tailored a complicated pocket watch for King Farouk of Egypt, the successor of King Fuad I, and in 1948 the company tailored another one for Count Guy de Boisrouvray of France.[65][66] A Vacheron Constantin pocket watch in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York A Vacheron Constantin pocket watch in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York See also Companies portal List of watch manufacturers Manufacture d'horlogerie The Vacheron Constantin Reference 57260 Tour de I'lle References "Birth of the Vacheron Constantin Manufacture of Haute Horlogerie - Vacheron Constantin". heritage.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 13 December 2018. "Company Overview of Vacheron & Constantin SA". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 1 February 2019. "Compagnie Financière Richemont SA - Juan-Carlos Torres to succeed Claude-Daniel Proellochs as Chief Executive of Vacheron Constantin". www.richemont.com. Retrieved 11 December 2018. "260 Years of Excellence (Paid Post by vacheron from NYTimes.com)". The New York Times. 1 October 2018. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 13 December 2018. Gomelsky, Victoria (16 November 2016). "Brand Awareness is the Goal at Vacheron Constantin". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 11 December 2018. "5 reasons collectors love Vacheron Constantin | Christie's". www.christies.com. Retrieved 11 December 2018. "Vacheron Constantin - Fondation de la Haute Horlogerie". www.hautehorlogerie.org. Retrieved 2 January 2019. Inc, M. Shanken Communications. "Father Time: Swiss Watches". Cigar Aficionado. Retrieved 5 January 2019. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help) SEYMOUR, ALAN. "Six Decades of Watchmaking Excellence". Sotheby's. "World's oldest watchmaker opens boutique in Beirut". Executive Life. 30 November 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2019. "5 reasons collectors love Vacheron Constantin | Christie's". www.christies.com. Retrieved 13 January 2019. "King Fouad Vacheron & Constantin, Genève, No. 402833, case No. 251058". catalog.antiquorum.swiss. Retrieved 26 November 2018. "Vacheron Constantin reference 57260 - the most complicated watch". reference57260.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 30 November 2018. Nancy Wolfson. "Cigar Aficionado March/April 1998, With 243 Years of Experience, Swiss Watchmaker Vacheron Constantin Continues to Push the Horology Envelope". Jean-Marc Vacheron: 1731 – 1805, Suisse, Le Point swissinfo.ch, S. W. I.; Corporation, a branch of the Swiss Broadcasting. "Vacheron Constantin ticks over 250 years". SWI swissinfo.ch. Retrieved 26 February 2019. "Opening of "Treasures of Vacheron Constantin - A Legacy of Watchmaking since 1755" Exhinibition" (PDF). National University of Singapore. Retrieved 26 February 2019. "Vacheron Constantin honors Jean-Jacques Rousseau". Chronos Plus. 4 October 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2019. "History - Fondation de la Haute Horlogerie". www.hautehorlogerie.org. Retrieved 23 February 2019. "History - Fondation de la Haute Horlogerie". www.hautehorlogerie.org. Retrieved 13 December 2018. "Why Vacheron Constantin Has Earned Their Spot in the Holy Trinity". www.shreve.com. Retrieved 3 February 2019. "EWC: History of Vacheron Constantin". www.europeanwatch.com. Retrieved 2 February 2019. "EWC: History of Vacheron Constantin". www.europeanwatch.com. Retrieved 2 January 2019. "EWC: History of Vacheron Constantin". www.europeanwatch.com. Retrieved 13 December 2018. Green, Dennis (15 February 2017). "This Swiss watchmaker is trying to win millennials by selling $45,000 watches online". Business Insider. Retrieved 4 March 2019. "YAMANI IS HANDED A DEFEAT IN BID FOR SWISS WATCH FIRM". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 13 December 2018. "How Richemont Plans to Survive in a Changing 21st Century Marketplace". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 11 December 2018. "Vacheron Constantin / Bernard Tschumi Architects". 14 September 2016. 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, Quintessence Books, 2007, p 843 "Vacheron Constantin / Bernard Tschumi Architects". 14 September 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2018. Mun-Delsalle, Y-Jean. "Bernard Tschumi's Architecture Is Not Just About Space And Form But Also The Events Happening Inside". Retrieved 10 July 2018. "Bernard Tschumi Architects | - Vacheron Constantin Headquarters and Manufacturing Center | the Plan". "Juan-Carlos Torres". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 13 December 2018. "Watch brands". Federation of the swiss watch industry. "Vacheron Constantin". chronohunter.com. Retrieved 11 December 2018. Swithinbank, Robin (20 March 2019). "Vacheron Constantin and 'The Human Touch'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 21 March 2019. "Do better if possible, and that is always possible". Vacheron Constantin. Retrieved 23 January 2019. "260 Years of Excellence (Paid Post by vacheron from NYTimes.com)". The New York Times. 1 October 2018. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 23 January 2019. "Vacheron Constantin reference 57260 - the most complicated watch". reference57260.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019. "Hands-On: The Vacheron Constantin 57260, The Most Complicated Watch In The World (Exclusive Live Photos, Thoughts) - HODINKEE". HODINKEE. Retrieved 30 November 2018. "Environmental rating and industry report 2018" (PDF). World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 19 January 2019. swissinfo.ch, S. W. I.; Corporation, a branch of the Swiss Broadcasting. "Swiss luxury watches fail to meet environmental standards". SWI swissinfo.ch. Retrieved 19 January 2019. Berman, Nat (20 June 2016). "10 of the Finest Vacheron Watches of All-Time". Money Inc. Retrieved 1 February 2019. "10 of the Finest Vacheron Watches of All-Time". 20 June 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2018. "The 24 Most Expensive Watches Ever Sold At Auction". Business Insider. Retrieved 26 November 2018. "As a mysterious clock, L'sEsprit des Cabinotiers' sums up all that the Manufacture has offered over a quar-ter of a millennium, and indeed continues to offer at the most demanding and most accomplished level of haute horlogerie and artistic craftsmanship". catalog.antiquorum.swiss. Retrieved 18 February 2019. "Tour de I'lle Antiquorum Vacheron Constantin". catalog.antiquorum.swiss. Retrieved 4 December 2018. www.ourivesariaportuguesa.info. Important Modern & Vintage Timepieces - April 2012. "VACHERON CONSTANTIN (MOVEMENT NO, 375551, CASE NO. 231922, MADE FOR JAMES WARD PACKARD IN 1918)". Retrieved 2 December 2018. byCaleb, Written; erson (12 March 2017). "Vintage Eye for the Modern Guy: Vacheron Constantin Overseas". WatchTime - USA's No.1 Watch Magazine. Retrieved 21 December 2018. "Technical and aesthetic daring, the specialty of Vacheron Constantin. - Vacheron Constantin". heritage.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 5 January 2019. "The History of the Vacheron Constantin Overseas – The Other 1970s Icon". Monochrome Watches. 1 November 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2019. February 17, Arthur Touchot; 2016. "Hands-On: The Vacheron Constantin Overseas Chronograph, Now With The Geneva Hallmark And In-House Caliber 5200". HODINKEE. Retrieved 5 January 2019. "Overseas". Vacheron Constantin. Retrieved 5 January 2019. "EWC: History of Vacheron Constantin". www.europeanwatch.com. Retrieved 16 January 2019. "Patrimony". Vacheron Constantin. Retrieved 16 January 2019. byWatchTime, Written (28 March 2015). "A Watch of Note: The Inside Story of the Vacheron Constantin Patrimony Contemporaine Calibre 1731". WatchTime - USA's No.1 Watch Magazine. Retrieved 16 January 2019. "Innovation and tradition for the fine watchmaking of tomorrow. - Vacheron Constantin". heritage.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 5 January 2019. "Vacheron Constantin Metiers d'Art 'Les Masques'". "Vacheron Constantin Tour De I'lle". Totalprestige Magazine. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2019. "Top Luxury Watches: Vacheron Constantin Tour de I'lle". www.millionairematch.com. Retrieved 29 January 2019. "The World's Most Complicated Watch with 57 Complications". monochrome-watches.com. 17 September 2015. "Vacheron Constantin reference 57260 - the most complicated watch". reference57260.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019. "VACHERON CONSTANTIN (MOVEMENT NO, 375551, CASE NO. 231922, MADE FOR JAMES WARD PACKARD IN 1918)". www.christies.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019. "Vacheron Constantin reference 57260 - the most complicated watch". reference57260.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 30 November 2018. "Vacheron Constantin reference 57260 - the most complicated watch". reference57260.vacheron-constantin.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vacheron Constantin. Official website Official Vacheron Constantin discussion forum Vacheron Constantin—The Oldest Watchmaking Company?—Disputing the fact that Vacheron Constantin is the oldest watchmaker Vacheron Constantin's Infinite Illusion Of Time: Les Univers Infinis Vacheron Constantin and the Art of Openworking vte Brands Owned by Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A. Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: 1755 establishments in EuropeSwiss watch brandsWatch manufacturing companies of SwitzerlandLuxury brandsRichemont brands18th-century establishments in SwitzerlandCompanies established in 1755 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacheron_Constantin Somerset House Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the 18th-century town house of the Duke of Somerset, see Somerset House, Park Lane. Coordinates: 51°30′40″N 0°7′1″W Somerset House The courtyard of Somerset House from the North Wing entrance (September 2007) The courtyard of Somerset House from the North Wing entrance (September 2007) Map Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap General information Architectural style Neoclassical Location Strand London, WC2 Country United Kingdom Current tenants Multiple Construction started 1776; 247 years ago Cost £462,323 (1801)[1] Landlord Somerset House Trust Design and construction Architect(s) Sir William Chambers Designations Grade I listed building Website www.somersethouse.org.uk Somerset House is a large Neoclassical complex situated on the south side of the Strand in central London, overlooking the River Thames, just east of Waterloo Bridge. The Georgian era quadrangle was built on the site of a Tudor palace ("Old Somerset House") originally belonging to the Duke of Somerset. The present Somerset House was designed by Sir William Chambers, begun in 1776, and was further extended with Victorian era outer wings to the east and west in 1831 and 1856 respectively.[2][3] The site of Somerset House stood directly on the River Thames until the Victoria Embankment parkway was built in the late 1860s.[4] The great Georgian era structure was built to be a grand public building housing various government and public-benefit society offices. Its present tenants are a mixture of various organisations, generally centred around the arts and education. Old Somerset House 16th century In the 16th century, the Strand, the north bank of the Thames between the City of London and the Palace of Westminster, was a favoured site for the mansions of bishops and aristocrats, who could commute from their own landing stages upriver to the court or downriver to the City and beyond.[5] In 1539, Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (died 1552), obtained a grant of land at "Chester Place, outside Temple Bar, London"[6] from his brother-in-law King Henry VIII.[5] When his nephew the young King Edward VI came to the throne in 1547, Seymour became Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector.[5] In about 1549 he pulled down an old Inn of Chancery and other houses that stood on the site, and began to build himself a palatial residence, making liberal use of other nearby buildings, including some of the chantry chapels and cloisters at St Paul's Cathedral, which were demolished partly at his behest as part of the ongoing dissolution of the monasteries. It was a two-storey house built around a quadrangle, with a gateway rising to three storeys, and was one of the earliest examples of Renaissance architecture in England. It is not known who designed the building.[7] Before it was finished, however, the Duke of Somerset was overthrown, attainted by Parliament and in 1552 was executed on Tower Hill.[7][8] Somerset Place, as the building was referred to, then came into the possession of the Crown. The duke's royal nephew's half-sister, the future Queen Elizabeth I, lived there during the reign of her half-sister Queen Mary I (1553–58).[7] The process of completion and improvement was slow and costly. As late as 1598 John Stow refers to it as "yet unfinished".[9] 17th and 18th centuries The Somerset House Conference 19 August 1604 Old Somerset House, in a drawing by Jan Kip published in 1722, was a sprawling and irregular complex with wings from different periods in a mixture of styles. The buildings behind all four square gardens belong to Somerset House. The Thames from the Terrace of Somerset House Looking Towards St. Paul's, c. 1750 by Canaletto On 18 August O.S. (28 August N.S.) 1604, Somerset House was the probable location for the negotiations, known as the Somerset House Conference that culminated in the Treaty of London and concluded the nineteen-year Anglo-Spanish War. The Conference was the subject of an oil-on-canvas painting depicting the 11 representatives of the governments of England, Spain and the Spanish Netherlands, seated around a conference table, probably in Old Somerset House.[10] During the 17th century, the house was used as a residence by royal consorts. In the reign of King James I, the building was the London residence of his wife, Anne of Denmark, and was renamed Denmark House.[11] She commissioned a number of expensive additions and improvements, some to designs by Inigo Jones.[12] In 1609 Simon Basil and William Goodrowse made steps and terraces in the garden.[13] Anne of Denmark built an orangery and employed a French gardener and hydraulic engineer Salomon de Caus. He built a fountain known as Mount Parnassus with a grotto carved with sea-shells and a black marble female figure representing the River Thames. The fountain was topped by a statue of Pegasus.[14] A surviving cistern for the fountain in nearby Strand Lane was misidentified as a Roman bath.[15] The refurbished palace was the setting for elaborate entertainments at the wedding of Anne's lady in waiting Jean Drummond on 3 February 1614, including a masque Hymen's Triumph written by Samuel Daniel.[16] After his death in April 1625, King James' body was brought from Theobalds to lie in state at Denmark House. The state rooms were hung with black cloth. At this period there was no chapel at Denmark House, and so the Great hall was adapted, and the body moved there before the funeral at Westminster Abbey.[17] Between 1630 and 1635 Inigo Jones built a chapel where Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of King Charles I, could exercise her Roman Catholic religion.[12] This was in the care of the Capuchin Order and was on a site to the southwest of the Great Court.[12] A small cemetery was attached and some of the tombstones are still to be seen built into one of the walls of a passage under the present quadrangle.[18] Royal occupation of Somerset House was interrupted by the Civil War, and in 1649 Parliament tried to sell it. They failed to find a buyer, although a sale of the contents realised the very considerable sum (for that time) of £118,000.[19] Use was still found for it however. Part of it served as an army headquarters, with General Fairfax (the Parliamentarians' commander-in-chief) being given official quarters there;[20] lodgings were also provided for certain other Parliamentarian notables. It was in Somerset House that Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell's body lay in state after his death in 1658.[21] Two years later, with the Restoration, Queen Henrietta Maria returned and in 1661 began a considerable programme of rebuilding, the main feature of which was a magnificent new river front, again to the design of the late Inigo Jones, who had died at Somerset House in 1652.[22] However she returned to France in 1665 before it was finished. It was then used as an occasional residence by Catherine of Braganza, wife of King Charles II.[23] During her time it received a certain notoriety as being, in the popular mind, a hot-bed of Catholic conspiracy. Titus Oates made full use of this prejudice in the fabricated details of the Popish Plot and it was alleged that Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, whose murder was one of the great mysteries of the age, had been killed in Somerset House before his body had been smuggled out and thrown into a ditch below Primrose Hill.[24] Somerset House was refurbished by Sir Christopher Wren in 1685.[23] After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, Somerset House entered on a long period of decline, being used (after Queen Catherine left England in 1692) for grace and favour residences. In the conditions of the time this meant almost inevitably that little money could be found for its upkeep, and a slow process of decay crept in.[23] During the 18th century, however, the building ceased its royal associations. Though the view from its terraced riverfront garden, open to the public, was painted twice on his London visit by Canaletto (looking up- and downriver), it was used for storage, as a residence for visiting overseas dignitaries and as a barracks for troops. Suffering from neglect, Old Somerset House began to be demolished in 1775.[23] Somerset House (Sir William Chambers, 1776) The south wing of Chambers' Somerset House Since the middle of the 18th century there had been growing criticism that London had no great public buildings. Government departments and the learned societies were huddled away in small old buildings all over the city. Developing national pride found comparison with the capitals of continental Europe disquieting. Edmund Burke was the leading proponent of the scheme for a "national building", and in 1775 Parliament passed an act for the purpose of, inter alia, "erecting and establishing Publick Offices in Somerset House, and for embanking Parts of the River Thames lying within the bounds of the Manor of Savoy". The list of public offices mentioned in the act comprised "The Salt Office, The Stamp Office, The Tax Office, The Navy Office, The Navy Victualling Office, The Publick Lottery Office, The Hawkers and Pedlar Office, The Hackney Coach Office, The Surveyor General of the Crown Lands Office, The Auditors of the Imprest Office, The Pipe Office, The Office of the Duchy of Lancaster, The Office of the Duchy of Cornwall, The Office of Ordnance, The King's Bargemaster's House, The King's Bargehouses".[25] Somerset House was still technically a royal palace and therefore Crown property, with most work being done by the King's Master Mason, John Deval.[26] By an earlier Act of Parliament, it had been placed in trust for the use of Queen Charlotte in the event that her husband King George III predeceased her. Therefore, the 1775 act annulled this arrangement and instead provided for another property, Buckingham House, to be vested in trust for the Queen on the same terms. (Provision was made for the King, who had privately purchased Buckingham House some years earlier, to be duly compensated). In due course, the King outlived the Queen and the property (later known as Buckingham Palace) reverted "to the use of His Majesty, his heirs and successors".[27] By virtue of the same act, Ely House in Holborn (which had itself been purchased just a few years earlier as a potential site for new public offices) was sold and the proceeds applied to the Somerset House project.[28] Initially a certain William Robinson, Secretary to the Board of Works, was commissioned to design and build the new Somerset House, but he died in 1775 shortly after being appointed.[29] So Sir William Chambers, Comptroller of the King's Works, (who had in any case been vying for the commission)[29] was appointed in his stead, at a salary of £2,000 per year. He spent the last two decades of his life, beginning in 1775, in several phases of building at the present Somerset House. Thomas Telford, then a stonemason, but later an eminent civil engineer, was among those who worked on its construction. One of Chambers's most famous pupils, Thomas Hardwick Jnr, helped build parts of the building during his period of training and later wrote a short biography of Chambers. The design influenced other great buildings: Charles Bulfinch's Massachusetts State House, begun in 1795, has been described as a work "frankly derivative" of Somerset House.[30] Design Somerset House in 1828 Chambers' own influences stemmed from Palladianism, the principles of which were applied throughout Somerset House, inside and outside, both in its large-scale conception and in its small-scale details.[31] The footprint of the building was that of the old palace, ranging from its gateway block in the Strand across what was originally a gently sloping site down to the river. Chambers experimented with at least four different configurations of buildings and courtyards in drawing up his designs; his final version provided a single courtyard, 300 ft (91 m) by 200 ft (61 m), flanked by a pair of terraces, the whole presenting a unified frontage to the river, 500 feet (150 m) wide. Around the courtyard, each block consisted of six storeys: cellar, basement, ground, principal, attic and garret. The public offices and learned societies which were accommodated around the courtyard varied greatly in size, but each occupied all six floors of its allotted area, the upper floors often providing living space for a secretary or other official. Large vaults for storing public documents were provided, extending under the entire northern section of the courtyard.[31] Construction Night view from beneath the Strand entrance The North Wing, fronting the Strand, was the first part of the complex to be built; its design was based on Inigo Jones's drawings for the riverfront of the former palace. By 1780 the North Wing was finished and occupied, and Chambers reported to Parliament that the rest of the quadrangle was complete up to a height of two storeys.[32] Construction of the riverside wing followed; it was finished in 1786. At the time of construction, the Thames was not embanked and the river lapped the South Wing, where a great arch allowed boats and barges to penetrate to landing places within the building.[33] Meanwhile, work continued on the East and West Wings, which began to be occupied from 1788;[34] by 1790 the main quadrangle was complete.[32] It was originally envisaged that the main quadrangle would be flanked by two terraces of houses, one to the east and one to the west, providing accommodation for several of the Commissioners whose offices were based there.[35] It is not certain at what pace the rest of the construction progressed, but it is clear that the outbreak of war with France in 1793 caused delays through lack of money. Chambers died in 1796, whereupon James Wyatt took over as architect. In the end, only the western terrace was built and by 1801 the building was deemed to be complete, at a cost of £462,323.[34] In 1815 Sir Robert Smirke was appointed as Attached Architect to Somerset House; in 1817 he added the Legacy Duty Office to the north-west corner of the quadrangle, its design in keeping with Chambers's adjacent façade.[29] Even as late as 1819, decorative work to the exterior of the North Wing was still being completed.[32] Ornamentation In addition to applying a rich scheme of architectural decoration, Chambers enhanced the exterior of Somerset House with a multiplicity of sculptures and other visual embellishments. Giovanni Cipriani produced designs and the sculptors executing them included Joseph Wilton, Agostino Carlini, John Bacon, Joseph Nollekens, John Cheere and Giuseppe Ceracchi.[32] Bacon oversaw production of the bronze group of statues (consisting of Neptune and George III) in the main courtyard, facing the main entrance from the Strand.[32] Inside, most of the offices were plain and business-like, but in the North Wing the formal rooms and public spaces of the learned societies were enriched with painted ceilings (by Cipriani, Benjamin West, Angelica Kauffman, J. F. Rigaud, Charles Catton and Joshua Reynolds), ornamental plasterwork (by Thomas Collins and Thomas Clerk) and casts of classical sculptures.[31] John Papworth did the plasterwork in the great Royal Academy Room;[36] many of the ceiling paintings were removed by the Royal Academy when they vacated their premises.[37] Accommodation A key reason for rebuilding Somerset House was to provide accommodation for a diverse variety of learned societies, public offices and naval administrators.[23] A home for arts and learning The Exhibition Room at Somerset House by Thomas Rowlandson and Augustus Charles Pugin (1800). This room is now part of the Courtauld Gallery. The North Wing of Somerset House was initially fitted out to house the Royal Academy, the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries. The Royal Academy took up residence first, in 1779, followed by the other two institutions the following year. The Royal Academy occupied the western half of the wing and the Royal Society the eastern half; their main entrances faced each other across the central vestibule leading from the Strand to the courtyard, topped by busts (of Michelangelo and Isaac Newton respectively) which are still in place today. The Society of Antiquaries was also accommodated in the eastern half of the wing, though its premises were limited to a first-floor meeting room, a ground-floor library, an apartment in the attic and a kitchen in the basement.[38] The Geological Society was also accommodated in the Somerset House from 1828,[39] as was the Royal Astronomical Society from 1834.[40] The annual Royal Academy Exhibition was held in Somerset House from 1780 onwards,[41] until the academy moved out in 1837 (initially to rooms in the new National Gallery, then to Burlington House, Piccadilly). Its former accommodation was given over to a newly established Government School of Design (which was much later to become the Royal College of Art); it remained in the complex from 1837 until, in 1853, the Registry of Births, Marriages and Deaths needed to expand its office space and the School relocated to Marlborough House.[42] In 1857, the Royal Society moved out of Somerset House, followed in 1874 by the Society of Antiquaries, the Geological Society and the Royal Astronomical Society; they were all provided with new purpose-built accommodation in Burlington House.[34] The Navy Office The Navy Stair (later renamed the 'Nelson Stair') which leads to the old Navy Boardroom. In 1789 the Navy Board moved into grand riverside rooms in the western half of the newly completed South Wing. It was soon followed by its subsidiary Boards, the Victualling Commissioners and the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, which (along with the autonomous Navy Pay Office) occupied the West Wing; they had all hitherto been based in the City of London. Thus the various Navy offices occupied around a third of Chambers' completed building.[43] In addition, the terrace to the west of the quadrangle provided dwelling-houses for the Comptroller of the Navy, the Secretary to the Board and three Commissioners of the Navy, along with the chairman, Secretary and two Commissioners of Victualling,[32] with the Treasurer of the Navy allotted the 'mansion' at the river end of the terrace (which included a coach house and stables for ten horses in the vaults under the terrace).[31] As well as providing office space and accommodation, Somerset House was the place where examinations for promotion to the rank of lieutenant took place, sat by several hundred midshipmen each year.[29] The Admiralty Museum (a precursor to the National Maritime Museum) was also accommodated there, in the central room above the south portico.[29] In 1832 the Navy Board and its subsidiaries were abolished and their departments placed under the direct oversight of the Admiralty. Their administrative staff remained in Somerset House, but communications with the Admiralty (based a mile away in Whitehall) were problematic as what became known as the "civil departments" of the Admiralty guarded their independence. In 1868, the Admiralty took the decision to move all their staff from Somerset House to Whitehall; this necessitated reconfiguring what had been a set of residences there pertaining to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty into office accommodation.[44] Nevertheless, the move was completed by 1873, and the expanding Inland Revenue immediately took over the vacated space in Somerset House.[34] Taxes, stamps and the Inland Revenue The Stamp Office, Somerset House: the basement stamping room. From the beginning of the new Somerset House there was a fiscal presence in the shape of the Stamp Office and the Tax Office, the former occupying the eastern part of the South Wing from 1789 and the latter occupying part of the East Wing. The Stamp Office had the task of applying an impressed duty stamp to various specific items to show that the required duty had been paid. For example, up until 1855 (when the relevant duty was abolished) every newspaper produced in the country had to be brought to Somerset House to be stamped.[45] The Tax Office administered and collected various taxes, including income tax (first levied in 1799). Introduced as a means of raising revenue in wartime, it was collected during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars; though repealed in 1816, it was reintroduced in peacetime (in 1842) and has been collected ever since.[46] The Inland Revenue was created by a merger of the Stamp and Taxes Office and the Excise Office in 1849; in 1854 the Excise Office staff were moved from their old headquarters in the City of London into the newly built New Wing.[47] Somerset House continued in use by the Inland Revenue throughout the 20th century. In 2005, the Inland Revenue was merged with HM Customs and Excise; its successor HM Revenue & Customs continued to occupy much of the building, although its executive and senior management moved to 100 Parliament Street shortly after the merger. Various divisions and directorates of HMRC continued to occupy the East Wing until 2009, the West Wing until 2011 and the New Wing until March 2013, by which time all staff had been relocated (with most moving across the street to the southwest wing of Bush House). This brought to an end a 224-year association of the revenue services with Somerset House.[48] Somerset House Laboratory In 1842, the Excise Office had established a laboratory within its Broad Street headquarters for the prevention of the adulteration of tobacco products. It had started as basically a one-man operation by an employee of the Excise, George Phillips. After the Excise Office had been merged with the Office of Stamps and Taxes to form the Inland Revenue, the latter took over the laboratory; by 1858 it was reestablished in Somerset House as the Inland Revenue Laboratory (with Phillips remaining in charge). It was also known as the Somerset House Laboratory. Under the Inland Revenue, the Laboratory's work expanded to encompass the testing of many different substances, including food, beer and spirits, as well as tobacco.[49] Phillips retired as principal chemist in 1874. James Bell was then the principal chemist of Somerset House Laboratory until his retirement in 1894.[50] He was replaced as principal chemist by Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe. At the same time, the laboratory was amalgamated with a similar facility that had been established within HM Customs and it was renamed the Government Laboratory. In 1897, Thorpe moved the Government Laboratory from Somerset House to a new building of his own design.[51] Registry of Births, Marriages and Deaths In 1837, following the establishment of civil registration in the United Kingdom, the Registrar General of Births, Marriages and Deaths set up his office in the North Wing of Somerset House, establishing a connection that lasted for over 130 years. This office held all birth, marriage and death certificates in England and Wales until 1970, when the Registry and its associated archives were moved to nearby St Catherine's House at Aldwych.[52] From 1859 until 1998, the Principal Registry of the Court of Probate (latterly the Principal Probate Registry of the Family Division) was based in Somerset House, prior to its move to First Avenue House, High Holborn.[53] Other public offices In addition to the learned societies, the ground floor rooms of the North Wing housed the Hawkers and Pedlars Office (on the west side) and the Hackney Coach Office, the Lottery Office, the Privy Seal and Signet Offices (on the east side).[54] The Hackney Coach commissioners had been established on a permanent footing in 1694,[55] while the Board of Commissioners of Hawkers, Pedlars and Petty Chapmen dated from 1698;[56] the latter was abolished in 1810 and its work taken over by the Hackney Coach Office until its abolition in 1831, whereupon responsibility for licensing both of hackney carriages and of travelling traders passed to the Stamp Office. The Lottery Office, established in 1779, was also abolished in 1831 and its residual business likewise passed to the Stamp Office.[57] The Signet Office was abolished in 1851 and the Privy Seal Office in 1884.[58] One of the first occupants of the building had been the Duchy of Cornwall Office. It was accommodated in the East Wing along with the Tax Office and various Exchequer offices (including the Pipe Office, the Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer's Office and the Office of the Clerk of the Estreats). As early as 1795 the Exchequer was requesting that more space be made available; Sir John Soane was engaged to redesign their offices, and as part of the scheme the Duchy was relocated to another part of the East Wing, prompting complaints from its officers.[59] Pipe rolls and other ancient records of the Treasury and Exchequer (which had been moved to Somerset House from the Palace of Westminster in 1793) remained stored in the basements until the establishment of the Public Record Office in 1838.[60] The office of Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer ceased to exist in 1833 and the Pipe Office was abolished in 1834; however space in Somerset House continued to be at a premium: in 1854 an Act of Parliament was passed (the Duchy of Cornwall Office Act 1854) noting that the Duchy's rooms in Somerset House were now needed "for the use of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, whose present office is insufficient for the Business thereof, and adjoins the said Office of the Duchy of Cornwall". The Act provided for the Duchy Office to move to new, purpose-built premises in Pimlico: now known as 10 Buckingham Gate, the building still serves as head office for the Duchy.[61] From 1785 the Commissioners for Auditing Public Accounts were also housed in the East Wing,[29] as was the Duchy of Lancaster Office (having moved there from accommodation in Gray's Inn) until it moved in 1823 to new offices across the road in Lancaster Place.[62] The Surveyor of Crown Lands also had his office here until the early 19th century. The Salt Office initially occupied rooms in the West Wing, alongside the naval offices, but it was abolished in 1798 (administration of the salt tax having been transferred to the Board of Excise).[54] During the 19th century the North Wing contained, in addition, the offices of the Poor Law Commissioners (1834–47)[63] and the Tithe Commissioners (1836–51),[64] who also acted as the Copyhold Commissioners.[29] 19th-century expansion Part of the New Wing (main entrance facing Lancaster Place). Magnificent as the new building was, it was something short of what Chambers had intended, for he had planned for an additional terrace of houses to the east, as well as to the west of the quadrangle; work had stopped short, however, cost being the inhibiting factor. Eventually King's College London was erected to the east (the government granting the land on condition that the design conformed to Chambers' original design) by subscription between 1829 and 1834;[65] the architect was Sir Robert Smirke.[29] At the same time, as part of Smirke's scheme, the eastern third of the river frontage was completed, following Chambers's original design.[31] Then, increasing demand for space led to another and last step. The western edge of the site was occupied by a row of houses used as dwellings for Admiralty officials who worked in the South Wing. Between 1851 and 1856, this terrace was substantially expanded and remodelled to provide the Inland Revenue with an entire new wing of additional office accommodation. As part of this development, its architect James Pennethorne created a monumental new façade alongside the approach road to Waterloo Bridge (which had not been in existence when Chambers was alive).[29] 150 years later this part of the building is still known as the "New Wing".[66] In 1891 a headquarters building was constructed in the West Court (between the West Wing and the New Wing) for the Civil Service Rifles, a Rifle Volunteer Corps.[67] 20th-century modifications Civil Service Rifles War Memorial: installed in the main courtyard in 1919, relocated to the Terrace in 2002. By the start of the First World War the Civil Service Rifles, by then renamed the 15th (Prince of Wales' Own Civil Service Rifles) Battalion, The London Regiment,[68][69] had its own Morris tube firing range (where the calibre of the rifle is reduced for indoor operation by a use of a tube) fitted with vanishing and running targets at Somerset House.[70] Somerset House had its share of trials and tribulations during the London blitz in the Second World War. Apart from comparatively minor blast effects at various times, sixteen rooms and the handsome rotunda staircase (the Nelson Stair) were completely destroyed in the South Wing, and a further 27 damaged in the West Wing by a direct hit in October 1940.[71] Still more windows were shattered and balustrades toppled, but the worst was over by the end of May 1941. It was not until the 1950s that this damage to the South Wing was repaired. The work required skilled masons, whose services were hard to come by in the early post-war years. Sir Albert Richardson was appointed architect for the reconstruction. He skillfully recreated the Nelson Room and rebuilt the Nelson Stair. The work was completed in 1952 at a cost of (then) £84,000.[71] In 1984 the Somerset House Act was passed, legislating the way for Somerset House to be redeveloped as a centre for the arts. In 1997 the Somerset House Trust was established as a charity to maintain the building and develop it as a centre for arts and culture.[48] In the late 20th century the building began to be reinvigorated as a centre for the visual arts. The first institution to move in (in 1989) was the Courtauld Institute of Art, including the Courtauld Gallery, which has an important collection of old master and impressionist paintings. The Courtauld occupies the North Wing.[72] 21st-century redevelopment The dancing fountains were installed in the 1990s. The main courtyard, which had been used as a civil-service car park, and the main terrace overlooking the Thames were refurbished and opened to the public, these alterations being overseen by the conservation architects Donald Insall & Associates. Grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund financed the conversion of the South Wing between 1999 and 2003: a visitor centre featuring audio-visual displays on the history of the building, the gilded state barge of the Lord Mayor of the City of London and a shop and café were opened, overlooking the river. The Gilbert Collection of decorative arts, and the Hermitage Rooms, which stage exhibitions of items loaned from the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg, moved into the same area.[73] The last Hermitage exhibition took place in 2007 and the Gilbert Collection galleries closed in 2008; the collection moved into new galleries at the Victoria and Albert Museum in June 2009. Somerset House now puts on a programme of art exhibitions, drawing on various sources.[74] In stages from 2009 to 2013, HM Revenue and Customs withdrew from the other parts of the building; since March 2013 the Somerset House Trust has had oversight of the entire complex. Its management policy has been to rent out the upper floors at a commercial rate to "creative businesses", while devoting the ground floor to "public realm" activities. The trust receives no public subsidy and relies on income from rent and private hire to fund the upkeep of the estate and relies on ticket sales, merchandising and sponsorship to fund its artistic and cultural programme.[48] The ice-skating rink at Somerset House during Christmas 2004. In the winter the central courtyard is home to a popular open-air ice rink, as seen during the opening credits of the 2003 Christmas-themed film Love Actually.[75] At other times, an array of fountains display 55 vertical jets of water rising to random heights.[76] Post-rock band Mogwai playing live at Somerset House. The courtyard is also used as a concert venue.[77] In July each year the "Summer series" of music events take place, which have included performances from artists such as Lily Allen.[78] Somerset House is now residence to more than a hundred tenants, comprising a large and diverse collection of creative organisations and artists including Dance Umbrella, 7Wonder, Outset Contemporary Art Fund, Hofesh Shechter Company and the Royal Society of Literature.[79] The largest tenant is King's College London, whose Cultural Institute, Executive Centre and Dickson Poon School of Law occupy the East Wing, which is adjacent to its historic College Building of 1831.[80] Filming location Somerset House is a popular filming location, with its exterior featuring in several big-budget Hollywood films. These include two James Bond films, GoldenEye (1995) and Tomorrow Never Dies (1997),[81][82] and several scenes of the 2003 film Shanghai Knights, starring Jackie Chan and Owen Wilson, were filmed in the courtyard of Somerset House.[83][84] The courtyard was also used in the 1991 comedy King Ralph.[85] Elements of the 2008 film The Duchess, starring Keira Knightley and Ralph Fiennes, were filmed in October 2007.[86] Somerset House was also used as a filming location in several Sherlock Holmes films, including 1970's The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes and, more recently, Sherlock Holmes (2009), starring Jude Law and Robert Downey Jr., directed by Guy Ritchie.[87][88] Exterior shots of Somerset House were used in the 1999 Tim Burton horror film Sleepy Hollow, starring Johnny Depp, and the 2006 film Flyboys.[89][90] Somerset House was a filming location in the 2012 Bollywood film Jab Tak Hai Jaan, which starred Shah Rukh Khan, Katrina Kaif and Anushka Sharma, directed by Yash Chopra.[91] Somerset House Courtyard was also used in the 2008 movie Last Chance Harvey, with Dustin Hoffman and Emma Thompson.[92] Scenes were filmed in Somerset House for the Olympus Has Fallen sequel, London Has Fallen (2016).[93] Exterior shots of Somerset House stood in for Himmler's HQ in Berlin in the 1976 film The Eagle Has Landed.[94] The tunnels under Somerset House have also been used in filming Harry Potter, specifically some of scenes depicting 'Diagon Alley'.[95] Somerset House was also the main location for the BBC's New Year Live television show, presented by Natasha Kaplinsky, which celebrated the arrival of the year 2006.[96] Gallery Somerset House in 1817, showing how the Thames originally flowed directly past the building. Somerset House in 1817, showing how the Thames originally flowed directly past the building. The Strand façade of Chambers' Somerset House and the church of St Mary-le-Strand, shown in a view of 1836 The Strand façade of Chambers' Somerset House and the church of St Mary-le-Strand, shown in a view of 1836 Courtyard view of the South and West wings in 1864. Courtyard view of the South and West wings in 1864. The riverfront of Somerset House today, seen from the Victoria Embankment. The riverfront of Somerset House today, seen from the Victoria Embankment. The Strand façade today. The Strand façade today. Courtyard view of the East and South wings today. Courtyard view of the East and South wings today. References Notes "Since the 18th century". Somerset House Trust. Retrieved 27 February 2013. Humphreys (2003), pp. 165–166 Somerset House Trust (2010), Annual Report (PDF), Somerset House Trust, p. 3, archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2012, retrieved 27 February 2013 Thornbury, Walter. "The Victoria Embankment". British History Online. Retrieved 15 February 2015. Thurley et al. (2009), p. 9. Pollard, Albert Frederick (1897). "Seymour, Edward (1506?–1552)" . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 51. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 301. Thurley et al (2009), p. 11. Scard, Margaret (2017). "Who decided Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, should be executed?". History Extra. BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2018. Stow, John (1598). Survey of London. J. M. Dent and Sons. ISBN 978-1548852658. "The Somerset House Conference, 19 August 1604". National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. Retrieved 28 June 2020. Thurley et al (2009), p. 13. Thurley et al (2009), p. 16. Howard Colvin, History of the King's Works, vol. 4 (London, 1982), p. 255: Mary Anne Everett Green, Calendar State Papers Domestic, James I: 1603–1610 (London, 1857), p. 508 citing TNA SP14/45 f.6, 1 May 1609. Jemma Field, Anna of Fenmark: Material Culture of the Stuart Courts (Manchester, 2020), pp. 56–60. Historic England. "Early cistern to Old Somerset House, Historic England listing (1237102)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 1 April 2021. Leeds Barroll, Anna of Denmark, Queen of England: A Cultural Biography (Philadelphia, 2001), pp. 140–2. John Nichols, Progresses of James the First, vol. 4 (London, 1828), pp. 1038–40. "The Secret Gravestones Beneath Somerset House". Londonist. 26 March 2010. Retrieved 14 July 2018. Lindsay, Ivan (2013). The History of Loot and Stolen Art: from Antiquity until the Present Day. Unicorn Publishing. ISBN 978-1906509217. Thurley et al (2009), p. 31. Thurley et al (2009), p. 25. Thurley et al (2009), p. 48. Thurley et al (2009), p. 63. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bedloe, William". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Crown Lands Act 1775 Dictionary of British Sculptors 1660–1851 by Rupert Gunnisp.129 15 Geo.III c.33: An Act for settling Buckingham House, with the Appurtenances, upon the Queen, in case she should survive His Majesty, in lieu of His Majesty's Palace of Somerset House. "House of Lords Journal Volume 34: May 1775, 21–31". Journal of the House of Lords Volume 34, 1774–1776 (London, 1767–1830). British History Online. pp. 464–482. Retrieved 16 July 2019. (London), Somerset House (2018). Somerset House: Guide Book. ISBN 978-1-9996154-1-3. Shand-Tucci, Douglass. Built in Boston: City and Suburb, 1800–2000, p. 6. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999. ISBN 1-55849-201-1. Newman, John; Hornak, Angelo (1990). Somerset House: splendour and order. London: Scala Books. ISBN 9781870248600. Needham, Raymond; Webster, Alexander (1906). Somerset House: Past & Present. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. Retrieved 26 June 2019. Thurley et al (2009), p. 68. "History". Somerset House. 24 September 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2018. Brewer, James Norris (1821). A Descriptive and Historical Account of Various Palaces and Public Buildings. London: William Gilling. Millar, William (2016). Plastering: Plain and Decorative. Routledge. p. 583. ISBN 978-1-317-74168-8. "Design, 1778–80, Angelica Kauffman RA (1741–1807)". Royal Academy. Retrieved 28 June 2019. "The Strand Block of Somerset House, 1780–1836: Part II". History Today. Retrieved 21 March 2018. "History". The Geological Society. Retrieved 21 March 2018. "A brief history of the RAS". Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 21 March 2018. Thurley et al (2009), p. 75. "Government School of Design (London)". Mapping Sculpture. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "Somerset House looking East". Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved 21 March 2018. Coad, Jonathan (2013). Support for the Fleet. English Heritage. "Information panel". "The Income Tax". Hansard. 21 March 1842. Retrieved 14 July 2018. Smith, Graham (1980). Something to Declare: 1000 years of Customs & Excise. London: Harrap & Co. "Annual Report and Accounts 2014–15". Somerset House Trust. Retrieved 28 March 2018. "Laboratory of the Government Chemist". Grace's Guide to British Industrial History. Retrieved 20 March 2018. "obit. Dr. James Bell, C.B., F.R.S." Nature. 77 (2006): 539–540. 9 April 1908. doi:10.1038/077539a0. "Thomas Edward Thorpe". Grace's Guide. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "St. Catherine's House". Vital Certificates. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "Somerset House: Court of Probate. Elevation of New Principal Registry". National Archives. Retrieved 5 April 2018. Urban, Sylvanus (1807). "Somerset House". The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle. 77: 545. "Vehicle registration and licensing records" (PDF). London Metropolitan Archives. Corporation of London. Retrieved 4 April 2018. "Pedlars Act 1697" (PDF). "Lottery Office records". National Archives. Retrieved 4 April 2018. "Records of the Keeper of the Privy Seal". National Archives. Retrieved 4 April 2018. "London: Somerset House, Lords Commissioners of the Treasury: designs for alterations to offices, 1795". Sir John Soane's Museum Collection online. Retrieved 4 April 2018. Cooper, C.P., ed. (1837). Evidence ... before the Select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed 'to inquire into the management of the Record Commission and the present state of the records of the United Kingdom'. London: House of Commons. p. 205. "Office of the Duchy of Cornwall, Buckingham Gate, Pimlico, London" (architectural drawing), RIBA. "Records of the Duchy of Lancaster". National Archives. Retrieved 4 April 2018. "Records of the Poor Law Commission, Poor Law Board and Poor Law Department of the Local Government Board". National Archives. Retrieved 5 April 2018. "Somerset House. Tithe Commission Office. Plans & Elevation Of the Proposed Additions". National Archives. Retrieved 5 April 2018. "Westminster City Council resolves to grant planning permission for Strand redevelopment". 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "New Wing". Somerset House. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "Somerset House: West Court – Civil Service Volunteers Building". National Archives. Retrieved 5 April 2018. "15th (Prince of Wales' Own Civil Service Rifles) Battalion, The London Regiment". Wartime memories. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "City of Westminster". Stepping Forward. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "The Anatomy of a Drill Hall". The Drill Hall Project. Retrieved 14 July 2018. "Plan for the Reconstruction of the South Wing of Somerset House, London". Stephen Onping Fine Art. Retrieved 14 July 2018. Thurley et al (2009), p. 85. "Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House". Cultural Innovations. 2009. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013. "Somerset House". Time Out London. 10 July 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2013. "The Big Skate: outdoor ice rinks in London". BBC. 25 November 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2013. Humphreys (2003), p. 166. Somerset House – Music Archived 19 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Thurley et al (2009), p. 123. "Residents". Somerset House. 29 August 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2017. "Restoration of a Grade I listed Building" (PDF). WRAP. Retrieved 27 February 2013. "Goldeneye (1995): Wade's car breaks down". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Tomorrow Never Dies (1997)". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Shanghai Knights (2003): Driving off with Charlie in tow". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Shanghai Knights (2003): Final goodbyes". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Where was King Ralph filmed?". British Film Locations. Retrieved 31 October 2017. "Duchess, The (2008): Devonshire House exterior". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Private Life Of Sherlock Holmes, The (1970): Diogenes Club exterior". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Sherlock Holmes (2009): Pentonville prison – Blackwood's cell". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Sleepy Hollow (1999): New York street scenes". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Flyboys (2006): French street scenes". British-Film-Locations.com. Retrieved 28 February 2013. Steven Baker (23 September 2012). "'Jab Tak Hai Jaan' London film locations revealed". Digital Spy. Retrieved 28 February 2013. "Dustin Hoffman and Emma Thompson filming on South Bank". London SE1. 21 May 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2018. Tam, Johnny (8 March 2015). "Gerard Butler spotted speeding down Strand in filming of action thriller". Roar News. Retrieved 31 March 2015. "The Eagle Has Landed". Reel Streets. Retrieved 14 February 2020. "The Real Diagon Alley – Harry Potter". www.the-magician.co.uk. Retrieved 4 May 2022. "Somerset House, The Portico Room". Pole Structural Engineers. Retrieved 28 February 2013. Bibliography Borer, Mary Cathcart The City of London: A History. New York: McKay, 1977 (pp 156) Humphreys, Rob (2003). The Rough Guide to London (5 ed.). Rough Guides Ltd. pp. 165–6. ISBN 1843530937. "somerset house." Stow, John A Survey of London. Reprinted from the Text of 1603. Ed. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1908 (2:394–395) Thurley, Simon; et al. (2009). Etherington-Smith, Meredith (ed.). Somerset House: The History. Somerset House Trust/Cultureshock Media. ISBN 978-0956266903. External links Media related to Somerset House at Wikimedia Commons Official website of Somerset House vte British royal residences vte London landmarks Portals: icon Architecture icon London Authority control: Geographic Edit this at Wikidata MusicBrainz place Structurae Categories: Arts centres in LondonMuseums in the City of WestminsterNational government buildings in LondonRoyal buildings in LondonCourtauld Institute of ArtHM Revenue and CustomsKing's College LondonHouses completed in 1796Grade I listed buildings in the City of WestminsterGrade I listed government buildingsGrade I listed educational buildingsGrade I listed museum buildingsWilliam Chambers buildingsGeorgian architecture in the City of WestminsterNeoclassical architecture in London1796 establishments in EnglandVictoria EmbankmentStrand, LondonAnne of DenmarkCharlotte of Mecklenburg-StrelitzCatherine of BraganzaHenrietta Maria https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_House Petroleum industry Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Oil patch" redirects here. For the magazine, see Oil Patch Hotline. World oil reserves, 2013. The petroleum industry, also known as the oil industry or the oil patch, includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transportation (often by oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing of petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, synthetic fragrances, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream, and downstream. Upstream regards exploration and extraction of crude oil, midstream encompasses transportation and storage of crude, and downstream concerns refining crude oil into various end products. Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is necessary for the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, making it a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world’s energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia, to a high of 53% for the Middle East. Other geographic regions' consumption patterns are as follows: South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world consumes 36 billion barrels (5.8 km³) of oil per year,[1] with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 18% of the oil produced in 2015.[2] The production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the world's largest industry in terms of dollar value. The oil and gas industry spends only 0,4% of its net sales on Research & Development which is in comparison with a range of other industries the lowest share.[3] Governments such as the United States government provide a heavy public subsidy to petroleum companies, with major tax breaks at various stages of oil exploration and extraction, including the costs of oil field leases and drilling equipment.[4] In recent years, enhanced oil recovery techniques — most notably multi-stage drilling and hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") — have moved to the forefront of the industry as this new technology plays a crucial and controversial role in new methods of oil extraction.[5] History Main article: History of the petroleum industry Oil Field in Baku, Azerbaijan, 1926 Prehistory Natural oil spring in Korňa, Slovakia. Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations. It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat and pressure in Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Over time, the decayed residue was covered by layers of mud and silt, sinking further down into Earth’s crust and preserved there between hot and pressured layers, gradually transforming into oil reservoirs.[6] Early history Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general has been used since early human history to keep fires ablaze and in warfare. Its importance to the world economy however, evolved slowly, with whale oil being used for lighting in the 19th century and wood and coal used for heating and cooking well into the 20th century. Even though the Industrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy, this was initially met mainly by coal, and from other sources including whale oil. However, when it was discovered that kerosene could be extracted from crude oil and used as a lighting and heating fuel, the demand for petroleum increased greatly, and by the early twentieth century had become the most valuable commodity traded on world markets.[7] Modern history See also: The Petroleum Trail and Industrial development in the Principality of Wallachia Oil wells in Boryslav Galician oil wells After recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, energy company profits increased with greater revenues from higher fuel prices resulting from the Russian invasion of Ukraine, falling debt levels, tax write-downs of projects shut down in Russia, and backing off from earlier plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[8] Record profits sparked public calls for windfall taxes.[8] World crude oil production from wells (excludes surface-mined oil, such as from Canadian heavy oil sands), 1930-2012 Graphs are temporarily unavailable due to technical issues. Top oil-producing countries[9] Imperial Russia produced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century.[10] After oil drilling began in the region of present-day Azerbaijan in 1846, in Baku, the Russian Empire built two large pipelines: the 833 km long pipeline to transport oil from the Caspian to the Black Sea port of Batum (Baku-Batum pipeline), completed in 1906, and the 162 km long pipeline to carry oil from Chechnya to the Caspian. The first drilled oil wells in Baku were built in 1871-1872 by Ivan Mirzoev, an Armenian businessman who is referred to as one of the 'founding fathers' of Baku's oil industry.[11][12] At the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russia's output of oil, almost entirely from the Apsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the world's production and dominated international markets.[13] Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884.[14] As a side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the world's "oldest legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence".[15] In 1846 Baku (Bibi-Heybat settlement) featured the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration. In 1878 Ludvig Nobel and his Branobel company "revolutionized oil transport" by commissioning the first oil tanker and launching it on the Caspian Sea.[13] Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street in 1853. Ignacy Łukasiewicz built one of the first modern oil-refineries near Jasło (then in the Austrian dependent Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria in Central European Galicia), present-day Poland, in 1854–56.[16] Galician refineries were initially small, as demand for refined fuel was limited. The refined products were used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to Łukasiewicz's kerosene lamp. As kerosene lamps gained popularity, the refining industry grew in the area. The first commercial oil-well in Canada became operational in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario (then Canada West).[17] Businessman James Miller Williams dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground.[18][19] Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene-lamp oil.[17] Some historians challenge Canada's claim to North America's first oil field, arguing that Pennsylvania's famous Drake Well was the continent's first. But there is evidence to support Williams, not least of which is that the Drake well did not come into production until August 28, 1859. The controversial point might be that Williams found oil above bedrock while Edwin Drake’s well located oil within a bedrock reservoir. The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Canada's first gusher (flowing well) erupted on January 16, 1862, when local oil-man John Shaw struck oil at 158 feet (48 m).[20] For a week the oil gushed unchecked at levels reported as high as 3,000 barrels per day. The first modern oil-drilling in the United States began in West Virginia and Pennsylvania in the 1850s. Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, typically considered[by whom?] the first true[citation needed] modern[citation needed] oil well, touched off a major boom.[21][22][23][need quotation to verify] In the first quarter of the 20th century, the United States overtook Russia as the world's largest oil producer. By the 1920s, oil fields had been established[by whom?] in many countries including Canada, Poland, Sweden, Ukraine, the United States, Peru and Venezuela.[23] The first successful oil tanker, the Zoroaster, was built in 1878 in Sweden, designed by Ludvig Nobel. It operated from Baku to Astrakhan.[24] A number of new tanker designs developed in the 1880s. In the early 1930s the Texas Company developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico. In 1937 Pure Oil Company (now part of Chevron Corporation) and its partner Superior Oil Company (now part of ExxonMobil Corporation) used a fixed platform to develop a field in 14 feet (4.3 m) of water, one mile (1.6 km) offshore of Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana. In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a drilling/production oil-platform in 20 ft (6.1 m) of water some 18 miles[vague] off Vermilion Parish, Louisiana. Kerr-McGee Oil Industries, as operator for partners Phillips Petroleum (ConocoPhillips) and Stanolind Oil & Gas (BP), completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32 well in November 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's Gulf of Mexico well, Kermac No. 16, the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land.[25][page needed][26] Forty-four Gulf of Mexico exploratory wells discovered 11 oil and natural gas fields by the end of 1949.[27] During World War II (1939–1945) control of oil supply from Romania, Baku, the Middle East and the Dutch East Indies played a huge role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the Allies. The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran (1941) secured Allied control of oil-production in the Middle East. The expansion of Imperial Japan to the south aimed largely at accessing the oil-fields of the Dutch East Indies. Germany, cut off from sea-borne oil supplies by Allied blockade, failed in Operation Edelweiss to secure the Caucasus oil-fields for the Axis military in 1942, while Romania deprived the Wehrmacht of access to Ploesti oilfields - the largest in Europe - from August 1944. Cutting off the East Indies oil-supply (especially via submarine campaigns) considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the war. After World War II ended in 1945, the countries of the Middle East took the lead in oil production from the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the drillship, and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum - relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In 1949 the first offshore oil-drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil–producing nations - OPEC and OAPEC - played a major role in setting petroleum prices and policy. Oil spills and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental, and economic importance. New fields of hydrocarbon production developed in places such as Siberia, Sakhalin, Venezuela and North and West Africa. With the advent of hydraulic fracturing and other horizontal drilling techniques, shale play has seen an enormous uptick in production. Areas of shale such as the Permian Basin and Eagle-Ford have become huge hotbeds of production for the largest oil corporations in the United States.[28] Structure NIS refinery in Pančevo, Serbia The American Petroleum Institute divides the petroleum industry into five sectors:[29] upstream (exploration, development and production of crude oil or natural gas) downstream (oil tankers, refiners, retailers and consumers) pipeline marine service and supply Upstream Oil companies used to be classified by sales as "supermajors" (BP, Chevron, ExxonMobil, ConocoPhillips, Shell, Eni and TotalEnergies), "majors", and "independents" or "jobbers". In recent years however, National Oil Companies (NOC, as opposed to IOC, International Oil Companies) have come to control the rights over the largest oil reserves; by this measure the top ten companies all are NOC. The following table shows the ten largest national oil companies ranked by reserves[30][31] and by production in 2012.[32] Top 10 largest world oil companies by reserves and production Rank Company (Reserves) Worldwide Liquids Reserves (109 bbl) Worldwide Natural Gas Reserves (1012 ft3) Total Reserves in Oil Equivalent Barrels (109 bbl) Company (Production) Output (Millions bbl/day)[1] 1 Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco 260 254 303 Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco 12.5 2 Iran NIOC 138 948 300 Iran NIOC 6.4 3 Qatar QatarEnergy 15 905 170 United States ExxonMobil 5.3 4 Iraq INOC 116 120 134 China PetroChina 4.4 5 Venezuela PDVSA 99 171 129 United Kingdom BP 4.1 6 United Arab Emirates ADNOC 92 199 126 Netherlands United Kingdom Royal Dutch Shell 3.9 7 Mexico Pemex 102 56 111 Mexico Pemex 3.6 8 Nigeria NNPC 36 184 68 United States Chevron 3.5 9 Libya NOC 41 50 50 Kuwait Kuwait Petroleum Corporation 3.2 10 Algeria Sonatrach 12 159 39 United Arab Emirates ADNOC 2.9 ^1 : Total energy output, including natural gas (converted to bbl of oil) for companies producing both. Most upstream work in the oil field or on an oil well is contracted out to drilling contractors and oil field service companies.[citation needed] Aside from the NOCs which dominate the Upstream sector, there are many international companies that have a market share. For example:[33] BG Group BHP ConocoPhillips Chevron Eni ExxonMobil First Texas Energy Corporation Hess Marathon Oil oil company petroleum products OMV TotalEnergies Tullow Oil Rosneft Midstream Midstream operations are sometimes classified within the downstream sector, but these operations compose a separate and discrete sector of the petroleum industry. Midstream operations and processes include the following: Gathering: The gathering process employs narrow, low-pressure pipelines to connect oil- and gas-producing wells to larger, long-haul pipelines or processing facilities.[34] Processing/refining: Processing and refining operations turn crude oil and gas into marketable products. In the case of crude oil, these products include heating oil, gasoline for use in vehicles, jet fuel, and diesel oil.[35] Oil refining processes include distillation, vacuum distillation, catalytic reforming, catalytic cracking, alkylation, isomerization and hydrotreating.[35] Natural gas processing includes compression; glycol dehydration; amine treating; separating the product into pipeline-quality natural gas and a stream of mixed natural gas liquids; and fractionation, which separates the stream of mixed natural gas liquids into its components. The fractionation process yields ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and natural gasoline. Transportation: Oil and gas are transported to processing facilities, and from there to end users, by pipeline, tanker/barge, truck, and rail. Pipelines are the most economical transportation method and are most suited to movement across longer distances, for example, across continents.[36] Tankers and barges are also employed for long-distance, often international transport. Rail and truck can also be used for longer distances but are most cost-effective for shorter routes. Storage: Midstream service providers provide storage facilities at terminals throughout the oil and gas distribution systems. These facilities are most often located near refining and processing facilities and are connected to pipeline systems to facilitate shipment when product demand must be met. While petroleum products are held in storage tanks, natural gas tends to be stored in underground facilities, such as salt dome caverns and depleted reservoirs. Technological applications: Midstream service providers apply technological solutions to improve efficiency during midstream processes. Technology can be used during compression of fuels to ease flow through pipelines; to better detect leaks in pipelines; and to automate communications for better pipeline and equipment monitoring. While some upstream companies carry out certain midstream operations, the midstream sector is dominated by a number of companies that specialize in these services. Midstream companies include: Aux Sable Bridger Group DCP Midstream Partners Enbridge Energy Partners Enterprise Products Partners Genesis Energy Gibson Energy Inergy Midstream Kinder Morgan Energy Partners Oneok Partners Plains All American Sunoco Logistics Targa Midstream Services Targray Natural Gas Liquids TransCanada Williams Companies Environmental impact Main article: Environmental impact of the petroleum industry Water pollution See also: Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish Some petroleum industry operations have been responsible for water pollution through by-products of refining and oil spills. Though hydraulic fracturing has significantly increased natural gas extraction, there is some belief and evidence to support that consumable water has seen increased in methane contamination due to this gas extraction.[37] Leaks from underground tanks and abandoned refineries may also contaminate groundwater in surrounding areas. Hydrocarbons that comprise refined petroleum are resistant to biodegradation and have been found to remain present in contaminated soils for years.[38] To hasten this process, bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants is often employed by means of aerobic degradation.[39] More recently, other bioremediative methods have been explored such as phytoremediation and thermal remediation.[40][41] Air pollution See also: Air pollution The industry is the largest industrial source of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a group of chemicals that contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone (smog).[42] The combustion of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases and other air pollutants as by-products. Pollutants include nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals. Researchers have discovered that the petrochemical industry can produce ground-level ozone pollution at higher amounts in winter than in summer.[43] Climate change See also: Fossil fuel phase-out The greenhouse gases due to fossil fuels drive climate change. Already in 1959, at a symposium organised by the American Petroleum Institute for the centennial of the American oil industry, the physicist Edward Teller warned then of the danger of global climate change.[44] Edward Teller explained that carbon dioxide "in the atmosphere causes a greenhouse effect" and that burning more fossil fuels could "melt the icecap and submerge New York".[44] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, founded by the United Nations in 1988, concludes that human-sourced greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the twentieth century. As a result of climate change concerns, many alternative energy enthusiasts have begun using other methods of energy such as solar and wind, among others. This recent view has some petroleum enthusiasts skeptical about the true future of the industry.[45] See also Industry pioneers Faustino Piaggio, an early oil industry pioneer Oil production Oil peak Oil terminal Oil supplies Integrated operations Instrumentation in petrochemical industries Standardization in oil industry ISO/TC 67 List of crude oil products Financial and political List of oil exploration and production companies List of largest oil and gas companies by revenue Chronology of world oil market events (1970–2005) Energy crisis: 1973 oil crisis, 1979 energy crisis Energy development Petroleum politics Oil imperialism theories World oil market chronology from 2003 Oil-storage trade Oil and gas law in the United States Fossil fuels lobby Environmental issues Environmental impact of the petroleum industry Greenhouse gases Routine flaring Oil spills Oil geology Abiogenic petroleum origin Fossil fuel Oil sands Petroleum geology Thermal depolymerization Oil-producing areas History of the petroleum industry in Canada History of the petroleum industry in the United States List of oil fields Oil megaprojects List of countries by oil production Oil industry in Azerbaijan Industry Research Projects TaskForceMajella Other articles All pages with titles containing oil industry All pages with titles containing petroleum industry All pages with titles containing gas industry Notes and references Sönnichsen, N. "Daily global crude oil demand 2006-2020". Statista. Retrieved 9 October 2020. "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency — Country Comparison :: Refined Petroleum Products - Consumption". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2020. "The Pharmaceutical Industry in Figures Key Data 2021" (PDF). European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations. Retrieved 28 June 2022. Kocieniewski, David (2010-07-03). "As Oil Industry Fights a Tax, It Reaps Subsidies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-08-04. Boudet, Hilary; Clarke, Christopher; Bugden, Dylan; Maibach, Edward; Roser-Renouf, Connie; Leiserowitz, Anthony (2014-02-01). ""Fracking" controversy and communication: Using national survey data to understand public perceptions of hydraulic fracturing". Energy Policy. 65: 57–67. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.017. ISSN 0301-4215. Speight, James (2014-01-30). The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, Fifth Edition. Chemical Industries. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b16559. ISBN 9781439873892. Halliday, Fred. The Middle East in International Relations: Cambridge University Press: USA, p. 270 Bousso, Ron (8 February 2023). "Big Oil doubles profits in blockbuster 2022". Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. ● Details for 2020 from the more detailed diagram in King, Ben (12 February 2023). "Why are BP, Shell, and other oil giants making so much money right now?". BBC. Archived from the original on 22 April 2023. "Crude oil including lease condensate production (Mb/d)". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2020-04-14. N.Y. Krylov, A.A. Bokserman, E.R.Stavrovsky. The Oil Industry of the Former Soviet Union. CRC Press, 1998. P. 187. Altstadt, Audrey L. (1980). Economic Development and Political Reform in Baku: The Response of the Azerbaidzhani Bourgeoisie. Wilson Center, Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies. Daintith, Terence (2010). Finders Keepers?: How the Law of Capture Shaped the World Oil Industry. Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-936331-76-5. Shirin Akiner, Anne Aldis. The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security. Routledge, 2004. P. 5. United States Congress, Joint Economic Committee. The Former Soviet Union in Transition. M.E. Sharpe, 1993. P. 463. Quoted from: Tatyana Saiko. Environmental Crises. Pearson Education, 2000. P. 223. Frank, Alison Fleig (2005). Oil Empire: Visions of Prosperity in Austrian Galicia (Harvard Historical Studies). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01887-7. "Black Gold: Canada's Oil Heritage". The Corporation of the County of Lambton. Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2013. "The North American oil industry began in Oil Springs in 1858 in less spectacular fashion. James Miller Williams, a coachmaker from Hamilton, dug into the tar-like gum beds of Enniskillen Township to find their source. At a depth of fourteen feet, he struck oil. Williams immediately built a small refinery and began to produce illuminating oil for lamps - kerosene. It was Williams who was able to take full advantage of the ancient resource. Not only was he astute enough to look below the surface of the gum beds to find oil and to realize its commercial potential, but the timing of his discovery was perfect." Turnbull Elford, Jean. Canada West's Last Frontier. Lambton County Historical Society, 1982, p. 110 Sarnia Observer and Lambton Advertiser, "Important Discovery in the Township of Enniskillen Archived 2015-04-03 at the Wayback Machine," 5 August 1858, p. 2. "Extraordinary Flowing Oil Well". Hamilton Times. 20 January 1862. p. 2. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2013. "Our correspondent writes us from the Oil Springs, under date of the 16th inst., [an] interesting account of a flowing Oil well which has just been tapped. He says:— I have just time to mention that to-day at half past eleven o'clock, a.m., Mr. John Shaw, from Kingston, C. W., tapped a vein of oil in his well, at a depth of one hundred and fifty-eight feet in the rock, which filled the surface well, (forty-five feet to the rock) and the conductors [sic] in the course of fifteen minutes, and immediately commenced flowing. It will hardly be credited, but nevertheless such is the case, that the present enormous flow of oil cannot be estimated at less than two thousand barrels per day, (twenty-four hours), of pure oil, and the quantity increasing every hour. I saw three men in the course of one hour, fill fifty barrels from the flow of oil, which is running away in every direction; the flat presenting the appearance of a sea of oil. The excitement is intense, and hundreds are rushing from every quarter to see this extraordinary well. Experience oil well diggers from the other side, affirm that this week equals their best flowing wells in Pennsylvania, and they pronounced the oil as being of a superior quality. This flowing well is situation on lot No. 10, Range B, Messrs. Sanborn & Co.'s Oil Territory." John Steele Gordon Archived 2008-04-20 at the Wayback Machine "10 Moments That Made American Business," American Heritage, February/March 2007 - "Drake, who seems to have awarded himself the title of colonel by which he is often known, had a great deal of trouble persuading a salt-drilling crew to try to drill for oil, but on August 27, 1859, he struck it at 69 feet." Vassiliou, Marius S. (2 March 2009). "Titusville". Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Historical Dictionaries of Professions and Industries, No. 3. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press (published 2009). p. 508. ISBN 9780810862883. Retrieved 22 February 2021. "In August 1859, an important early well was drilled by Edwin Drake outside Titusville, initiating the Pennsylvania oil boom." Vassiliou, Marius (2018). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry, 2nd Ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 621 pp. Tolf, Robert W. (1976). "4: The World's First Oil Tankers". The Russian Rockefellers: The Saga of the Nobel Family and the Russian Oil Industry. Hoover Press. ISBN 0-8179-6581-5. p. 55. Ref accessed 02-12-89 by technical aspects and coast mapping. Kerr-McGee "Project Redsand". www.project-redsand.com. Wells, Bruce. "Offshore Petroleum History". American Oil & Gas Historical Society. Retrieved 11 November 2014. Farah, Stanley, Rachel (2018-07-24). "Comparison of Two Active Hydrocarbon Production Regions in Texas to Determine Boomtown Growth and Development: A Geospatial Analysis of Active Well Locations and Demographic Changes, 2000-2017". "Industry Sectors", American Petroleum Institute, archived from the original on 25 January 2012, retrieved 12 May 2008 "Ranked in order of 2007 worldwide oil equivalent reserves as reported in "OGJ 200/100"". Oil & Gas Journal. September 15, 2008. Pirog, Robert (August 21, 2007). "The Role of National Oil Companies in the International Oil Market" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 2009-09-17. Ranking by oil reserves and production, 2006 values "The World's 25 Biggest Oil Companies". Forbes. July 16, 2012. "Membership". International Association of oil and Gas Producers. Archived from the original on 2013-11-22. Retrieved 2013-11-04. "The Transportation of Natural Gas". NaturalGas.org. Archived from the original on 2011-01-01. Retrieved December 14, 2012. "Refining and Product Specifications Module Overview". Petroleum Online. International Human Resources Development Corporation. Retrieved December 14, 2012. Trench, Cheryl J. (December 2001). "How Pipelines Make the Oil Market Work – Their Networks, Operation and Regulation" (PDF). Allegro Energy Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-28. Osborn, Stephen G.; Vengosh, Avner; Warner, Nathaniel R.; Jackson, Robert B. (2011-05-17). "Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (20): 8172–8176. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.8172O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1100682108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3100993. PMID 21555547. Diphare, Motshumi., Muzenda, Edison., Remediation of Contaminated Soils: A Review. Intl' Conf. on Chemical, Integrated Waste Management & Environmental Engineering (ICCIWEE'2014) April 15–16, 2014 Johannesburg. M D Yuniati 2018 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 118 012063 Liu, Rui., Jadeja, N. Rajendrasinh., Zhou, Qixing., Liu, Zhe. Treatment and Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soils Using Selective Ornament Plants. Environmental Engineering Sci. 2012 Jun; 29(6): 494–501. Lim, Wei Mei., Lau, Von Ee., Poh, Eong Phaik. A comprehensive guide of remediation technologies for oil contaminated soil — Present works and future directions. Marine Pollution Bulletin. Volume 109, Issue 1, 15 August 2016, Pages 14-45. "Air Quality Planning and Standards". Zamora, Robert; Yuan, Bin; Young, Cora J.; Wild, Robert J.; Warneke, Carsten; Washenfelder, Rebecca A.; Veres, Patrick R.; Tsai, Catalina; Trainer, Michael K.; Thompson, Chelsea R.; Sweeney, Colm; Stutz, Jochen; Soltis, Jeffrey; Senff, Christoph J.; Parrish, David D.; Murphy, Shane M.; Stuart A. McKeen; Li, Shao-Meng; Li, Rui; Lerner, Brian M.; Lefer, Barry L.; Langford, Andrew O.; Koss, Abigail; Helmig, Detlev; Graus, Martin; Gilman, Jessica B.; Flynn, James H.; Field, Robert A.; Dubé, William P.; deGouw, Joost A.; Banta, Robert M.; Ahmadov, Ravan; Roberts, James M.; Brown, Steven S.; Edwards, Peter M. (1 October 2014). "High winter ozone pollution from carbonyl photolysis in an oil and gas basin". Nature. 514 (7522): 351–354. Bibcode:2014Natur.514..351E. doi:10.1038/nature13767. PMID 25274311. S2CID 4466316. Benjamin Franta, "On its 100th birthday in 1959, Edward Teller warned the oil industry about global warming", The Guardian, 1 January 2018 (page visited on 2 January 2018). Martín, Mariano, ed. (2016). Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28752-2. ISBN 978-3-319-28750-8. Further reading Mau, Mark; Edmundson, Henry (2015). Groundbreakers: the Story of Oilfield Technology and the People Who Made It Happen. UK: FastPrint. ISBN 978-178456-187-1. Nevins, Alan. John D. Rockefeller The Heroic Age Of American Enterprise (1940); 710pp; favorable scholarly biography; online Ordons Oil & Gas Information & News Robert Sobel The Money Manias: The Eras of Great Speculation in America, 1770–1970 (1973) reprinted (2000). Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power, (Simon and Schuster 1991; paperback, 1993), ISBN 0-671-79932-0. Matthew R. Simmons, Twilight in the Desert: The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, John Wiley & Sons, 2005, ISBN 0-471-73876-X. Matthew Yeomans, Oil: Anatomy of an Industry (New Press, 2004), ISBN 1-56584-885-3. Smith, GO (1920): Where the World Gets Its Oil: National Geographic, February 1920, pp 181–202 Marius Vassiliou, Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry, 2nd Ed.. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018, 621 pp. ISBN 978-1-5381-1159-8. Ronald W. Ferrier; J. H. Bamberg (1982). The History of the British Petroleum Company: Volume 1, The Developing Years, 1901-1932. Cambridge UP. pp. A–13. ISBN 9780521246477. Miryusif Mirbabayev, Concise History of Azerbaijani Oil. Baku, Azerneshr, (2008), 340pp. Miryusif Mirbabayev, Brief history of the first drilled oil well; and the people involved – Oil-Industry History (USA), 2017, v.18, #1, pp. 25–34. James Douet, The Heritage of the Oil Industry TICCIH Thematic Study – The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage, 2020, 79pp. External links Look up oil patch or oilpatch in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Petroleum industry. Mir-Yusif Mir-Babayev: Petroleum History. The first Baku oil magazine Mir-Yusif Mir-Babayev: The construction of unique pipeline in the Trans-Caucasus Mir-Yusif Mir-Babayev: Brief history of oil and gas production vte Petroleum industry vte Major industries Natural sector Industrial sector Service sector Information sector Related Category Commons Outline Portals: icon Energy Companies icon Global warming Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: Petroleum industryFossil fuelsIndustries (economics) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry West Point Mint Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia U.S. Bullion Depository, West Point, New York U.S. National Register of Historic Places A large light-colored building with a flat roof seen from above, surrounded by bare trees. Mint building from U.S. 9W, 2008 Location West Point, NY Nearest city Peekskill Coordinates 41°23′47″N 73°58′56″WCoordinates: 41°23′47″N 73°58′56″W Area 4 acres (1.6 ha)[1] Built 1937[1] Architect Louis A. Simon[1] NRHP reference No. 88000027 Added to NRHP 1988 The West Point Mint is a U.S. Mint production and depository facility erected in 1937 near the U.S. Military Academy in West Point, New York, United States. As of 2019 the mint holds 22% of the United States' gold reserves, or approximately 54 million ounces[2] (over $100 billion USD as of 2021). The mint at West Point is second only to the gold reserves held in secure storage at Fort Knox. Originally, the West Point Mint was called the West Point Bullion Depository.[3] At one point it had the highest concentration of silver of any U.S. mint facility,[1] and for 12 years produced circulating Lincoln cents. It has since minted mostly commemorative coins and stored gold. It gained official status as a branch of the United States Mint on March 31, 1988. Later that year it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[4] Building Prior to its 2005 remodel that added a second story,[5] the mint was a 170-by-256-foot (52 by 78 m) one-story reinforced concrete structure with a flat roof. The walls are mostly featureless with some recessed arches at the entryways. It is on a 4-acre (1.6 ha) parcel of land near the northern facilities of the United States Military Academy, with parking lots on either side. The interior contains minting presses and bullion compartments.[1] History As of 1937, it served as a storage facility for silver bullion and was thus nicknamed "The Fort Knox of Silver."[3] Even without United States Mint status, it produced U.S. coinage. From 1974[6] through 1986, the West Point Mint produced Lincoln cents bearing no mint mark, making them indistinguishable from those produced at the Philadelphia Mint.[4] The years 1977 to 1979 saw Washington quarters produced as well.[5] Approximately 20 billion dollars worth of gold was stored in its vaults in the early 1980s (although this was still significantly less than at Fort Knox). September 1983 saw the first appearance of the "W" mint mark (from this still unofficial U.S. Mint) on a $10 gold coin commemorating the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games.[7] This was the first legal tender U.S. gold coin minted since 1933. In 1986, American Gold Eagle bullion coins were solely produced at this facility, again, with no mint mark. The West Point Bullion Depository was granted mint status on March 31, 1988 (Pub. L. 100–274).[8] Starting in 1999 American Silver Eagle bullion coins were also produced at the mint. In 2002, the U.S. Military Academy at West Point was honored for its 200th anniversary, and a bicentennial commemorative silver dollar was issued and unveiled on March 16 of that year, featuring a cadet color guard on the obverse and the helmet of Pallas Athena on the reverse. The coin was produced only at the West Point Mint.[9] Special West Point coinage An unusual coinage from West Point occurred in 1996, when a commemorative Roosevelt dime was produced for the 50th anniversary of the design.[10] Given as an insert with the standard mint sets sold that year, over 1.457 million were produced. Thus, although this "W"-mint-marked dime is not particularly scarce, it was made only for collectors. In 2015 another "W"-mint-marked dime was issued along with a 2015-W dollar, these as part of a three-coin set to commemorate the March of Dimes. Only 75,000 sets were produced.[11] In 2014, a reverse-proof silver Kennedy Half Dollar which was part of a commemorative set, along with the 24K gold proof Kennedy Half Dollar were produced there to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Kennedy Half Dollar design, again with the "W" mint mark.[12] In 2015, the West Point Mint struck Sacagawea Dollars for the first time.[13] Released as part of a special “Native American Coin and Currency Set”, only 90,000 were produced. The first cents to display the "W" mint mark were produced for collectors in 2019. These West Point Lincoln cents were added to traditional mint and proof sets and were minted in three different finishes. An uncirculated 2019-W cent was included with the uncirculated set, a proof 2019-W cent was included with the proof set, and a reverse-proof 2019-W cent was included with the silver proof set. There are no mintage limits for these sets and individual buyers are not limited in the quantities they are allowed to order.[14] On April 2, 2019 the United States Mint announced that 10 million quarters would be placed into circulation containing the "W" mint mark in an effort to promote the hobby of coin collecting. Although quarters had been produced at the West Point Mint before, none of them included the "W" mint mark. These quarters are a part of the "America the Beautiful" quarters program; 2 million of each of the five national park quarters released in 2019 were scheduled to contain the "W" mint mark.[15] This was continued in 2020, with the 2020 coins including a special "V 75" privy mark commemorating the 75th anniversary of the end of World War II.[16] On January 10, 2020, the United States Mint announced that each of the three annual sets released in 2020 would include a "W"-mint-marked Jefferson nickel, just as was done with the Lincoln Cents the previous year. A proof nickel was included with the clad proof set and a reverse-proof nickel with the silver proof set.[17] Originally the uncirculated coin set was to contain a 2020-W uncirculated nickel, but this plan was scrapped due to the ongoing coin shortage caused by the coronavirus pandemic.[18] Present Today[when?], all American Eagle series proof and uncirculated bullion coins in gold, silver, platinum, and palladium are produced at West Point, along with all gold commemorative and a few silver commemorative coins. Bullion and proof gold Eagles and some uncirculated and all proof silver Eagles, as well as all commemoratives from West Point are struck with the "W" mint mark. Since 2006, the West Point Mint has also made all American Buffalo gold bullion coins. The West Point Mint still acts as a gold bullion depository, and silver is kept on site only in quantities to meet minting demands. Due to the presence of so much gold bullion on site, security is high. The mint does not give public tours, and its address is withheld by the National Park Service in its National Register listings, though Google Maps gives the site as 1063 NY-218, West Point, NY 10996. See also iconArchitecture portaliconHudson Valley portalNational Register of Historic Places portalNumismatics portal List of Mints Historical United States mints American Arts Commemorative Series medallions National Register of Historic Places listings in Orange County, New York References Daddio, William F. (28 May 1987). "National Register of Historic Places nomination, U.S. Bullion Despository, West Point". New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. Retrieved 28 July 2010. "A rare look inside the West Point Mint's massive gold vaults and coin operations". FOX 5 New York. 2019-04-17. Retrieved 2021-02-21. "West Point Mint Facility". United States Mint. Retrieved 12 June 2019. "The West Point Mint Facility". Gold Coins Trader. Retrieved 19 January 2013. "The United States Mint at West Point". H. I. P. Pocket Change. United States Mint. 1999. Retrieved 20 January 2013. 1974 Annual Report of the Director of the Mint "The Early Quarter Dollars of the United States: Commemorative Coins of the United States (Page 28)". PCGS. Retrieved 2019-08-21. "Timeline of the United States Mint, 1900s". United States Mint. Retrieved 20 April 2010. Press, MICHAEL HILL Associated. "West Point observing 200 years of history". Tulsa World. Retrieved 2021-06-29. "1996-W Roosevelt Dime". Roosevelt Dimes. 75th Anniversary March of Dimes Sets Roach, Steve. "Proof 2014-W Kennedy gold half dollar: What a 'perfect' example sold for recently". CoinWorld.com. Retrieved 23 April 2019. Gilkes, Paul. "Edge approaches differ on Enhanced Uncirculated dollars". CoinWorld.com. Amos Media Company. Retrieved 24 July 2019. Gilkes, Paul. "U.S. Mint offering West Point Mint cents as numismatic premiums". CoinWorld.com. Amos Media Company. Retrieved 23 April 2019. Gibbs, William T. "Collectors start finding 2019-W quarters, and some are profiting". CoinWorld.com. Retrieved 23 April 2019. Gilkes, Paul. "Adding V75 privy mark means 2020-W quarter for American Samoa will be released last". CoinWorld.com. Amos Media Company. Retrieved 19 April 2020. Gilkes, Paul. "Mint to issue 2020-W Jefferson 5-cent coins as annual set premiums". coinworld.com. Amos Media Company. Retrieved 11 January 2020. Gilkes, Paul. "2020 Uncirculated Mint set won't contain 2020-W 5-cent coin". coinworld.com. Amos Media Company. Retrieved 3 November 2020. External links West Point Mint Facility at the U.S. Mint website vte United States currency and coinage vte U.S. National Register of Historic Places in New York Categories: United States MintBuildings and structures in Orange County, New YorkNational Register of Historic Places in Orange County, New YorkMints of the United StatesGovernment buildings completed in 1937Manufacturing plants in the United StatesHighlands, New YorkIndustrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)Government buildings on the National Register of Historic PlacesWarehouses on the National Register of Historic Places https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point_Mint English Gothic architecture Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia English Gothic architecture Lincoln Cathedral Presbytery, Lincolnshire, UK - Diliff.jpg Canterbury-cathedral-wyrdlight.jpg Cambridge King's College Chapel Vault.jpg Top: Lincoln Cathedral Centre: Canterbury Cathedral Bottom: King's College Chapel, Cambridge Years active c. 1175–1640 Country Kingdom of England English Gothic is an architectural style that flourished from the late 12th until the mid-17th century.[1][2] The style was most prominently used in the construction of cathedrals and churches. Gothic architecture's defining features are pointed arches, rib vaults, buttresses, and extensive use of stained glass. Combined, these features allowed the creation of buildings of unprecedented height and grandeur, filled with light from large stained glass windows. Important examples include Westminster Abbey, Canterbury Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral. The Gothic style endured in England much longer than in Continental Europe. The Gothic style was introduced from France, where the various elements had first been used together within a single building at the choir of the Abbey of Saint-Denis north of Paris, completed in 1144.[3] The earliest large-scale applications of Gothic architecture in England were Canterbury Cathedral and Westminster Abbey. Many features of Gothic architecture had evolved naturally from Romanesque architecture (often known in England as Norman architecture). The first cathedral in England to be both planned and built entirely in the Gothic style was Wells Cathedral, begun in 1175.[4] Other features were imported from the Ile-de-France, where the first French Gothic cathedral, Sens Cathedral, had been built (1135–64).[5] After a fire destroyed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in 1174, the French architect William of Sens rebuilt the choir in the new Gothic style between 1175 and 1180. The transition can also be seen at Durham Cathedral, a Norman building which was remodelled with the earliest rib vault known. Besides cathedrals, monasteries, and parish churches, the style was used for many secular buildings, including university buildings, palaces, great houses, and almshouses and guildhalls. Stylistic periodisations of the English Gothic style are Early English or First Pointed (late 12th–late 13th centuries) Decorated Gothic or Second Pointed (late 13th–late 14th centuries) Perpendicular Gothic or Third Pointed (14th–17th centuries).[6][7] The architect and art historian Thomas Rickman's Attempt to Discriminate the Style of Architecture in England, first published in 1812, divided Gothic architecture in the British Isles into three stylistic periods.[8] Rickman identified the period of architecture as follows: William the Conqueror (r. 1066–87) to Henry II (r. 1154–89) as Norman Richard the Lionheart (r. 1189–99) to Edward I (r. 1272–1307) as Early English reigns of Edward II (r. 1307–27) and Edward III (r. 1327–77) as Decorated from Richard II (r. 1377–99) to Henry VIII (r. 1509–47) as Perpendicular[8] From the 15th century, under the House of Tudor, the prevailing Gothic style is commonly known as Tudor architecture. This style is ultimately succeeded by Elizabethan architecture and Renaissance architecture under Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603).[9] Rickman excluded from his scheme most new buildings after Henry VIII's reign, calling the style of "additions and rebuilding" in the later 16th and earlier 17th centuries "often much debased".[8] Architect and art historian Edmund Sharpe, in The Seven Periods of English Architecture (1851), identified a pre-Gothic Transitional Period (1145–90), following the Norman period, in which pointed arches and round arches were employed together.[10] Focusing on the windows, Sharpe dubbed Rickman's Gothic styles as follows: Rickman's first Gothic style as the Lancet Period (1190–1245) Rickman's second Gothic style divided into the Geometrical period (1245–1315) and then the Curvilinear period (1315–1360) Rickman's third style as the Rectilinear period (1360–1550).[10] Unlike the Early English and Decorated styles, this third style, employed over three centuries was unique to England. In the English Renaissance, the stylistic language of the ancient classical orders and the Renaissance architecture of southern Europe began to supplant Gothic architecture in Continental Europe, but the British Isles continued to favour Gothic building styles, with traditional Perpendicular Gothic building projects undertaken into the 17th century in England and both Elizabethan and Jacobean architecture incorporating Gothic features, particularly for churches.[11] Classical-inspired architecture predominated after the Great Fire of London The rebuilding of the City of London was so extensive that the numbers of workers employed broke the monopoly of the medieval livery company of stonemasons and the Worshipful Company of Masons and the role of master-mason was displaced by that of the early modern architect.[11] The new St Paul's Cathedral designed by Christopher Wren and his Wren churches mostly dispensed with the Gothic idiom in favour of classical work.[11] Outside London however, new ecclesiastical buildings and repairs to older churches were still carried out in Gothic style, particularly near the ancient university towns of Oxford and Cambridge, where the university colleges were important patrons of 17th-century Gothic construction.[11] By the 18th century, architects occasionally worked in Gothic style, but the living tradition of Gothic workmanship had faded and their designs rarely resembled medieval Gothic buildings. Only when the Gothic Revival movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries began, was the architectural language of medieval Gothic relearned through the scholarly efforts of early 19th-century art historians like Rickman and Matthew Bloxam, whose Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture first appeared in 1829.[12][11] Alongside the new Gothic building work of the 19th century, many of England's existing Gothic buildings were extensively repaired, restored, remodelled, and rebuilt by architects seeking to improve the buildings according to the Romantic, high church aesthetic of the Oxford Movement and to replace many of the medieval features lost in the iconoclastic phases of the Reformation, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the process of this Victorian "restoration", much of the original Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages was lost or altered beyond recognition. However, medieval works left unfinished were often completed or restored to their "original" designs. According to James Stevens Curl, the revival of Gothic architecture was "arguably, the most influential artistic phenomenon ever to spring from England".[11] The various English Gothic styles are seen at their most fully developed in cathedrals, monasteries, and collegiate churches. With the exception of Salisbury Cathedral, English cathedrals–having building dates that typically range over 400 years–show great stylistic diversity. Early English Gothic (late 12th–late 13th centuries) Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258) (Tower and spire later.) Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258) (Tower and spire later.) Salisbury Cathedral choir Salisbury Cathedral choir Temple Church choir Temple Church choir Southwell Minster choir Southwell Minster choir Worcester Cathedral nave Worcester Cathedral nave Beverley Minster transept Beverley Minster transept York Minster south transept York Minster south transept Hereford Cathedral (1079–1250) Lady chapel Hereford Cathedral (1079–1250) Lady chapel Peterborough Cathedral west front Peterborough Cathedral west front Wells Cathedral west front Wells Cathedral west front Wells Cathedral nave Wells Cathedral nave Lincoln Cathedral nave Lincoln Cathedral nave Worcester Cathedral choir Worcester Cathedral choir Winchester Cathedral Lady chapel Winchester Cathedral Lady chapel Lancet window, Fountains Abbey Lancet window, Fountains Abbey Whitby Abbey choir Whitby Abbey choir Rievaulx Abbey choir Rievaulx Abbey choir Lanercost Priory west front Lanercost Priory west front Durham Cathedral east transept Durham Cathedral east transept Early English Gothic predominated from the late 12th century until midway to late in the 13th century,[13][14][15] It succeeded Norman Architecture, which had introduced early great cathedrals, built of stone instead of timber, and saw the construction of remarkable abbeys throughout England. The Normans had introduced the three classical orders of architecture, and created massive walls for their buildings, with thin pilaster-like buttresses. The transition from Norman to Gothic lasted from about 1145 until 1190. In the reigns of King Stephen and Richard I, the style changed from the more massive severe Norman style to the more delicate and refined Gothic.[16] Early English was particularly influenced by what was called in English "The French style".[citation needed] The style was imported from Caen in Normandy by French Norman architects, who also imported cut stones from Normandy for their construction. It was also influenced by the architecture of the Ile-de-France, where Sens Cathedral had been constructed, the first Gothic cathedral in France. The chancel of Canterbury Cathedral, one of the first Early English structures in England, was rebuilt in the new style by a French architect, William of Sens.[17] The Early English style particularly featured more strongly-constructed walls with stone vaulted roofs, to resist fire. The weight of these vaults was carried downwards and outwards by arched ribs. This feature, the early rib vault, was used at Durham Cathedral, the first time it was used this way in Europe.[18] Another important innovation introduced in this early period was the buttress, a stone column outside the structure that reinforced the walls against the weight pressing outward and downward from the vaults. This evolved into the flying buttress, which carried the thrust from the wall of the nave over the roof of the aisle. The buttress was given further support by a heavy stone pinnacle. Buttresses were an early feature of the chapter house of Lichfield Cathedral.[16] Early English is typified by lancet windows, tall narrow lights topped by a pointed arch. They were grouped together side by side under a single arch and decorated with mullions in tracery patterns, such as cusps, or spear-points. Lancet windows were combined similarly pointed arches and the ribs of the vaults overhead, giving a harmonious and unified style. Characteristics Choir of Canterbury Cathedral rebuilt by William of Sens and William the Englishman (1174–1184) Choir of Canterbury Cathedral rebuilt by William of Sens and William the Englishman (1174–1184) The three levels of the nave (1192–1230) of Wells Cathedral, the first in England to use pointed arches exclusively in the ceiling vaults, the windows of the clerestory and arcades of the triforium, and the arcades on the ground floor. The three levels of the nave (1192–1230) of Wells Cathedral, the first in England to use pointed arches exclusively in the ceiling vaults, the windows of the clerestory and arcades of the triforium, and the arcades on the ground floor. The Dean's Eye Window, a rare English rose window, at Lincoln Cathedral (1220–1235) The Dean's Eye Window, a rare English rose window, at Lincoln Cathedral (1220–1235) Early four-part rib vaults at Salisbury Cathedral, with a simple carved stone boss at the meeting point of the ribs (1220–1258) Early four-part rib vaults at Salisbury Cathedral, with a simple carved stone boss at the meeting point of the ribs (1220–1258) Lancet windows in the north transept of Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258) Lancet windows in the north transept of Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258) The vertical plan of early Gothic Cathedrals had three levels, each of about equal height; the clerestory, with arched windows which admitted light on top, under the roof vaults; the triforium a wider covered arcade, in the middle; and, on the ground floor, on either side of the nave, wide arcades of columns and pillars, which supported the weight of the ceiling vaults through the ribs. The most distinctive element of this period was the pointed arch, (also known as the lancet arch, which was the key feature of the Gothic rib vault, The original purpose of rib vault was to allow a heavier stone ceiling, to replace the wooden roofs of the earlier Norman churches, which frequently caught fire. They also had the benefit of allowing the construction of higher and thinner walls. They appeared first in an early form in Durham Cathedral.[18] Gradually, pointed arches were used not only for rib vaults, but also for all of the arcades and for lancet windows, giving the nave its unified appearance. The first structure in England to be built entirely with the pointed arch was Wells Cathedral (1175–1260), but they were soon used in all Cathedrals.[19] The Early English rib vaults were usually quadripartite, each having four compartments divided by ribs, with each covering one bay of the ceiling. The horizontal ridge ribs intersected the summits of the cross ribs and diagonal ribs, and carried the weight outwards and downwards to pillars or columns of the triforium and arcades, and, in later cathedrals, outside the walls to the buttresses.[20] The lancet window, narrow and tall with a point at the top, became a common feature of English architecture. For this reason, Early English Gothic is sometimes known as the Lancet style. The Lancet openings of windows and decorative arcading are often grouped in twos or threes. This characteristic is seen throughout Salisbury Cathedral, where groups of two lancet windows line the nave and groups of three line the clerestory. At York Minster the north transept has a cluster of five lancet windows known as the Five Sisters; each is 50 feet tall and still retains its original glass. Stained glass windows began to be widely used in the windows of the clerestory, transept and especially west façade. Many were elaborately decorated with tracery; that is, thin mullions or ribs of stone which divided the windows into elaborate geometric patterns. as at Lincoln Cathedral (1220). Rose Windows were relatively rare in England, but Lincoln Cathedral has two notable examples from this period. The oldest is the Dean's Window in the north transept, which dates to 1220–1235. It is an example of an Early English plate-tracery rose window. The geometric design, with concentric tiers of circular window lights, predates the geometric tracery of the later decorated style of Gothic architecture. The principal theme of the window is the second coming of Christ and the last judgement. Some scenes are associated with death and resurrection, such as the funeral of Saint Hugh, the founder of the cathedral, and the death of the Virgin.[21] Square east end. The typical arrangement for an English Gothic east end is square, and may be an unbroken cliff-like design as at York, Lincoln, Ripon, Ely and Carlisle or may have a projecting Lady Chapel of which there is a great diversity as at Salisbury, Lichfield, Hereford, Exeter and Chichester. Sculptural decoration. Unlike the more sombre and heavy Norman churches, the Gothic churches began to have elaborate sculptural decoration. The arches of the arcades and triforium were sometimes decorated with dog tooth patterns, cusps, carved circles, and with trefoils, quatrefoils, as well as floral and vegetal designs. Simple floral motifs also often appeared on the capitals, the spandrels, the roof boss that joined the ribs of the vaults.[14] The clustered column. Instead of being massive, solid pillars, early Gothic columns were often composed of clusters of slender, detached shafts, which descended the vaults above. These were often made of dark, polished Purbeck "marble", surrounding a central pillar, or pier, to which they are attached by circular moulded shaft-rings. One characteristic of Early Gothic in England is the great depth given to the hollows of the mouldings with alternating fillets and rolls, and by the decoration of the hollows with the dog-tooth ornament and by the circular abacus or tops of the capitals of the columns.[14] Examples the east end of Canterbury Cathedral (1174–84) rebuilt by French masons following a fire transept, nave and west front of Wells Cathedral (1176–1260; western towers added in the Perpendicular period, 1365–1435) clerestory and vaults of Chichester Cathedral (1187–99) retro-choir at Winchester Cathedral (1189–93; not including the Lady chapel) Lincoln Cathedral and chapter house (1192–1255; Not including the "Angel Choir", south transept, towers, and cloisters) east end and transept of Rochester Cathedral (1200–27) west front of Peterborough Cathedral (1200–22) the east end of Worcester Cathedral (1202–18) at Hereford Cathedral; the Lady chapel (1217–25) and upper part of the choir (1235–40) Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1266; not including Decorated central tower, 1334–80 and Perpendicular crossing arches, 1388–95) great transept of York Minster (1226–55) east end of Southwell Minster (1234–50) east end of Ely Cathedral (1234–54) presbytery of St. Albans Cathedral (1235–50) the chapter house at Lichfield Cathedral (1239–49) Chapel of Nine Altars at Durham Cathedral (1242–80) at Chester Cathedral; the chapter house (1249–65) and Lady chapel (1265–90) Whitby Abbey Rievaulx Abbey Decorated Gothic (late 13th–late 14th centuries) The second style of English Gothic architecture is generally termed Decorated Gothic, because the amount of ornament and decoration increased dramatically. It corresponded roughly with the Rayonnant period in France, which influenced it. It was a period of growing prosperity in England, and this was expressed in the decoration of Gothic buildings. Almost every feature of the interiors and facades was decorated. Geometric Decorated Westminster Abbey north transept rose window Westminster Abbey north transept rose window Westminster Abbey chapter house Westminster Abbey chapter house The vault of the chapter house at Salisbury Cathedral (1275–85) The vault of the chapter house at Salisbury Cathedral (1275–85) Salisbury Cathedral chapter house and cloisters Salisbury Cathedral chapter house and cloisters Wells Cathedral chapter house Wells Cathedral chapter house York Minster chapter house York Minster chapter house Chichester Cathedral Lady chapel Chichester Cathedral Lady chapel Wells Cathedral choir Wells Cathedral choir Exeter Cathedral choir Exeter Cathedral choir York Minster nave York Minster nave Merton College Chapel Merton College Chapel Ripon Cathedral east end Ripon Cathedral east end Gisborough Priory, North Riding of Yorkshire Gisborough Priory, North Riding of Yorkshire St Mary's Abbey, York, nave St Mary's Abbey, York, nave Newstead Abbey, Nottinghamshire, west front Newstead Abbey, Nottinghamshire, west front Southwell Minster, Nottinghamshire, chapter house Southwell Minster, Nottinghamshire, chapter house Hereford Cathedral north transept Hereford Cathedral north transept Howden Minster, East Yorkshire, nave Howden Minster, East Yorkshire, nave Howden Minster south transept Howden Minster south transept St Augustine's Abbey, Kent, gatehouse St Augustine's Abbey, Kent, gatehouse Historians sometimes subdivide this style into two periods, based on the predominant motifs of the designs. The first, the Geometric style, lasted from about 1245 or 50 until 1315 or 1360, where ornament tended to be based on straight lines, cubes and circles, followed by the Curvilinear style (from about 1290 or 1315 until 1350 or 1360) which used gracefully curving lines.[22] Curvilinear Decorated Hull Minster chancel Hull Minster chancel St Mary's Church, Nantwich, east end St Mary's Church, Nantwich, east end St Andrew's Church, Heckington, nave St Andrew's Church, Heckington, nave Ely Cathedral Lady chapel (1321–1351) Ely Cathedral Lady chapel (1321–1351) Lichfield Cathedral choir Lichfield Cathedral choir St Botolph's Church, Boston, nave St Botolph's Church, Boston, nave Ely Cathedral choir Ely Cathedral choir Ely Cathedral crossing and lantern Ely Cathedral crossing and lantern Wells Cathedral Lady chapel Wells Cathedral Lady chapel Carlisle Cathedral choir Carlisle Cathedral choir Prior Crauden's Chapel, Ely Prior Crauden's Chapel, Ely Old Grammar School, Coventry, east end Old Grammar School, Coventry, east end Bolton Abbey choir Bolton Abbey choir Walsingham Priory Walsingham Priory Chester Cathedral south transept window Chester Cathedral south transept window Selby Abbey choir Selby Abbey choir Church of St Mary Magdalene, Newark-on-Trent, south aisle west window Church of St Mary Magdalene, Newark-on-Trent, south aisle west window Bury St Edmunds Abbey gateway Bury St Edmunds Abbey gateway Additions in the Decorated style were often added to earlier cathedrals. One striking example is found at Ely Cathedral; the architect Thomas Witney built the central tower from 1315 to 1322 in Decorated style. Soon afterwards another architect, William Joy, added curving arches to strengthen the structure, and made further extensions to join the Lady Chapel to the Choir. In 1329–45 he created an extraordinary double arch in the decorated style.[23][better source needed] Characteristics Lierne vaulting. Vaulting became much more elaborate in this period. The rib vault of earlier Early Gothic usually had just four compartments, with a minimum number of ribs which were all connected to the columns below, and all played a role in distributing the weight and outwards and downwards. In the Decorated architecture period, additional ribs were added to the vaulted ceilings which were purely decorative. They created very elaborate star patterns and other geometric designs. Gloucester Cathedral and Ely Cathedral have notable lierne vaults from this period.[20] The buttress became more common in this period, as at Lichfield Cathedral. These were stone columns outside the walls which supports them, allowing thinner and high walls between the buttresses, and larger windows. The buttresses were often topped by ornamental stone pinnacles to give them greater weight. Fan vaulting. An even more elaborate form, appeared late in the Decorative. Unlike the lierne vault, the fan vault had no functional ribs; the visible "ribs" are mouldings on the masonry imitating ribs. The structure is composed of slabs of stone joined into half-cones, whose vertices are the springers of the vault. The earliest example, from 1373, is found in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral. It made a notable backdrop in some of the Harry Potter films.[20] Tracery. Decorated architecture is particularly characterised by the elaborate tracery within the stained glass windows. The elaborate windows are subdivided by closely spaced parallel mullions (vertical bars of stone), usually up to the level at which the arched top of the window begins. The mullions then branch out and cross, intersecting to fill the top part of the window with a mesh of elaborate patterns called tracery, typically including trefoils and quatrefoils. The style was geometrical at first and curvilinear, or curving and serpentine, in the later period, This curvilinear element was introduced in the first quarter of the 14th century and lasted about fifty years.[24] A notable example of the curvilinear style is the East window of Carlisle Cathedral, (about 1350). Another notable example of decorated curvilinear is the west window of York Minster (1338–39).[25] Sculpture also became more ornate and decorative. The ball flower and a four-leaved flower motif took the place of the earlier dog-tooth. The foliage in the capitals was less conventional than in Early English and more flowing, Another decorative feature of the period was diapering, or creating multi-colour geometric patterns on walls or panels made with different colours of stone or brick.[24] Decorated ornament on the west porch of Lichfield Cathedral (1195–1340) Decorated ornament on the west porch of Lichfield Cathedral (1195–1340) Tracery, diapering and sculptural decoration on Exeter Cathedral (1258–1400) Tracery, diapering and sculptural decoration on Exeter Cathedral (1258–1400) Early buttresses, topped by pinnacles, at Lichfield Cathedral (1195–1340) Early buttresses, topped by pinnacles, at Lichfield Cathedral (1195–1340) Pinnacles on the roof of Ely Cathedral (1321–1351) Pinnacles on the roof of Ely Cathedral (1321–1351) East window of Carlisle Cathedral, with curvilinear tracery (about 1350) East window of Carlisle Cathedral, with curvilinear tracery (about 1350) Floral boss joining the ribs of the vaults of Exeter Cathedral (1258–1400) Floral boss joining the ribs of the vaults of Exeter Cathedral (1258–1400) transverse arches in the aisle of Bristol Cathedral (1298–1340) transverse arches in the aisle of Bristol Cathedral (1298–1340) The octagon and lantern, Ely Cathedral, rebuilt following the collapse of the central tower in 1321 The octagon and lantern, Ely Cathedral, rebuilt following the collapse of the central tower in 1321 The great west window of York Minster (1338–39), featuring a motif known as the Heart of Yorkshire The great west window of York Minster (1338–39), featuring a motif known as the Heart of Yorkshire Examples Westminster Abbey (transitional; 1245–72, east end, transept & chapter house; 1376–1400, nave) choir of Carlisle Cathedral (transitional; 1245–1398) at Hereford Cathedral; north transept (transitional; 1245–68) and central tower (1300–10) at Lincoln Cathedral; the Angel Choir and east end (1256–80), cloisters (ca. 1295), central tower (1307–11), and upper part of the south transept, including the Bishop's Eye window (ca. 1320–30) at Lichfield Cathedral; the nave and west front (1265–93), central tower (ca. 1300) and Lady Chapel (1320–36) Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk (1270–80) St Wulfram's Church, Grantham (1280–1350) Merton College chapel, Oxford (1289–96; tower and ante-chapel added 1424–50) at York Minster; the chapter house (1260–96), nave and west front, including the Heart of Yorkshire window (1291–1375) at Wells Cathedral; the chapter house (1275–1310), east end (1310–19, Lady chapel; 1329–45, choir and retro-choir), central tower (1315–22) and strainer arches (1415–23) the chapter house at Salisbury Cathedral (1275–85) east end of Bristol Cathedral (1298–1340) at Southwell Minster; the chapter house (1293–1300), and pulpitum (1320–35) the Lady chapel at St. Albans Cathedral (1308–26) the chapel of Alnwick Castle (1309–50) the nave and west front at Worcester Cathedral (1317–95) at Ely Cathedral; the Lady chapel (1321–49; east window, 1371–74) and the octagon, lantern and west bays of nave (1322–62) the nave and west front at Exeter Cathedral (1328–42; Image Screen added 1346–75) The Lady Chapel at Melrose Abbey Scotland,[24] Perpendicular Gothic (late 13th to mid-16th century) Main article: Perpendicular Gothic Winchester Cathedral west front Winchester Cathedral west front St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle (1475–) St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle (1475–) Sherborne Abbey, Dorset Sherborne Abbey, Dorset Eton College Chapel Eton College Chapel Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503–), with Perpendicular tracery and blind panels. Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503–), with Perpendicular tracery and blind panels. New College Chapel, Oxford New College Chapel, Oxford Edington Priory, Wiltshire, west front: Decorated and Perpendicular Edington Priory, Wiltshire, west front: Decorated and Perpendicular Beauchamp Chapel, Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick Beauchamp Chapel, Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick Manchester Cathedral chancel Manchester Cathedral chancel Hall of Christ Church, Oxford Hall of Christ Church, Oxford Hull Minster nave Hull Minster nave St Giles' Church, Wrexham St Giles' Church, Wrexham Merton College Chapel tower Merton College Chapel tower Gloucester Cathedral, choir and chancel Gloucester Cathedral, choir and chancel Bath Abbey chancel Bath Abbey chancel York Minster chancel, looking west York Minster chancel, looking west Canterbury Cathedral nave Canterbury Cathedral nave Winchester Cathedral nave Winchester Cathedral nave The Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503–) painted by Canaletto The Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503–) painted by Canaletto Magdalen Tower, Oxford Magdalen Tower, Oxford York Minster crossing tower York Minster crossing tower St Mary Magdalene, Taunton St Mary Magdalene, Taunton Evesham Abbey bell tower Evesham Abbey bell tower Bridlington Priory west front Bridlington Priory west front Gloucester Cathedral east end (1331–1350), with a four-centred arch window Gloucester Cathedral east end (1331–1350), with a four-centred arch window Canterbury Cathedral crossing tower and transepts Canterbury Cathedral crossing tower and transepts Wells Cathedral crossing tower Wells Cathedral crossing tower Beverley Minster west front Beverley Minster west front Norwich Cathedral spire and west window Norwich Cathedral spire and west window Chichester Cathedral spire Chichester Cathedral spire The Perpendicular Gothic (or simply Perpendicular) is the third and final style of medieval Gothic architecture in England. It is characterised by an emphasis on vertical lines, and is sometimes called rectilinear.[26][27] The Perpendicular style began to emerge in about 1330. The earliest example is the chapter house of Old St Paul's Cathedral, built by the royal architect William de Ramsey in 1332.[28] The early style was also practised by another royal architect, John Sponlee, and fully developed in the works of Henry Yevele and William Wynford. Walls were built much higher than in earlier periods, and stained glass windows became very large, so that the space around them was reduced to simple piers. Horizontal transoms sometimes had to be introduced to strengthen the vertical mullions.[29] Many churches were built with magnificent towers including York Minster, Gloucester Cathedral, Worcester Cathedral, and St Botolph's Church, Boston, St Giles' Church, Wrexham, St Mary Magdalene, Taunton. Another outstanding example of Perpendicular is King's College Chapel, Cambridge.[30] The interiors of Perpendicular churches were filled with lavish ornamental woodwork, including misericords (choir stalls with lifting seats), under which were grotesque carvings; stylized "poppy heads", or carved figures in foliage on the ends of benches; and elaborate multicoloured decoration, usually in floral patterns, on panels or cornices called brattishing.[29] The sinuous lines of the tracery in the Decorated style were replaced by more geometric forms and perpendicular lines.[31] The style was also affected by the tragic history of the period, particularly the Black Death, which killed an estimated third of England's population in 18 months between June 1348 and December 1349 and returned in 1361–62 to kill another fifth. This had a great effect on the arts and culture, which took a more sober direction.[32] The perpendicular Gothic was the longest of the English Gothic periods; it continued for a century after the style had nearly disappeared from France and the rest of the European continent, where the Renaissance had already begun. Gradually, near the end of the period, Renaissance forms began to appear in the English Gothic. A rood screen, a Renaissance ornament, was installed in the chapel of King's College Chapel, Cambridge. During the Elizabethan Period (1558–1603), the classical details, including the five orders of classical architecture, were gradually introduced. Carved ornament with Italian Renaissance motifs began to be used in decoration, including on the tomb of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey. The pointed arch gradually gave way to the Roman rounded arch, brick began to replace masonry, the roof construction was concealed, and the Gothic finally gave way to an imitation of Roman and Greek styles.[29] Characteristics The choir of Gloucester Cathedral conveys an impression of a "cage" of stone and glass. Window tracery and wall decoration form integrated grids. The choir of Gloucester Cathedral conveys an impression of a "cage" of stone and glass. Window tracery and wall decoration form integrated grids. Gloucester Cathedral cloisters (1370–1412) Gloucester Cathedral cloisters (1370–1412) Worcester Cathedral cloister: mullions are reinforced with horizontal transoms (1404–1432) Worcester Cathedral cloister: mullions are reinforced with horizontal transoms (1404–1432) Gate of Trinity Great Court, Cambridge, with a Tudor arch Gate of Trinity Great Court, Cambridge, with a Tudor arch Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey (completed 1519) Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey (completed 1519) King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1515) King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1515) Fan vaulting outside the great hall of Christ Church, Oxford (c. 1640) Fan vaulting outside the great hall of Christ Church, Oxford (c. 1640) Towers were an important feature of the perpendicular style, though fewer spires were built than in earlier periods. Important towers were built at Gloucester Cathedral, York Minster, Worcester Cathedral, and on many smaller churches. Decorative Battlements were a popular decoration of towers in smaller churches. Windows became very large, sometimes of immense size, with slimmer stone mullions than in earlier periods, allowing greater scope for stained glass craftsmen. The mullions of the windows are carried vertically up into the arch moulding of the windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional mullions (supermullions) and transoms, forming rectangular compartments, known as panel tracery. The Tudor Arch window was a particular feature of English Gothic. Buttresses and wall surfaces were divided into vertical panels.[31] Doorways were frequently enclosed within a square head over the arch mouldings, the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils or tracery.[31] Pointed arches were still used throughout the period, but ogee and four-centred Tudor arches were also introduced. Inside the church the triforium disappeared, or its place was filled with panelling, and greater importance was given to the clerestory windows, which often were the finest features in the churches of this period. The mouldings were flatter than those of the earlier periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction of large elliptical hollows.[31] Flint architecture. In areas of Southern England using flint architecture, elaborate flushwork decoration in flint and ashlar was used, especially in the wool churches of East Anglia. Examples at Gloucester Cathedral; the choir and transepts (1330–74, remodel of Norman work), cloisters (1370–1412), west front, western nave vaults, and south porch (1421–37), tower (1450–67) and Lady chapel (1457–83) at York Minster; the east end (1340–1408), central tower (1420–72), Kings Screen (1420–22) and west towers (1433–72) at Winchester Cathedral; the west front (1346–66), and nave (1399–1419, remodel of Norman work) at Norwich Cathedral; the clerestory of the presbytery (1362–69; transitional in style), and vaults (1446–72, nave; 1472–99, presbytery; 1501–36, transepts) at Worcester Cathedral, the central tower (1374) and cloisters (1375–1438) at Canterbury Cathedral; the nave, west front and cloisters (1379–1414), chapter house (1400–12), transepts (1404–14, south; 1470–82, north), pulpitum (1410–39), southwest tower (1423–34; northwest tower added 1834–41), and central tower (1493–97) New College, Oxford (1380–1400; including chapel, hall, Great Quad, cloisters and bell-tower) the chapel of Winchester College, Hants. (1387–94) Manchester Cathedral (1422) Divinity School, Oxford (1427–83) Front Quad and chapel of All Souls College, Oxford (1438–42) Eton College Chapel, Eton (1441–82)[33] King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1515)[34] Old Court, hall and chapel of Queens' College, Cambridge (1448–49) Magdalen College, Oxford (1474–90, including old library, chapel, cloisters, and founder's tower; Magdalen Tower, Oxford, built 1492–1509) Collegiate Church of the Holy Trinity, Tattershall, Lincolnshire (c. 1490 – 1500)[35]) choir of Sherborne Abbey (1475 – c. 1580) presbytery and lady chapel at Winchester Cathedral (1493–1500) at Chester Cathedral; the south transept, western front, central tower and cloisters (1493–1530) the retro-choir at Peterborough Cathedral (1496–1508) Bath Abbey (1501–39) Towers of St Giles' Church, Wrexham, and St Mary Magdalene, Taunton (1503–1508) the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503–09; heavily restored in the 1860s) *First Court, Christ's College, Cambridge (1505–11; including chapel and hall) First Quad (1511–20, including hall) & Second Quad (1598–1602), St. John's College, Cambridge Front Quad, Corpus Christi College, Oxford (1515–et seq.; including hall & chapel) Tom Quad, Christ Church, Oxford (1525–29, including great hall) Great Court, Trinity College, Cambridge (1599–1608; including hall and chapel) Roofs A Queen-post truss A Queen-post truss Hammerbeam timber roof of Westminster Hall (1395) Hammerbeam timber roof of Westminster Hall (1395) Section of a Hammerbeam timber roof. Section of a Hammerbeam timber roof. Dining Hall of King's College, Cambridge, with a hammerbeam roof Dining Hall of King's College, Cambridge, with a hammerbeam roof Vaults of St Katharine Cree, London Vaults of St Katharine Cree, London The pitched Gothic timber roof was a distinctive feature of the style, both in religious and domestic architecture. It had to be able to resist rain, snow and high winds of the English climate, and to preserve the integrity of the structure. A pitched roof was a common feature of all the Gothic periods. During the Norman period, the roofs normally were pitched forty-five degrees, with the apex forming a right angle, which harmonised with the rounded arches of the gables. With the arrival of the pointed rib vault, the roofs became steeper, up to sixty degrees. In the late perpendicular period, the angle declined to twenty degrees or even less. The roofs were usually made of boards overlaid with tiles or sheet-lead, which was commonly used on low-pitched roofs.[36] The simpler Gothic roofs were supported by long rafters of light wood, resting on wooden trusses set into the walls. The rafters were supported by more solid beams, called purlins, which were carried at their ends by the roof trusses. The tie-beam is the chief beam of the truss. Later, the roof was supported by structures called a King-point-truss and Queen-post truss, where the principal rafters are connected with the tie beam by the head of the truss. The King-Point truss has a vertical beam with connects the centre of the rafter to the ridge of the roof, supported by diagonal struts, while a Queen-Post truss has a wooden collar below the pointed arch which united the posts and was supported by struts and cross-braces. A Queen-Post truss could span a width of forty feet. Both of these forms created greater stability, but the full weight of the roof still came down directly onto the walls.[36] Gothic architects did not like the roof truss systems, because the numerous horizontal beams crossing the nave obstructed the view of the soaring height. They came up with an ingenious solution, the Hammerbeam roof. In this system, the point of the roof is supported by the collar and trusses, but from the collar curved beams reach well downward on the walls, and carry the weight downward and outwards, to the walls and buttresses, without obstructing the view. The oldest existing roof of this kind is found in Winchester Cathedral. The most famous example of the Hammerbeam roof is the roof of Westminster Hall (1395), the largest timber roof of its time, built for royal ceremonies such as the banquets following the coronation of the King. Other notable wooden roofs included those of Christ Church, Oxford, Trinity College, Cambridge, and Crosby Hall. A similar system, with arched trusses, was used in the roof of Wexham Cathedral.[36] University Gothic Mob Quad, Merton College, Oxford (1288–1378) Mob Quad, Merton College, Oxford (1288–1378) Balliol College, Oxford front quad (1431) Balliol College, Oxford front quad (1431) Tudor arch window at King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1531) Tudor arch window at King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1531) East range of First Quad, Oriel College, Oxford (1637–1642) East range of First Quad, Oriel College, Oxford (1637–1642) Second Court, St John's College, Cambridge Second Court, St John's College, Cambridge The Gothic style was adopted in the late 13th to 15th centuries in early English university buildings, due in part to the close connection between the universities and the church. The oldest existing example of University Gothic in England is probably the Mob Quad of Merton College, Oxford, constructed between 1288 and 1378.[37][page needed] Balliol College, Oxford has examples of Gothic work in the north and west ranges of the front quadrangle, dated to 1431; notably in the medieval hall on the west side, (now the "new library") and the "old library" on the first floor, north side. The architecture at Balliol was often derived from castle architecture, with battlements, rather than from church models. King's College Chapel, Cambridge also used another distinctive Perpendicular Gothic feature, the four-centred arch. Gothic Revival (19th and 20th centuries) Wills Memorial Building, University of Bristol (1915—1925) Wills Memorial Building, University of Bristol (1915—1925) Palace of Westminster, rebuilt by Barry and Pugin 1840–1876 Palace of Westminster, rebuilt by Barry and Pugin 1840–1876 St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney (1868—1928) St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney (1868—1928) Manchester Town Hall, (1868–1877) Manchester Town Hall, (1868–1877) Tower Bridge, London, (1886–1894) Tower Bridge, London, (1886–1894) The Perpendicular style was less often used in the Gothic Revival than the Decorated style, but major examples include the rebuilt Palace of Westminster (i.e. the Houses of Parliament), Bristol University's Wills Memorial Building (1915–25), and St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney. See also iconArchitecture portal Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England Building a Gothic cathedral Cathedral architecture of Western Europe Collegiate Gothic English Gothic stained glass windows French Gothic architecture Gothic Revival architecture Poor Man's Bible References Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "Perpendicular", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 16 May 2020 Fraser, Murray, ed. (2018), "Perpendicular Gothic", Sir Banister Fletcher Glossary, Royal Institute of British Architects and the University of London, doi:10.5040/9781350122741.1001816, ISBN 978-1-350-12274-1, retrieved 26 August 2020, "English idiom from about 1330 to 1640, characterised by large windows, regularity of ornate detailing, and grids of panelling that extend over walls, windows and vaults." Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2009). A World History of Art (7th ed.). London: Laurence King Publishing. p. 376. ISBN 9781856695848. Harvey, John Hooper (1987) [1984]. English Mediaeval Architects: A Biographical Dictionary Down to 1550: including master masons, carpenters, carvers, building contractors and others responsible for design. Oswald, Arthur (Revised ed.). Gloucester: Sutton. p. 19. ISBN 0-86299-452-7. OCLC 16801898. Mignon, Olivier (2015). Architecture des Cathédrales Gothiques. pp. 10–11. Schurr, Marc Carel (2010), Bork, Robert E. (ed.), "art and architecture: Gothic", The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866262-4, retrieved 9 April 2020, "Early to High Gothic and Early English (c.1130–c.1240) Rayonnant Gothic and Decorated Style (c.1240–c.1350) Late Gothic: flamboyant and perpendicular (c.1350–c.1500)" Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "Gothic", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 9 April 2020, "First Pointed (Early English) was used from the end of C12 to the end of C13, though most of its characteristics were present in the lower part of the chevet of the Abbey Church of St-Denis, near Paris (c.1135–44). ... Once First Pointed evolved with Geometrical tracery, it became known as Middle Pointed. Second-Pointed work of C14 saw an ever-increasing invention in bar-tracery of the Curvilinear, Flowing, and Reticulated types, ... culminating in the Flamboyant style (from c.1375) of the Continent. Second Pointed was relatively short-lived in England, and was superseded by Perp[endicular] (or Third Pointed) from c.1332, although the two styles overlapped for some time." Rickman, Thomas (1848) [1812]. An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England: From the Conquest to the Reformation (5th ed.). London: J. H. Parker. pp. lxiii. Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "Tudor", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 9 April 2020 Sharpe, Edmund (1871) [1851]. The Seven Periods of English Architecture Defined and Illustrated. London: E. & F. N. Spon. p. 8. Curl, James Stevens (2016) [2013]. "Architecture, Gothic Revival". In Hughes, William; Punter, David; Smith, Andrew (eds.). The Encyclopedia of the Gothic, 2 Volume Set. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 40–45. ISBN 978-1-119-06460-2. Bloxam, Matthew Holbeche (2015) [1829]. The Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture: With an Explanation of Technical Terms, and a Centenary of Ancient Terms (definitive 1882 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-08270-9. According to the originator of the term in 1817, Thomas Rickman, the period ran from 1189 to 1307. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Spiers, Richard Phené (1911). "Early English Period". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 798. Some sources use the dates 1189 to 1272. Smith 1922, pp. 35–45 Smith 1922, pp. 35–45. Encyclopaedia Britannica on-line edition, William of Sens (retrieved April 19, 2020) "Durham World Heritage Site". UN. Archived from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2019. Bechmann 2017, p. 295. Smith 1922, pp. 71–73. "Home". Lincoln Cathedral. Smith 1922, pp. 45–47. Harvey 1987, p. 163. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Spiers, Richard Phené (1911). "Decorated Period". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 915. "Work Minster Fact Sheets: The Five Sisters Window" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2020. Sharpe, Edmund (1871). The Seven Periods of English Architecture Defined and Illustrated. E. and F. N. Spon; [etc ., etc.] Frankl, Paul (2000). Gothic Architecture. Yale: Yale University Press. pp. 193. Harvey (1978) puts the earliest example of a fully formed Perpendicular style at the chapter house of Old St Paul's Cathedral, in 1332 Smith 1922, pp. 53–62. Harvey, John (1978). The Perpendicular Style. Batsford. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Spiers, Richard Phené (1911). "Perpendicular Period". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–180. This figure has recently been disputed and is now thought to be closer to 20%. Philip Daileader, The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, (2007) ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8. "Our History | Eton College". www.etoncollege.com. "Chapel | King's College, Cambridge". 30 November 2012. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. "TATTERSHALL - The Collegiate Holy Trinity Church, Tattershall, Lincolnshire - HTTF Trust". 15 April 2012. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Smith 1922, pp. 63–71. Martin & Highfield 1997. Bibliography Bechmann, Roland (2017). Les Racines des Cathédrals (in French). Paris: Payot. ISBN 978-2-228-90651-7. Ducher, Robert, Caractéristique des Styles, (1988), Flammarion, Paris (in French); ISBN 2-08-011539-1 Harvey, John (1961). English Cathedrals. Batsford. OCLC 2437034. Smith, A. Freeman (1922). English Church Architecture of the Middle Ages - an Elementary Handbook. T. Fisher Unwin. Martin, G. H.; Highfield, J. R. L. (1997). A history of Merton College, Oxford. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920183-8. External links Britain Express: Decorated Gothic architecture Britain Express – Architectural Guide Britain Express – Architectural Guide vte Gothic architecture vte Architecture of England Authority control: National Edit this at Wikidata Germany Categories: English Gothic architectureGothic architecture in EnglandGothic architecture in the United Kingdom12th-century architecture13th-century architecture14th-century architecture15th-century architecture16th-century architectureEngland in the High Middle AgesArchitecture in EnglandGothic architecture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture

 

Wanstead House (1722) – among the first, and largest, of the Neo-Palladian houses; the image is from Colen Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladian_architecture#English_Palladian_architecture