05-21-2023-0322 - Ferrous metallurgy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages.

Ferrous metallurgy is the metallurgy of iron and its alloys. The earliest surviving prehistoric iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in Egypt,^[1] were made from meteoritic iron-nickel.^[2] It is not known when or where the smelting of iron from ores began, but by the end of the 2nd millennium BC iron was being produced from iron ores in the region from Greece to India,^[3][4][5] and sub-Saharan Africa.^{[6][7][8][page needed]} The use of wrought iron (worked iron) was known by the 1st millennium BC, and its spread defined the Iron Age. During the medieval period, smiths in Europe found a way of producing wrought iron from cast iron (in this context known as pig iron) using finery forges. All these processes required charcoal as fuel.

By the 4th century BC southern India had started exporting wootz steel (with a carbon content between pig iron and wrought iron) to ancient China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.^{[citation needed]} Archaeological evidence of cast iron appears in 5th-century BC China.^[9] New methods of producing it by carburizing bars of iron in the cementation process were devised in the 17th century. During the Industrial Revolution, new methods of producing bar iron by substituting coke for charcoal emerged, and these were later applied to produce steel, ushering in a new era of greatly increased use of iron and steel that some contemporaries described as a new "Iron Age".^[10] In the late 1850s Henry Bessemer invented a new steelmaking process which involved blowing air through molten pig-iron to burn off carbon, and so producing mild steel. This and other 19th-century and later steel-making processes have displaced wrought iron. Today, wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, having been displaced by the functionally equivalent mild or low-carbon steel.^[11]: 145

The largest and most modern^{[weasel words]} underground iron ore mine in the world operates in Kiruna, Norrbotten County, Lapland.^{[12][unreliable source?]} The mine, owned by Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB, a large Swedish mining-company, has an annual production capacity of over 26 million tonnes of iron ore.

Meteoric iron

Main article: Meteoric iron

Willamette Meteorite, the sixth largest in the world, is an iron-nickel meteorite.

Iron meteorites consist overwhelmingly of nickel-iron alloys. The metal taken from these meteorites is known as meteoric iron and was one of the earliest sources of usable iron available to humans.

Iron was extracted from iron–nickel alloys, which comprise about 6% of all meteorites that fall on the Earth. That source can often be identified with certainty because of the unique crystalline features (Widmanstätten patterns) of that material, which are preserved when the metal is worked cold or at low temperature. Those artifacts include, for example, a bead from the 5th millennium BC found in Iran^[2] and spear tips and ornaments from ancient Egypt and Sumer around 4000 BC.^[13]

These early uses appear to have been largely ceremonial or decorative. Meteoric iron is very rare, and the metal was probably very expensive, perhaps more expensive than gold. The early Hittites are known to have bartered iron (meteoric or smelted) for silver, at a rate of 40 times the iron's weight, with the Assyria in the first centuries of the second millennium BC.^[14]

Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in the Arctic, about the year 1000, when the Thule people of Greenland began making harpoons, knives, ulus and other edged tools from pieces of the Cape York meteorite. Typically pea-size bits of metal were cold-hammered into disks and fitted to a bone handle.^[2] These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) distant. When the American polar explorer Robert Peary shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City in 1897, it still weighed over 33 tons. Another example of a late use of meteoric iron is an adze from around 1000 AD found in Sweden.^[2]

Native iron

Main article: Telluric iron

Native iron in the metallic state occurs rarely as small inclusions in certain basalt rocks. Besides meteoritic iron, Thule people of Greenland have used native iron from the Disko region.^[2]

Iron smelting and the Iron Age

Part of a series on the
Iron Age
↑ Bronze Age

By region

Related topics Iron Age metallurgy Archaeometallurgical slag

↓ Ancient history

v t e

Iron smelting—the extraction of usable metal from oxidized iron ores—is more difficult than tin and copper smelting. While these metals and their alloys can be cold-worked or melted in relatively simple furnaces (such as the kilns used for pottery) and cast into molds, smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron is a common impurity in copper ores and iron ore was sometimes used as a flux, thus it is not surprising that humans mastered the technology of smelted iron only after several millennia of bronze metallurgy.^[13]

The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.^[2] The archaeological evidence seems to point to the Middle East area, during the Bronze Age in the 3rd millennium BC. However, wrought iron artifacts remained a rarity until the 12th century BC.

The Iron Age is conventionally defined by the widespread replacement of bronze weapons and tools with those of iron and steel.^[15] That transition happened at different times in different places, as the technology spread. Mesopotamia was fully into the Iron Age by 900 BC. Although Egypt produced iron artifacts, bronze remained dominant until its conquest by Assyria in 663 BC. The Iron Age began in India about 1200 BC, in Central Europe about 800 BC, and in China about 300 BC.^[16][17] Around 500 BC, the Nubians, who had learned from the Assyrians the use of iron and were expelled from Egypt, became major manufacturers and exporters of iron.^[18]

Ancient Near East

Mining areas of the ancient Middle East. Boxes colors: arsenic in brown, copper in red (the important mines of the Arabah, Timna and Feynan, are missing from the map), tin in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and lead in black. The yellow area stands for arsenic bronze, while grey area stands for tin bronze

One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts, a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia, dated from 2500 BC.^[19] About 1500 BC, increasing numbers of non-meteoritic, smelted iron objects appeared in Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Egypt.^[2] Nineteen meteoric iron objects were found in the tomb of Egyptian ruler Tutankhamun, who died in 1323 BC, including an iron dagger with a golden hilt, an Eye of Horus, the mummy's head-stand and sixteen models of an artisan's tools.^[20] An Ancient Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit.^[19]

Although iron objects dating from the Bronze Age have been found across the Eastern Mediterranean, bronzework appears to have greatly predominated during this period.^[21] As the technology spread, iron came to replace bronze as the dominant metal used for tools and weapons across the Eastern Mediterranean (the Levant, Cyprus, Greece, Crete, Anatolia and Egypt).^[15]

Iron was originally smelted in bloomeries, furnaces where bellows were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning charcoal. The carbon monoxide produced by the charcoal reduced the iron oxide from the ore to metallic iron. The bloomery, however, was not hot enough to melt the iron, so the metal collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, or bloom. Workers then repeatedly beat and folded it to force out the molten slag. This laborious, time-consuming process produced wrought iron, a malleable but fairly soft alloy.^[22]

Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of carburization, the process of adding carbon to wrought iron. While the iron bloom contained some carbon, the subsequent hot-working oxidized most of it. Smiths in the Middle East discovered that wrought iron could be turned into a much harder product by heating the finished piece in a bed of charcoal, and then quenching it in water or oil. This procedure turned the outer layers of the piece into steel, an alloy of iron and iron carbides, with an inner core of less brittle iron.

Theories on the origin of iron smelting

The development of iron smelting was traditionally attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia of the Late Bronze Age.^[23] It was believed that they maintained a monopoly on iron working, and that their empire had been based on that advantage. According to that theory, the ancient Sea Peoples, who invaded the Eastern Mediterranean and destroyed the Hittite empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age, were responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. This theory is no longer held in the mainstream of scholarship,^[23] since there is no archaeological evidence of the alleged Hittite monopoly. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period, and only a small number of those objects were weapons.^[21]

A more recent theory claims that the development of iron technology was driven by the disruption of the copper and tin trade routes, due to the collapse of the empires at the end of the Late Bronze Age.^[23] These metals, especially tin, were not widely available and metal workers had to transport them over long distances, whereas iron ores were widely available. However, no known archaeological evidence suggests a shortage of bronze or tin in the Early Iron Age.^[24] Bronze objects remained abundant, and these objects have the same percentage of tin as those from the Late Bronze Age.

Indian subcontinent

The iron pillar of Delhi

The history of ferrous metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began in the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in Gangetic plains have yielded iron implements dated between 1800 and 1200 BC.^[25] By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale in India.^[25] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron was in use 12th to 11th centuries BC.^[4] The technology of iron metallurgy advanced in the politically stable Maurya period^[26] and during a period of peaceful settlements in the 1st millennium BC.^[4]

Iron artifacts such as spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings, etc., dated from 600 to 200 BC, have been discovered at several archaeological sites of India.^[16] The Greek historian Herodotus wrote the first western account of the use of iron in India.^[16] The Indian mythological texts, the Upanishads, have mentions of weaving, pottery and metallurgy, as well.^[27] The Romans had high regard for the excellence of steel from India in the time of the Gupta Empire.^[28]

Dagger and its scabbard, India, 17th–18th century. Blade: Damascus steel inlaid with gold; hilt: jade; scabbard: steel with engraved, chased and gilded decoration

Perhaps as early as 500 BC, although certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India by the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.^[29] Iron chain was used in Indian suspension bridges as early as the 4th century.^[30]

Wootz steel was produced in India and Sri Lanka from around 300 BC.^[29] Wootz steel is famous from Classical Antiquity for its durability and ability to hold an edge. When asked by King Porus to select a gift, Alexander is said to have chosen, over gold or silver, thirty pounds of steel.^[28] Wootz steel was originally a complex alloy with iron as its main component together with various trace elements. Recent studies have suggested that its qualities may have been due to the formation of carbon nanotubes in the metal.^[31] According to Will Durant, the technology passed to the Persians and from them to Arabs who spread it through the Middle East.^[28] In the 16th century, the Dutch carried the technology from South India to Europe, where it was mass-produced.^[32]

Steel was produced in Sri Lanka from 300 BC^[29] by furnaces blown by the monsoon winds. The furnaces were dug into the crests of hills, and the wind was diverted into the air vents by long trenches. This arrangement created a zone of high pressure at the entrance, and a zone of low pressure at the top of the furnace. The flow is believed to have allowed higher temperatures than bellows-driven furnaces could produce, resulting in better-quality iron.^[33][34][35] Steel made in Sri Lanka was traded extensively within the region and in the Islamic world.

See also: Steel § Wootz steel and Damascus steel

One of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities is an iron pillar located in the Qutb complex in Delhi. The pillar is made of wrought iron (98% Fe), is almost seven meters high and weighs more than six tonnes.^[36] The pillar was erected by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya and has withstood 1,600 years of exposure to heavy rains with relatively little corrosion.

China

Fining iron ore to make wrought iron from pig iron; the righthand illustration shows men working a blast furnace (Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia, 1637)

Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia.^[37] In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the Mogou site, in Gansu. They have been dated to the 14th century BC, belonging to the period of Siwa culture, suggesting an independent Chinese origin. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron.^[38][39]

The earliest iron artifacts made from bloomeries in China date to end of the 9th century BC.^[40] Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture and architecture.^[9] Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern state of Wu achieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be cast into molds, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.

Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can, however, be decarburized to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these iron working methods spread northward, and by 300 BC, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons.^[9] A mass grave in Hebei province, dated to the early 3rd century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze weapons.

An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the Nong Shu, by Wang Zhen, 1313 AD, during the Yuan Dynasty in China

During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the government established ironworking as a state monopoly (repealed during the latter half of the dynasty and returned to private entrepreneurship) and built a series of large blast furnaces in Henan province, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to fine molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and could be hammered (wrought). (In modern Mandarin-Chinese, this process is now called chao, literally stir frying; pig iron is known as 'raw iron', while wrought iron is known as 'cooked iron'.) By the 1st century BC, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel.^[41][42][43] According to legend, the sword of Liu Bang, the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. The ancient city of Wan (Nanyang) from the Han period forward was a major center of the iron and steel industry.^[44] Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported from India to China by the 5th century AD.^[45] During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese were also the first to apply hydraulic power (i.e. a waterwheel) in working the bellows of the blast furnace. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, as an innovation by the Chinese mechanical engineer and politician Du Shi, Prefect of Nanyang.^[46] Although Du Shi was the first to apply water power to bellows in metallurgy, the first drawn and printed illustration of its operation with water power appeared in 1313 AD, in the Yuan Dynasty era text called the Nong Shu.^[47]

In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, heterogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast.^[48] By the 11th century, there was a large amount of deforestation in China due to the iron industry's demands for charcoal.^[49] By this time however, the Chinese had learned to use bituminous coke to replace charcoal, and with this switch in resources many acres of prime timberland in China were spared.^[49]

See also: Early Japanese Ironworking

Iron Age Europe

Comparison of ancient Chinese and European iron and steel making processes.

Axe made of iron, dating from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden

Iron working was introduced to Greece in the late 10th century BC.^[3] The earliest marks of Iron Age in Central Europe are artifacts from the Hallstatt C culture (8th century BC). Throughout the 7th to 6th centuries BC, iron artifacts remained luxury items reserved for an elite. This changed dramatically shortly after 500 BC with the rise of the La Tène culture, from which time iron metallurgy also became common in Northern Europe and Britain. The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with Celtic expansion. By the 1st century BC, Noric steel was famous for its quality and sought-after by the Roman military.

The annual iron output of the Roman Empire is estimated at 84,750 t.^[50]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Main article: Iron metallurgy in Africa

Iron Age finds in East and Southern Africa, corresponding to the early 1st millennium AD Bantu expansion

Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa (possibly in West Africa).^[51][52]

Inhabitants of Termit, in eastern Niger, smelted iron around 1500 BC.^[53]

In the region of the Aïr Mountains in Niger there are also signs of independent copper smelting between 2500 and 1500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.^[54]

Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in what is now Igboland: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)^[55][52] and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi (Holl 2009).^[52] The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively.^[56] Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the Nok culture of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.^{[6][7][57][dubious – discuss][51][56]}

There is also evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.^{[58][59][60][61][62][63]}

Iron and copper working spread southward through the continent, reaching the Cape around AD 200.^[6][7] The widespread use of iron revolutionized the Bantu-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of savanna. The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities.^[6][7]

The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in East Africa are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in Nubia that date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC,^[64][65][66] particularly in Meroe where there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy.

Medieval Islamic world

Iron technology was further advanced by several inventions in medieval Islam, during the Islamic Golden Age. These included a variety of water-powered and wind-powered industrial mills for metal production, including geared gristmills and forges. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Muslim world had these industrial mills in operation, from Islamic Spain and North Africa in the west to the Middle East and Central Asia in the east.^[67] There are also 10th-century references to cast iron, as well as archeological evidence of blast furnaces being used in the Ayyubid and Mamluk empires from the 11th century, thus suggesting a diffusion of Chinese metal technology to the Islamic world.^[68]

Geared gristmills^[69] were invented by Muslim engineers, and were used for crushing metallic ores before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both watermills and windmills. In order to adapt water wheels for gristmilling purposes, cams were used for raising and releasing trip hammers.^[70] The first forge driven by a hydropowered water mill rather than manual labour was invented in the 12th century Islamic Spain.^[71]

One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East was Damascus steel used for swordmaking, and mostly produced in Damascus, Syria, in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using the crucible steel method, based on the earlier Indian wootz steel. This process was adopted in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The exact process remains unknown, but it allowed carbides to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. Carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, so swordsmiths could produce an edge that cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel let the sword as a whole remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that uses X-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires^[72] and carbon nanotubes.^[73] Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties^[74] and are a result of the forging process.^[74][31]

Medieval and early modern Europe

There was no fundamental change in the technology of iron production in Europe for many centuries. European metal workers continued to produce iron in bloomeries. However, the Medieval period brought two developments—the use of water power in the bloomery process in various places (outlined above), and the first European production in cast iron.

Powered bloomeries

Main article: Bloomery

Sometime in the medieval period, water power was applied to the bloomery process. It is possible that this was at the Cistercian Abbey of Clairvaux as early as 1135, but it was certainly in use in early 13th century France and Sweden.^[75] In England, the first clear documentary evidence for this is the accounts of a forge of the Bishop of Durham, near Bedburn in 1408,^[76] but that was certainly not the first such ironworks. In the Furness district of England, powered bloomeries were in use into the beginning of the 18th century, and near Garstang until about 1770.

The Catalan Forge was a variety of powered bloomery. Bloomeries with hot blast were used in upstate New York in the mid-19th century.

Blast furnace

Main article: Blast furnace

Ironmaking described in "The Popular Encyclopedia" vol.VII, published 1894

The preferred method of iron production in Europe until the development of the puddling process in 1783–84. Cast iron development lagged in Europe because wrought iron was the desired product and the intermediate step of producing cast iron involved an expensive blast furnace and further refining of pig iron to cast iron, which then required a labor and capital intensive conversion to wrought iron.^[77]

Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of iron blooms into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in Sweden, in two sites, Lapphyttan and Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350. Some scholars have speculated the practice followed the Mongols across Russia to these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis, and it would certainly not explain the pre-Mongol datings of many of these iron-production centres. In any event, by the late 14th century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.

Finery forge

Main article: Finery forge

An alternative method of decarburising pig iron was the finery forge, which seems to have been devised in the region around Namur in the 15th century. By the end of that century, this Walloon process spread to the Pay de Bray on the eastern boundary of Normandy, and then to England, where it became the main method of making wrought iron by 1600. It was introduced to Sweden by Louis de Geer in the early 17th century and was used to make the oregrounds iron favoured by English steelmakers.

A variation on this was the German forge. This became the main method of producing bar iron in Sweden.

Cementation process

Main article: Cementation process

In the early 17th century, ironworkers in Western Europe had developed the cementation process for carburizing wrought iron. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then sealed with clay to be held at a red heat continually tended in an oxygen-free state immersed in nearly pure carbon (charcoal) for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the surface layers of the iron, producing cement steel or blister steel—also known as case hardened, where the portions wrapped in iron (the pick or axe blade) became harder, than say an axe hammer-head or shaft socket which might be insulated by clay to keep them from the carbon source. The earliest place where this process was used in England was at Coalbrookdale from 1619, where Sir Basil Brooke had two cementation furnaces (recently excavated in 2001–2005^[78]). For a time in the 1610s, he owned a patent on the process, but had to surrender this in 1619. He probably used Forest of Dean iron as his raw material, but it was soon found that oregrounds iron was more suitable. The quality of the steel could be improved by faggoting, producing the so-called shear steel.

Crucible steel

In the 1740s, Benjamin Huntsman found a means of melting blister steel, made by the cementation process, in crucibles. The resulting crucible steel, usually cast in ingots, was more homogeneous than blister steel.^[11]: 145

Transition to coke in England

Further information: Industrial Revolution § Iron industry

Beginnings

Early iron smelting used charcoal as both the heat source and the reducing agent. By the 18th century, the availability of wood for making charcoal was limiting the expansion of iron production, so that England became increasingly dependent for a considerable part of the iron required by its industry, on Sweden (from the mid-17th century) and then from about 1725 also on Russia.^{[citation needed]} Smelting with coal (or its derivative coke) was a long sought objective. The production of pig iron with coke was probably achieved by Dud Dudley around 1619,^[79] and with a mixed fuel made from coal and wood again in the 1670s. However this was probably only a technological rather than a commercial success. Shadrach Fox may have smelted iron with coke at Coalbrookdale in Shropshire in the 1690s, but only to make cannonballs and other cast iron products such as shells. However, in the peace after the Nine Years War, there was no demand for these.^[80][81]

Abraham Darby and his successors

Main article: Abraham Darby I

In 1707, Abraham Darby I patented a method of making cast iron pots. His pots were thinner and hence cheaper than those of his rivals. Needing a larger supply of pig iron he leased the blast furnace at Coalbrookdale in 1709. There, he made iron using coke, thus establishing the first successful business in Europe to do so. His products were all of cast iron, though his immediate successors attempted (with little commercial success) to fine this to bar iron.^[82]

Bar iron thus continued normally to be made with charcoal pig iron until the mid-1750s. In 1755 Abraham Darby II (with partners) opened a new coke-using furnace at Horsehay in Shropshire, and this was followed by others. These supplied coke pig iron to finery forges of the traditional kind for the production of bar iron. The reason for the delay remains controversial.^[83]

New forge processes

Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace

It was only after this that economically viable means of converting pig iron to bar iron began to be devised. A process known as potting and stamping was devised in the 1760s and improved in the 1770s, and seems to have been widely adopted in the West Midlands from about 1785. However, this was largely replaced by Henry Cort's puddling process, patented in 1784, but probably only made to work with grey pig iron in about 1790. These processes permitted the great expansion in the production of iron that constitutes the Industrial Revolution for the iron industry.^[84]

In the early 19th century, Hall discovered that the addition of iron oxide to the charge of the puddling furnace caused a violent reaction, in which the pig iron was decarburised, this became known as 'wet puddling'. It was also found possible to produce steel by stopping the puddling process before decarburisation was complete.

Hot blast

Main article: Hot blast

The efficiency of the blast furnace was improved by the change to hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in Scotland in 1828.^[79] This further reduced production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a 'stove' as large as the furnace next to it into which the waste gas (containing CO) from the furnace was directed and burnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air blown into the furnace.^[85]

Industrial steelmaking

Main article: Steelmaking

Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter

Apart from some production of puddled steel, English steel continued to be made by the cementation process, sometimes followed by remelting to produce crucible steel. These were batch-based processes whose raw material was bar iron, particularly Swedish oregrounds iron.

The problem of mass-producing cheap steel was solved in 1855 by Henry Bessemer, with the introduction of the Bessemer converter at his steelworks in Sheffield, England. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's Kelham Island Museum). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon from the coke. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour.

In the 1860s development of regenerative furnaces and higher temperature refractory lining allowed to melt steel in an open hearth. That was slow and energy intensive, but allowed to better control the chemical makeup of the product and recycle iron scrap.

The acidic refractory lining of Bessemer converters and early open hearths didn't allow to remove phosphorus from steel with lime, which prolonged the life of puddling furnaces in order to utilize phosphorous iron ores abundant in Continental Europe. However in the 1870s Gilchrist–Thomas process was developed, and later basic lining was adopted for the open hearths as well.

Finally, the basic oxygen process was introduced at the Voest-Alpine works in 1952; a modification of the basic Bessemer process, it lances oxygen from above the steel (instead of bubbling air from below), reducing the amount of nitrogen uptake into the steel. The basic oxygen process is used in all modern steelworks; the last Bessemer converter in the U.S. was retired in 1968. Furthermore, the last three decades have seen a massive increase in the mini-mill business, where scrap steel only is melted with an electric arc furnace. These mills only produced bar products at first, but have since expanded into flat and heavy products, once the exclusive domain of the integrated steelworks.

Until these 19th-century developments, steel was an expensive commodity and only used for a limited number of purposes where a particularly hard or flexible metal was needed, as in the cutting edges of tools and springs. The widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered the Second Industrial Revolution and modern society as we know it. Mild steel ultimately replaced wrought iron for almost all purposes, and wrought iron is no longer commercially produced. With minor exceptions, alloy steels only began to be made in the late 19th century. Stainless steel was developed on the eve of World War I and was not widely used until the 1920s.

Modern steel industry

See also: History of the steel industry (1850–1970), History of the steel industry (1970–present), Global steel industry trends, Steel production by country, and List of steel producers

Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development.^[86] In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.^[87]

The economic boom in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian^[88] and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence,^{[according to whom?]} such as Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Baosteel Group and Shagang Group. As of 2017, though, ArcelorMittal is the world's largest steel producer.^[89] In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.^[90] The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2019, it was estimated that 7 to 9 % of the global carbon dioxide emissions resulted from the steel industry.^[91] Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.

In 2008, steel began trading as a commodity on the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.^[92]

See also

• Bintie, a type of refined iron
• History of steelmaking
• Iron Age
• List of alloys
• Nok culture
• Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy
• Roman metallurgy

Citations

1. 
   

Rehren, T. (2013). "5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 40 (12): 4785–4792. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002.

Photos, E. (1989). "The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results". World Archaeology. 20 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081. JSTOR 124562. S2CID 5908149.

Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B.: "Iron", Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.): Brill's New Pauly, Brill 2009

Early Antiquity By I.M. Drakonoff. 1991. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14465-8. p. 372

Rao, Kp (2018). "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Uesugi, Akinori (ed.). Iron Age in South Asia. Research Group for South Asian Archaeology. ISBN 978-4-9909150-1-8. Retrieved 12 April 2022.

Miller, Duncan E.; van der Merwe, N.J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research". Journal of African History. 35: 1–36. doi:10.1017/s0021853700025949. S2CID 162330270.

Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa". Current Anthropology. 9: 54–58. doi:10.1086/200878. S2CID 145379030.

Waldbaum (1978).

Donald B. Wagner (1993). Iron and Steel in Ancient China. Brill. p. 408. ISBN 978-90-04-09632-5.

Williams, David (1867), "The Iron Age [weekly journal]", Iron Age, New York: David Williams, ISSN 0021-1508, LCCN sc82008005, OCLC 5257259

Tylecote (1992).

"Kiruna Iron Ore Mine, Sweden". mining-technology.com. 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-05-29. Retrieved 2010-08-29.

Tylecote (1992). p. 3.

Veenhof, Klaas; Eidem, Jesper (2008). Mesopotamia : Annäherungen. Saint-Paul. p. 84. ISBN 978-3-525-53452-6.

Waldbaum (1978). pp. 56–58.

Marco Ceccarelli (2000). International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-6372-8. p. 218

White, W. C.: "Bronze Culture of Ancient China", p. 208. University of Toronto Press, 1956.

Collins, Rober O. and Burns, James M. The History of Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 37. ISBN 978-0-521-68708-9.

Richard Cowen, The Age of Iron, Chapter 5 in a series of essays on Geology, History, and People prepares for a course of the University of California at Davis. Online version Archived 2010-03-14 at the Wayback Machine accessed on 2010-02-11.

The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen: Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter, Volume 3

Waldbaum (1978): 23.

Smil, Vaclav (2016). Still the Iron Age. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0128042335.

Muhly, James D. 'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174–183 in Near Eastern Archaeology ed. Suzanne Richard (2003), pp. 179–180.

Muhly 2003: 180.

Tewari, Rakesh (2003). "The origins of iron-working in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas" (PDF). Antiquity. 77 (297): 536–544. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.403.4300. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00092590. S2CID 14951163. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-05.

J. F. Richards et al. (2005).The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36424-8. p. 64

Patrick Olivelle (1998). Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283576-9. p. xxix

Will Durant (), The Story of Civilization I: Our Oriental Heritage

G. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka". Nature. 379 (3): 60–63. Bibcode:1996Natur.379...60J. doi:10.1038/379060a0. S2CID 205026185.

"Suspension bridge – engineering". britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2007-10-16.

Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword: Carbon nanotech may have given swords of Damascus their edge". Nature. doi:10.1038/news061113-11. S2CID 136774602. Archived from the original on 2006-11-19. Retrieved 2006-11-17.

Roy Porter (2003). The Cambridge History of Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57199-5. p. 684

Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka". Nature. 379 (3): 60–63. Bibcode:1996Natur.379...60J. doi:10.1038/379060a0. S2CID 205026185.

"ANSYS Fluent Software: CFD Simulation". Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2009-01-23.

Simulation of air flows through a Sri Lankan wind driven furnace, submitted to J. Arch. Sci, 2003.

R. Balasubramaniam (2002), Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights. Aryan Books International, Delhi ISBN 81-7305-223-9. "Review: Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-04-27. "List of Publications on Indian Archaeometallurgy". Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2007-04-27.

Pigott, Vincent C. (1999). The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ISBN 0-924171-34-0, p. 8.

Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012. The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China. Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8, 45–53 (in Chinese)

p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence

Wengcheong Lam (2014). Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the Transition to Cast Iron Production in the Central Plains of China. Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 519.

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 197.

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 277.

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 563 g

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 86.

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 1, p. 282.

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 370.

Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 371.

Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". Journal of Economic History. 26: 53–54. doi:10.1017/S0022050700061842. S2CID 154556274.

(2006). 158.

Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, p. 108

Eggert (2014). pp. 51–59.

Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy". Journal of World Prehistory. 22 (4): 415–438. doi:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6. S2CID 161611760.

Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History Archived 2008-10-25 at the Wayback Machine – Unesco (2002)

Ehret, Christopher (2002). The Civilizations of Africa. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, pp. 136, 137 ISBN 0-8139-2085-X.

Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. "Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja". Academia.edu. University of Nigeria,Nsukka, Nigeria. Retrieved 12 December 2014.

Eggert (2014). pp. 53–54.

Tylecote (1975) (see below)

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania". Science. 201 (4361): 1085–1089. Bibcode:1978Sci...201.1085S. doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085. JSTOR 1746308. PMID 17830304. S2CID 37926350.

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa". Journal of Field Archaeology. 10 (4): 421–434. doi:10.1179/009346983791504228.

Schmidt, Peter (1978). Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion". The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276.

Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.). A Companion to African History. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288.

Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.). The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.

Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). A History of Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521867467 – via Google Books.

Edwards, David N. (2004). The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203482766 – via Google Books.

Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018). "Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe". Journal of Field Archaeology. 43 (5): 399–416. doi:10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085.

Lucas (2005). pp. 10–11 & 27.

R. L. Miller (October 1988). "Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, 'Islamic technology: an illustrated history'". Medical History. 32 (4): 466–467. doi:10.1017/s0025727300048602.

Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). "Engineering". In Rashid, Rushdi; Morelon, Regis (eds.). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science: Technology, alchemy and life sciences. Vol. 3. CRC Press. p. 781. ISBN 978-0-415-12412-6.

Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64–69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived December 25, 2007, at the Wayback Machine)

Lucas, Adam (2006). Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology. p. 65. Brill, ISBN 90-04-14649-0.

Kochmann, W.; Reibold M.; Goldberg R.; Hauffe W.; Levin A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Stephan T.; Müller H.; Belger A.; Paufler P. (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 372 (1–2): L15–L19. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005. ISSN 0925-8388.
Levin, A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Reibold M.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Paufler P. (2005). "Microstructure of a genuine Damascus sabre" (PDF). Crystal Research and Technology. 40 (9): 905–916. doi:10.1002/crat.200410456. S2CID 96560374. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-08-09.

Reibold, M.; Levin A. A.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Meyer D. C. (16 November 2006). "Materials:Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre". Nature. 444 (7117): 286. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..286R. doi:10.1038/444286a. PMID 17108950. S2CID 4431079.

"Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says". news.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 2016-01-28.

Lucas (2005). p. 19.

Tylecote (1992). p. 76.

Tylecote (1992).

Belford and Ross, Paper: English steelmaking in the seventeenth century: the excavation of two cementation furnaces at Coalbrookdale Archived 2018-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Academia.edu, accessdate=30 March 2017

Howe, Henry Marion (1911). "Iron and Steel" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 803.

King, P. W. (2002). "Dud Dudley's contribution to metallurgy". Historical Metallurgy. 36 (1): 43–53.

King, P. W. (2001). "Sir Clement Clerke and the adoption of coal in metallurgy". Trans. Newcomen Soc. 73 (1): 33–52. doi:10.1179/tns.2001.002. S2CID 112533187.

A. Raistrick, A dynasty of Ironfounders (1953; 1989); N. Cox, 'Imagination and innovation of an industrial pioneer: The first Abraham Darby' Industrial Archaeology Review 12(2) (1990), 127–144.

A. Raistrick, Dynasty; C. K. Hyde, Technological change and the British iron industry 1700–1870 (Princeton, 1977), 37–41; P. W. King, 'The Iron Trade in England and Wales 1500–1815' (Ph.D. thesis, Wolverhampton University, 2003), 128–141.

G. R. Morton and N. Mutton, 'The transition to Cort's puddling process' Journal of Iron and Steel Institute 205(7) (1967), 722–728; R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer), Henry Cort: The great finer: creator of puddled iron (1983); P. W. King, 'Iron Trade', 185–193.

A. Birch, Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry , 181–189; C. K. Hyde, Technological Change and the British iron industry (Princeton 1977), 146–159.

"Steel Industry". Archived from the original on 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2009-07-12.

"Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002". United States Government Printing Office.

Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007). "India's steel industry steps onto world stage". Cristian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2009-07-12.

"Top Steelmakers in 2017" (PDF). World Steel Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 23, 2018. Retrieved August 22, 2018.

"Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand". The News. 2008-03-01. Archived from the original on 2010-11-02. Retrieved 2010-11-02.

De Ras, Kevin; Van De Vijver, Ruben; Galvita, Vladimir V.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (2019-12-01). "Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering". Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering. 26: 81–87. doi:10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001. ISSN 2211-3398. S2CID 210619173.

92. Uchitelle, Louis (2009-01-01). "Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-07-19.

Bibliography

• Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.). Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag Press. ISBN 978-3937248462. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
• Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe". Technology and Culture. 46 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026. S2CID 109564224.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2; Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3.
• Tylecote, R. F. (1992). A History of Metallurgy (2nd ed.). London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. ISBN 978-0901462886.
• Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978). From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, vol. LIV. Gothenburg: Paul Åström. ISBN 9185058793.

Further reading

• Knowles, Anne Kelly. (2013). Mastering Iron: The Struggle to Modernize an American Industry, 1800–1868 (University of Chicago Press) 334 pages^{[ISBN missing]}
• Lam, Wengcheong (2014). Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the transition to Cast Iron Production in the Plains of Central China, Chinese University of Hong Kong^{[ISBN missing]}
• Pleiner, R. (2000). Iron in Archaeology. The European Bloomery Smelters, Praha, Archeologický Ústav Av Cr.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Pounds, Norman J. G. (1957). "Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry of France". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 47#1, pp. 3–14. JSTOR 2561556.
• Wagner, Donald (1996). Iron and Steel in Ancient China. Leiden: E.J. Brill.^{[ISBN missing]}
• Woods, Michael and Mary B. Woods (2000). Ancient Construction (Ancient Technology) Runestone Press^{[ISBN missing]}

External links

• "Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

v t e Prehistoric technology

v t e Iron and steel production

Authority control: National	Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic

Categories:

• 4th-millennium BC establishments
• History of metallurgy
• Steelmaking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_long_house

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_dwelling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longhouse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit-house

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_shelter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blombos_Cave

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stilt_house

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_dam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnt_mound

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_known_surviving_buildings

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_circle

 

Seahenge (Holme I) in the temporary exhibition ″The World of Stonehenge″ at the British Museum

Beach at Old Hunstanton

Seahenge, also known as Holme I, was a prehistoric monument located in the village of Holme-next-the-Sea, near Old Hunstanton in the English county of Norfolk. A timber circle with an upturned tree root in the centre, Seahenge, along with the nearby timber circle Holme II, was built in the spring-summer of 2049 BCE, during the early Bronze Age in Britain.^[1] Contemporary theory is that they were used for ritual purposes; in particular Holme II has been interpreted as a mortuary monument that may originally have formed the boundary of a burial mound.

In order to preserve the timber in the site from exposure to air, due to recent exposure of the remains by the sea, it was excavated in Spring 1999,^[2] and its remains taken to an archeological museum and then a maritime museum for preservation of the wood. In 1999, a reproduction was put up by some of the excavators, near the site. In 2008, after further study, a second reproduction was erected near the original's location.^[3] Due to controversy about the excavation of Seahenge, Holme II was left in place to be monitored as it is gradually destroyed by erosion. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahenge

Durrington Walls

Southern Wall of Durrington Walls
STONEHENGE Durrington Walls Woodhenge Map showing Woodhenge and Durrington Walls within the Stonehenge section of the Stonehenge and Avebury World Heritage Site
Location	OS SU150437
Region	Wiltshire
Coordinates	51.1925°N 1.7875°WCoordinates: 51.1925°N 1.7875°W
Type	henge
History
Periods	Neolithic
Site notes
Excavation dates	1966-7, 2003-
Archaeologists	G.J. Wainwright, Stonehenge Riverside Project
Condition	eroded banks and ditch
Public access	Yes
Website	National Trust
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Designated	1986[1]
Reference no.	373
Scheduled monument
Designated	1929
Reference no.	1009133[2]

Durrington Walls is the site of a large Neolithic settlement and later henge enclosure located in the Stonehenge World Heritage Site in England. It lies 2 miles (3.2 km) north-east of Stonehenge in the parish of Durrington, just north of Amesbury in Wiltshire. The henge is the second-largest Late Neolithic palisaded enclosure known in the United Kingdom, after Hindwell in Wales.^[3]

Between 2004 and 2006, excavations on the site by a team led by the University of Sheffield revealed seven houses. It has been suggested that the settlement may have originally had up to 1,000 houses and perhaps 4,000 people, if the entire enclosed area was used. The site was settled for about 500 years, starting sometime between c. 2800 and 2100 BC.^[4]

The site may have been the largest settlement in northern Europe for a brief period.^[5][6][7] From 2010 to 2014, a combination of new technology and excavations revealed a 500 metres (1,600 ft)-diameter henge constructed largely of wooden posts. Evidence suggests that this complex was a complementary monument to Stonehenge.^[8]

In 2020, a geophysical survey uncovered a number of pits, some natural sink holes and others apparently modified to hold massive timbers, interpreted as belonging to a 1.2-mile-wide (1.9 km) circle or circuit of 10-metre (33 ft) pits of Neolithic age. If this interpretation is correct, this would be Britain's largest prehistoric monument.^[9] 

Durrington Walls seen from Woodhenge

Durrington Walls, as seen from the south of the monument. It is bisected here to the left by one of the two roads that now cross the prehistoric site.

Sunrise at the Durrington Walls reconstruction, which was produced for a special episode of Time Team that first aired in 2005.

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durrington_Walls

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_completed_in_the_24th_century_BC

Pyramid of Djedkare Sentinel Pyramid[1][2] Haram el-Shawaf[3]
Djedkare Isesi
Coordinates	29°51′04″N 31°13′15″ECoordinates: 29°51′04″N 31°13′15″E
Ancient name	Nfr Ḏd-kꜣ-Rꜥ Nefer Djed-ka-Re Beautiful is Djedkare[1]
Constructed	5th Dynasty (c. Late 25th to Mid 24th century BC)
Type	True pyramid (ruined)
Material	Limestone[4]
Height	52.5 m (172 ft; 100.2 cu) (originally)[2] 24 metres (79 ft; 46 cu) (currently)[4][5]
Base	78.75 m (258.4 ft; 150.29 cu)[2]
Volume	107,835 m3 (141,043 cu yd)[6]
Slope	52°[2]
Location within Lower Egypt

The pyramid of Djedkare Isesi (in ancient Egyptian Nfr Ḏd-kꜣ-rꜥ ("Beautiful is Djedkare")) is a late 25th to mid 24th century BC pyramid complex built for the Fifth Dynasty pharaoh Djedkare Isesi.^[7][a] The pyramid is referred to as Haram el-Shawaf (Arabic: هَرَم ٱلشَّوَّاف, romanized: Haram ash-Shawwāf, lit. 'The Sentinel Pyramid')^[3] by locals.^[1] It was the first pyramid to be built in South Saqqara. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djedkare_Isesi

Lepsius XXIV
Remains of Lepsius XXIV
wife of Nyuserre Ini?
Constructed	5th Dynasty
Type	Pyramid
Material	limestone, sand, rubble
Height	27.3 m (original); 5 m (today)
Base	31.5 m
Slope	60°15′

Location of Lepsius XXIV in the Abusir necropolis

The Lepsius XXIV Pyramid is an Egyptian pyramid, which was probably built for a wife of King Nyuserre Ini. The largely destroyed 5th Dynasty structure is located in the pyramid field of Abusir, east of the Pyramid of Neferefre and south of the Pyramid of Khentkaus II. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepsius_XXIV

Pyramid of Unas
Unas
Coordinates	29°52′6″N 31°12′53″ECoordinates: 29°52′6″N 31°12′53″E
Ancient name	Nfr swt Wnjs[1][2] Nefer asut Unas[3] "Beautiful are the [cult] places of Unas"[4] Alternatively translated as "Perfect are the places of Unas"[5] or "The places of Unas are complete"[6]
Constructed	Fifth Dynasty (c. 24th century BC)
Type	Smooth-sided (now ruined)
Material	Limestone
Height	43 m (141 ft; 82 cu)[6] (original)
Base	57.75 m (189 ft; 110 cu)[6]
Volume	47,390 m3 (61,980 cu yd)[7]
Slope	56°18'35"[8]
Location within Lower Egypt

The pyramid of Unas (Egyptian: Nfr swt Wnjs "Beautiful are the places of Unas") is a smooth-sided pyramid built in the 24th century BC for the Egyptian pharaoh Unas, the ninth and final king of the Fifth Dynasty.^[9][a] It is the smallest Old Kingdom pyramid, but significant due to the discovery of Pyramid Texts, spells for the king's afterlife incised into the walls of its subterranean chambers. Inscribed for the first time in Unas's pyramid, the tradition of funerary texts carried on in the pyramids of subsequent rulers, through to the end of the Old Kingdom, and into the Middle Kingdom through the Coffin Texts that form the basis of the Book of the Dead. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Unas

Entrance leading to the main offering chapel in the Tomb of Perneb, The Met, New York

The Tomb of Perneb is a mastaba-style tomb from ancient Egypt, built during the reigns of Djedkare Isesi and Unas (ca. 2381 BC to 2323 BC), in the necropolis of Saqqara, north of Pharaoh Djoser's Step Pyramid and about 30 kilometers south of Giza, Egypt. It was the tomb of Perneb, and from the size and placement of the tomb he might have been a court official or royal family member.^[1]

The tomb was erected during the 5th Dynasty in the Old Kingdom. It was discovered in 1907, purchased from the Egyptian government in 1913 and given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, by Edward S. Harkness.^[2]

Perneb was a court official in the royal household who had a role in the robing and crowning of the king. His name means "my Lord has come forth to me". His tomb was attached to the larger tomb of the vizier Shepsesre, who may have been Perneb's father. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Perneb

Xagħra Stone Circle

Iċ-Ċirku tax-Xagħra
Remains of the Xagħra Stone Circle
Xagħra Stone Circle Shown within Malta
Alternative name	Xagħra Hypogeum Brochtorff Circle
Location	Xagħra, Gozo, Malta
Coordinates	36°2′47″N 14°15′53″ECoordinates: 36°2′47″N 14°15′53″E
Type	Hypogeum
History
Material	Limestone
Founded	c. 4100–3800 BC (earliest remains) c. 3000–2400 BC (main burial ground)
Abandoned	before 2000 BC
Periods	Żebbuġ phase Tarxien phase Tarxien Cemetery phase Borġ in-Nadur phase
Site notes
Excavation dates	1826 and 1987–1994
Condition	Ruins
Ownership	Government of Malta
Management	Heritage Malta
Public access	No

The Xagħra Stone Circle (Maltese: Iċ-Ċirku tax-Xagħra), also known as the Xagħra Hypogeum or the Brochtorff Circle, is a Neolithic funerary complex located in Xagħra, Gozo, Malta. It consists of a series of caves which were used to bury the dead, and which were surrounded by a walled enclosure. It mainly dates back to around 3000 to 2400 BC, although the earliest tombs at the site date back to 4100 to 3800 BC. The caves collapsed sometime before 2000 BC, and the site was later used for domestic and agricultural purposes.^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xag%C4%A7ra_Stone_Circle

 

The entrance of a tomb at the Theban Necropolis—TT 353. The entrance was built by the order of Sen-en-Mut, 97.36m long and 41.93m deep

3D laser scan profile of the Hypogeum of the Volumnus family

Tablinum inside Hypogeum of the Volumni, in the northern end of the crypt

3D image of Tablinum inside Hypogeum of the Volumni, cut from a laser scan

Entrance of the Three Brothers' hypogeum in Palmyra, Syria

Hypogeum of Yarhai, Damascus, Syria

A hypogeum or hypogaeum (plural hypogea or hypogaea, pronounced /haɪpɒɡeɪə/; literally meaning "underground", from Greek hypo (under) and ghê (earth)^[1]) is an underground temple or tomb.

Hypogea will often contain niches for cremated human remains or loculi for buried remains. Occasionally tombs of this type are referred to as built tombs.^[2]

The term hypogeum can also refer to any antique building or part of building built below ground such as the series of tunnels under the Colosseum which held slaves (particularly enemy captives) and animals while keeping them ready to fight in the gladiatorial games. The animals and slaves could be let up through trapdoors under the sand-covered arena at any time during a fight. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypogeum

One of the Alaca Höyük bronze standards from a pre-Hittite tomb dating to the third millennium BC, from the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara

Bronze Age
↑ Chalcolithic

Africa, Near East (c. 3300–1200 BC)

South Asia c. 3300–1200 BC

Europe (c. 3200–900 BC)

Eurasia and Siberia (c. 2700–700 BC)

East Asia (c. 3100–300 BC)

Topics

↓ Iron Age

v t e

History of technology

By technological eras

By historical regions

By type of technology

Technology timelines

Article indices

v t e

The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age system proposed in 1836 by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for classifying and studying ancient societies and history. It is also considered the second phase, of three, in the Metal Ages.^[1]

An ancient civilization is deemed to be part of the Bronze Age because it either produced bronze by smelting its own copper and alloying it with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or traded other items for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Bronze is harder and more durable than the other metals available at the time, allowing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a technological advantage. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age

Funerary relief of "Aqmat" a fashionable, bejewled Palmyrene woman. The Aramic inscription read "Aqmat, daughter of Hagagu, descendant of Zebida, descendant of Ma'an. Alas!". London, England.

Palmyrene funerary relief busts were first produced in Palmyra in the middle of the first century BC a decorative slabs closing the burial niches inside underground tombs.^[1] The reliefs were carved into square pieces of limestone and depicted figures in a direct frontal pose cut off at mid-torso. Arms and hands were portrayed in various gestures and poses. Most busts display a solitary figure, however some sculptures incorporate multiple figures of family members. The names and lineage of the deceased are engraved in Aramaic above the shoulders, and in some cases, with Greek^[2] or Syriac.

After 273 AD, Palmyrene funerary reliefs ceased to be produced, due to the city's sack by the Romans which marked an end to its growth, development and wealth, and to its civilization altogether. 

Funerary reliefs depicting husband and wife, and parents and their children were also common. Inscription in Aramaic reads: Viria Phoebe and Gaius Vurus (left) and Alas! Shalmat her mother. Alas! Shalmat daughter of Shamshigeram in the month Elul in the year 495 [AD 184] Hairan her son. (right) London, England

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyrene_funerary_reliefs

 

Niche with a sculpture by Antoine Coysevox, in the Les Invalides, Paris

In architecture, a niche (CanE, UK: /ˈniːʃ/ or US: /ˈnɪtʃ/) is a recess, a cavity in a wall, typically holding a decorative elememt: a statue, a vase, etc. In Classical architecture examples are an exedra or an apse that has been reduced in size, retaining the half-dome heading usual for an apse. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_(architecture)

Typical Early Christian/Byzantine apse with a hemispherical semi-dome decorated in mosaic (Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe in Ravenna)

In architecture, a semi-dome (or half-dome) is a half dome that covers a semi-circular area in a building. 

 

Looking up at the radiating semi-domes of Hagia Sophia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-dome

Moorish architecture

Top: Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain (8th century); Centre: Bab Oudaya in Rabat, Morocco (late 12th century); Bottom: Court of the Lions at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain (14th century)
Years active	8th century to present day

Moorish architecture is a style within Islamic architecture which developed in the western Islamic world, including al-Andalus (on the Iberian peninsula) and what is now Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (part of the Maghreb).^[1][2] Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition by a more geographic designation, such as architecture of the Islamic West^[2][1][3] or architecture of the Western Islamic lands.^[4][5][3] The use of the term "Moorish" comes from the historical Western European designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "Moors".^[6][7][a] Some references on Islamic art and architecture consider this term to be outdated or contested.^[11][12] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorish_architecture

In typography, the Vox-ATypI classification makes it possible to classify typefaces into general classes. Devised by Maximilien Vox in 1954, it was adopted in 1962 by the Association Typographique Internationale (ATypI) and in 1967 as a British Standard, as British Standards Classification of Typefaces (BS 2961:1967),^[1] which is a very basic interpretation and adaptation/modification of the earlier Vox-ATypI classification. On April 27, 2021, ATypI announced that they had de-adopted the system and that they were establishing a working group building towards a new, larger system incorporating the different scripts of the world.^[1]

Vox proposed a nine-type classification which tends to group typefaces according to their main characteristics, often typical of a particular century (15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th century), based on a number of formal criteria: downstroke and upstroke, forms of serifs, stroke axis, x-height, etc.^[2] Although the Vox-ATypI classification defines archetypes of typefaces, many typefaces can exhibit the characteristics of more than one class.

At the 2010 ATypI general meeting, the association voted to make a minor amendment to add Gaelic to the calligraphic group in the Vox-ATypI classification, to state that the Vox-ATypI system was seriously flawed, and to create a new working group on typeface classification.^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox-ATypI_classification#Blackletter

A page from the Nuremberg Chronicle (Schedelsche Weltchronik), 1493

Normalschrifterlass by Martin Bormann

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwabacher

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_typefaces#Blackletter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typography

A Specimen, a broadsheet with examples of typefaces and fonts available. Printed by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface#Blackletter_typefaces

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_script

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_type

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubrication

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezh

King James Version
The title page to the 1611 first edition of the Authorized Version of the Bible by Cornelis Boel shows the Apostles Peter and Paul seated centrally above the central text, which is flanked by Moses and Aaron. In the four corners sit Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the traditionally attributed authors of the four gospels, with their symbolic animals. The rest of the Apostles (with Judas facing away) stand around Peter and Paul. At the very top is the Tetragrammaton "יְהֹוָה" written with Hebrew diacritics.
Abbreviation	KJV[a]
Complete Bible published	1611

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_James_Version

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastarda

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanist_minuscule

A book hand was any of several stylized handwriting scripts used during ancient and medieval times. It was intended for legibility and often used in transcribing official documents (prior to the development of printing and similar technologies).

In palaeography and calligraphy, the term hand is still used to refer to a named style of writing, such as the chancery hand. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_hand

 

The letters s and t combined to create the typographic ligature st

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligature_(writing)

 

 

In handwriting, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in an atypical fashion by merging their parts, or by writing one above or inside the other. In printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, so the characters do not have to be joined. For example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450,^[4] typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, as they were based on handwriting. Ligatures made printing with movable type easier because one block would replace frequent combinations of letters and also allowed more complex and interesting character designs which would otherwise collide with one another.

Because of their complexity, ligatures began to fall out of use in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for body text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans and Futura. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s (which did not require journeyman knowledge or training to operate) also generally avoid them. A few, however, became characters in their own right, see below the sections about German ß, various Latin accented letters, & et al.

The trend against digraph use was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution (the automatic use of ligatures where appropriate), while most new digital typefaces did not include ligatures. As most of the early PC development was designed for the English language (which already treated ligatures as optional at best) dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped because of the mass production of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented: "some of the world's greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world's worst fonts."^[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligature_(writing)

Part of a series on the
History of printing

Techniques

v t e

Phototypesetting is a method of setting type. It uses photography to make columns of type on a scroll of photographic paper.^[1][2] It has been made obsolete by the popularity of the personal computer and desktop publishing (digital typesetting).

The first phototypesetters quickly project light through a film negative of an individual character in a font, then through a lens that magnifies or reduces the size of the character onto photographic paper or film, which is collected on a spool in a light-proof canister. The paper or film is then fed into a processor, a machine that pulls the paper or film strip through two or three baths of chemicals, from which it emerges ready for paste-up or film make-up. Later phototypesetting machines used other methods, such as displaying a digitised character on a CRT screen.

Phototypesetting offered numerous advantages over metal type, including the lack of need to keep heavy metal type and matrices in stock, the ability to use a much wider range of fonts and graphics and to print them at any desired size, and faster page layout setting. 

An Intertype Fotosetter, one of the most popular "first-generation" mass-market phototypesetting machines. The system is heavily based on hot metal typesetting technology, with the metal casting machinery replaced with photographic film, a light system and glass pictures of characters.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototypesetting

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minim_(palaeography)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscript

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraken

The first Philadelphia Mint, as it appeared around 1908

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye_olde

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursive

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Latin_script

An r rotunda (the middle letter) in the word "quadraginta" in a Latin Bible of AD 1407, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_rotunda

 

Akzidenz-Grotesk

Category	Sans-serif
Classification	Grotesque
Foundry	H. Berthold AG[1]
Date released	1898

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akzidenz-Grotesk

 

An advertisement from January 1932, when the Nazis were trying to win power, showing a uniformed SA member, the Nazi swastika, the SA logo, and an anti-monopoly political slogan.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturm_Cigarette_Company

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_note

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeography

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scary_Hours

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_(disambiguation)

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_typeface

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et_cetera

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_race_theory

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_(surname)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_moral_character

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_New_Roman

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_hand

 

Various examples of pages from illuminated manuscripts

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript

Miniature of Sinon and the Trojan Horse, from the Vergilius Romanus, a manuscript of Virgil's Aeneid, early 5th century

A miniature (from the Latin verb miniare, "to colour with minium", a red lead^[1]) is a small illustration used to decorate an ancient or medieval illuminated manuscript; the simple illustrations of the early codices having been miniated or delineated with that pigment. The generally small scale of such medieval pictures has led to etymological confusion with minuteness and to its application to small paintings, especially portrait miniatures,^[2] which did however grow from the same tradition and at least initially used similar techniques.

Apart from the Western, Byzantine and Armenian^[3] traditions, there is another group of Asian traditions, which is generally more illustrative in nature, and from origins in manuscript book decoration also developed into single-sheet small paintings to be kept in albums, which are also called miniatures, as the Western equivalents in watercolor and other media are not. These include Arabic miniatures, and their Persian, Mughal, Ottoman and other Indian offshoots. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)

The month February. From the Grimani Breviary, a key work in the late history of Flemish illuminated manuscripts,(ca.1515-1520).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)

Miniature of the Annuciation to the Shepherds, from a Book of Hours (Milan, Biblioteca Trivulziana, Cod. 470).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)

Authority control

v t e Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity: Azerbaijan

Categories:

• Illuminated manuscripts
• Iconography of illuminated manuscripts
• Miniature painting

Book design
Page layout and typography	Annotation Footnote Gloss Marginal note Scholia Canons of page construction Catchword Column Footer Header Headpiece Illumination Initial Historiated Inhabited Margin Miniature Ornament Page numbering Pull quote Recto and verso Rubric Rubrication Typeface Font
Front and back covers	Anthropodermic bibliopegy Bookbinding Buckram Dust jacket Hardcover Leather Paperback Picture cover Treasure binding
Endpapers	Marbled
Front matter	Half-title bastard title Frontispiece Title page Edition notice Imprimi potest Nihil obstat Imprimatur Dedication Epigraph Table of contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Introduction Prologue Printer's mark
Body matter	Body text Chapters Illustrations Parts Sections Tipped-in pages
Back matter	Afterword Conclusion Epilogue Outro Postscript Addendum/Appendix Endnotes Glossary Bibliography Index Errata Colophon Postface
Other elements	Book curse Bookplate ex-librīs Book rhyme Die-cutting Extra-illustration Fore-edge painting Intentionally blank page Pop-ups Slipcase Thumb index

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)

 

This article contains Unicode emoticons or emojis. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of the intended characters.

Poem typeset with generous use of decorative dingbats around the edges (1880s). Dingbats are not part of the text.

In typography, a dingbat (sometimes more formally known as a printer's ornament or printer's character) is an ornament, specifically, a glyph used in typesetting, often employed to create box frames (similar to box-drawing characters), or as a dinkus (section divider). Some of the dingbat symbols have been used as signature marks or used in bookbinding to order sections.^{[citation needed]}

In the computer industry, a dingbat font was a computer font that has symbols and shapes that reused the code points designated for alphabetical or numeric characters. This practice was necessitated by the limited number of code points available in 20th century operating systems. Most modern fonts are based on Unicode, which has unique code points for dingbat glyphs. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingbat

Recto page from a rare Blackletter Bible (1497)

The canons of page construction are historical reconstructions, based on careful measurement of extant books and what is known of the mathematics and engineering methods of the time, of manuscript-framework methods that may have been used in Medieval- or Renaissance-era book design to divide a page into pleasing proportions. Since their popularization in the 20th century, these canons have influenced modern-day book design in the ways that page proportions, margins and type areas (print spaces) of books are constructed.

The notion of canons, or laws of form, of book page construction was popularized by Jan Tschichold in the mid to late twentieth century, based on the work of J. A. van de Graaf, Raúl Rosarivo, Hans Kayser, and others.^[1] Tschichold wrote, "Though largely forgotten today, methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed for centuries. To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought to life and applied." as cited in Hendel 1998, p. 7. Kayser's 1946 Ein harmonikaler Teilungskanon^[2][3] had earlier used the term canon in this context.

Typographers and book designers are influenced by these principles to this day in page layout, with variations related to the availability of standardized paper sizes, and the diverse types of commercially printed books.^[4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canons_of_page_construction

Headpiece from "Triodion", a religious manuscript from 1642

Headpiece (also spelled head-piece), is a decoration printed in the blank space at the beginning of a chapter or other division of a book, usually an ornamental panel, printer's ornament or a small illustration done by a professional illustrator.^[1]

The use of decorative headpieces in manuscripts was inherited by the medieval West from late Antique and Byzantine book production, and enjoyed particular popularity during the Renaissance.^[2]

Headpieces, sometimes incorporating a rubric or heading, as well as Zoomorphic and anthropomorphic motifs were used widely in manuscripts and in editions of the Bible in the 15th century.

Similarly, a tailpiece is located at the end of a chapter or section. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headpiece_(book_illustration)

The Temple in Jerusalem depicted as the Dome of the Rock on the printer's mark of Marco Antonio Giustiniani, Venice 1545–52

A printer's mark, device, emblem or insignia is a symbol that was used as a trademark by early printers starting in the 15th century.

The first printer's mark is found in the 1457 Mainz Psalter by Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer.^[1] One of the most well-known old printer's marks is the dolphin and anchor, first used by the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius as his mark in 1502.^[2]

The database Printers' Devices of the Ancient Book Section of the Library of the University of Barcelona, was launched in October 1998.^[3] The University of Florida libraries also provide digital access to printers' devices and include The University of Chicago devices that have appeared on the cover of their publication The Library Quarterly.^[4]

Printer's mark in use in the modern era

Printers' devices have been incorporated in American library buildings, as a reflection of the British Arts and Crafts Movement.^[5]

From 1931-2012 Library Quarterly featured 328 printer's marks with an article on the history of each mark. ^[6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printer%27s_mark

A table of contents

A table of contents, usually headed simply Contents and abbreviated informally as TOC, is a list, usually found on a page before the start of a written work, of its chapter or section titles or brief descriptions with their commencing page numbers. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_contents

Half-title page of Picturesque New Guinea (1887), with ornamentation above and below the title

The half-title or bastard title is a page carrying nothing but the title of a book—as opposed to the title page, which also lists subtitle, author, publisher and edition. The half-title is usually counted as the first page (p. i) in a printed book.^[1] The half-title can have some ornamentation of the book's title, or it can be plain text.

The purpose of the half-title page is to protect the full title page and its traditional counterpart, the frontispiece, during the bookbinding process. When the completed interior pages of the book are bound together to form the book block, the half-title page serves as the outermost layer of paper at the front of the book. Several hundreds or thousands of book blocks may need to be moved or stored for a period of time before they are bound into their covers, during which the half-title page protects the more intricately-designed pages that follow from rubbing and dust.

Archaic uses of the terms half-title and bastard title may refer to two separate pages on both sides of the full title page that have been conflated in modern usage. Theodore Low De Vinne distinguished between half-title (by his definition, a "caption title") and bastard title in his series The Practice of Typography, saying:

The half-title should not be confounded with the bastard title. The half-title follows the title and begins the first page of text; the bastard title, usually a single line in capital letters, precedes the full title, and takes a separate leaf with blank verso.^[2]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-title

A postscript (P.S., PS, PS.) is an afterthought, thought that is occurring after the letter has been written and signed.^[1] The term comes from the Latin post scriptum, an expression meaning "written after"^[2][3] (which may be interpreted in the sense of "that which comes after the writing").^[4]

A postscript may be a sentence, a paragraph, or occasionally many paragraphs added, often hastily and incidentally, after the signature of a letter or (sometimes) the main body of an essay or book. In a book or essay, a more carefully composed addition (e.g., for a second edition) is called an afterword. The word "postscript" has poetically been used to refer to any sort of addendum to some main work even if it is not attached to a main work, for example Søren Kierkegaard's book titled Concluding Unscientific Postscript.

Sometimes when additional points are made after the first postscript, abbreviations such as P.P.S. (post-post-scriptum) and P.P.P.S. (post-post-post-scriptum) and so on are added, ad infinitum. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postscript

The first page of the index of Novus Atlas Sinensis by Martino Martini, an altas of China published in 1655

An index (plural: usually indexes, more rarely indices; see below) is a list of words or phrases ('headings') and associated pointers ('locators') to where useful material relating to that heading can be found in a document or collection of documents. Examples are an index in the back matter of a book and an index that serves as a library catalog. An index differs from a word index, or concordance, in focusing on the subject of the text rather than the exact words in a text, and it differs from a table of contents because the index is ordered by subject, regardless of whether it is early or late in the book, while the listed items in a table of contents is placed in the same order as the book.^[1]

In a traditional back-of-the-book index, the headings will include names of people, places, events, and concepts selected as being relevant and of interest to a possible reader of the book. The indexer performing the selection may be the author, the editor, or a professional indexer working as a third party. The pointers are typically page numbers, paragraph numbers or section numbers.

In a library catalog the words are authors, titles, subject headings, etc., and the pointers are call numbers. Internet search engines (such as Google) and full-text searching help provide access to information but are not as selective as an index, as they provide non-relevant links, and may miss relevant information if it is not phrased in exactly the way they expect.^[2]

Perhaps the most advanced investigation of problems related to book indexes is made in the development of topic maps, which started as a way of representing the knowledge structures inherent in traditional back-of-the-book indexes. The concept embodied by book indexes lent its name to database indexes, which similarly provide an abridged way to look up information in a larger collection, albeit one for computer use rather than human use. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_(publishing)

A postface is the opposite of a preface, a brief article or explanatory information placed at the end of a book.^[1] Postfaces are quite often used in books so that the non-pertinent information will appear at the end of the literary work, and not confuse the reader.

A postface is a text added to the end of a book or written as a supplement or conclusion, usually to give a comment, an explanation, or a warning. The postface can be written by the author of a document or by another person. The postface is separated from the main body of the book and is placed in the appendices pages. The postface presents information that is not essential to the entire book, but which is considered relevant. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postface

Intentionally blank pages at the end of a book

An intentionally blank page or vacat page (from Latin: vacare for "being empty") is a page that has no content and may be unexpected. Such pages may serve purposes ranging from place-holding to space-filling and content separation. Sometimes, these pages carry a notice such as "This page intentionally left blank." Such notices typically appear in printed works, such as legal documents, manuals, and exam papers, in which the reader might otherwise suspect that the blank pages are due to a printing error and where missing pages might have serious consequences. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionally_blank_page

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Miniature_painting

 

Prima

An old Russian pack of Prima cigarettes, with a Russian text warning at the bottom of the pack.
Product type	Cigarette
Produced by	Kyiv Tobacco Factory, various Russian tobacco manufacturers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_(cigarette)

 

An Ideal for Living
EP by Joy Division
Released	3 June 1978[1]
Recorded	14 December 1977

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Ideal_for_Living

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Gothic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinkenlights

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerals_in_Unicode

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadside_ballad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_orthography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonts_on_Macintosh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegy_Written_in_a_Country_Churchyard

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1662)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didone_(typography)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDN_homograph_attack

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_re-identification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuerdank

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Type

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetus_Latina_manuscripts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_apparatus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_type

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburger_(disambiguation)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_calligraphy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloister_(typeface)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Pannartz_and_Konrad_Sweynheim

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplicate_characters_in_Unicode

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1524_in_literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941_in_Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune%27s_Fool_(1796_play)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_German_Language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament_amulet

Walbaum's roman and Fraktur type, in modern digitisations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walbaum_(typeface)

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_Andreae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._5_Squadron_RAAF

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Figgins

 

 

The knight in Pynson's 1492 edition of The Canterbury Tales

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pynson

 

Reverse-contrast "Italian" type in an 1828 specimen book by the George Bruce company of New York.^[1] Shown below it is a "fat face" design, a type also popular in early 19th century printing.^[2][3] Both typefaces are very bold, but the fat face's thick lines are the verticals as normal and the Italian's are the horizontals.^[a]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse-contrast_typefaces}

 

 

 

A rendering of the Latin phrase mimi numinum niuium minimi munium nimium uini muniminum imminui uiui minimum uolunt in Gothic handwriting.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minim_(palaeography)

 

Page from a 14th-century Psalter, with blackletter "sine pedibus" text.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minim_(palaeography)

In orthography and typography, a homoglyph is one of two or more graphemes, characters, or glyphs with shapes that appear identical or very similar but may have differing meaning. The designation is also applied to sequences of characters sharing these properties.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoglyph

"... by the grace that God put ..." (Extract from The Boke of Margery Kempe)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye_olde

 

A Friend in Need, a 1903 Dogs Playing Poker painting by Cassius Marcellus Coolidge, is a common example of modern kitsch.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitsch

 

Example from early printing, from a page printed by Pablo Hurus in 1496 in Zaragoza, Spain. The sample includes the types for r rotunda (marked red), ordinary r (marked green), and Tironian et (marked blue).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_rotunda

 

Various German language blackletter typefaces

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter

 

Modern interpretation of blackletter script in the form of the font "Old English" which includes several anachronistic glyphs, such as Arabic numerals, ampersand (instead of Tironian et) and several punctuation marks, but lacks letter alternatives like long ⟨s⟩ and ⟨r⟩ rotunda, scribal abbreviations and ligatures, and contains several relatively modern versions of letters such as ⟨x⟩, which is confusable with the letter ⟨r⟩.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter

Page of a rare blackletter Bible, 1497, printed in Strasbourg by Johann Grüninger, then one of the city's most prolific printers. The red chapter initials were handwritten by a rubricator after printing.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter

 

Cursiva refers to a very large variety of forms of blackletter; as with modern cursive writing, there is no real standard form. It developed in the 14th century as a simplified form of textualis, with influence from the form of textualis as used for writing charters. Cursiva developed partly because of the introduction of paper, which was smoother than parchment. It was therefore, easier to write quickly on paper in a cursive script. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter

Fraktur

Main article: Fraktur

Fraktur is a form of blackletter that became the most common German blackletter typeface by the mid-16th century. Its use was so common that often any blackletter form is called Fraktur in Germany. Characteristics of Fraktur are:

• The left side of the small letter ⟨o⟩ is formed by an angular stroke, the right side by a rounded stroke. At the top and at the bottom, both strokes join in an angle. Other small letters have analogous forms.
• The capital letters are compound of rounded ⟨c⟩-shaped or ⟨s⟩-shaped strokes.

Here is the entire alphabet in Fraktur (minus the long s and the sharp s ⟨ß⟩), using the AMS Euler Fraktur typeface:

${\displaystyle \mathfrak{A}\mathfrak{B}\mathfrak{C}\mathfrak{D}\mathfrak{E}\mathfrak{F}\mathfrak{G}\mathfrak{H}\mathfrak{I}\mathfrak{J}\mathfrak{K}\mathfrak{L}\mathfrak{M}\mathfrak{N}\mathfrak{O}\mathfrak{P}\mathfrak{Q}\mathfrak{R}\mathfrak{S}\mathfrak{T}\mathfrak{U}\mathfrak{V}\mathfrak{W}\mathfrak{X}\mathfrak{Y}\mathfrak{Z}}$

${\displaystyle \mathfrak{a}\mathfrak{b}\mathfrak{c}\mathfrak{d}\mathfrak{e}\mathfrak{f}\mathfrak{g}\mathfrak{h}\mathfrak{i}\mathfrak{j}\mathfrak{k}\mathfrak{l}\mathfrak{m}\mathfrak{n}\mathfrak{o}\mathfrak{p}\mathfrak{q}\mathfrak{r}\mathfrak{s}\mathfrak{t}\mathfrak{u}\mathfrak{v}\mathfrak{w}\mathfrak{x}\mathfrak{y}\mathfrak{z}}$

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter

Blackletter typesetting

While an antiqua typeface is usually a compound of roman types and italic types since the 16th-century French typographers, the blackletter typefaces never developed a similar distinction. Instead, they use letterspacing (German Sperrung) for emphasis. When using that method, blackletter ligatures like ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ck⟩, ⟨tz⟩ or ⟨ſt⟩ remain together without additional letterspacing (⟨ſt⟩ is dissolved, though). The use of bold text for emphasis is also alien to blackletter typefaces.

Words from other languages, especially from Romance languages including Latin, are usually typeset in antiqua instead of blackletter.^[8] Like that, single antiqua words or phrases may occur within a blackletter text. This does not apply, however, to loanwords that have been incorporated into the language.

National forms

England

Textualis

Blackletter in a Latin Bible of 1407 AD, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England

English blackletter developed from the form of Carolingian minuscule used there after the Norman Conquest, sometimes called "Romanesque minuscule". Textualis forms developed after 1190 and were used most often until approximately 1300, after which it became used mainly for de luxe manuscripts. English forms of blackletter have been studied extensively and may be divided into many categories. Textualis formata ("Old English" or "blackletter"), textualis prescissa (or textualis sine pedibus, as it generally lacks feet on its minims), textualis quadrata (or psalterialis) and semi-quadrata, and textualis rotunda are various forms of high-grade formata styles of blackletter.

The University of Oxford borrowed the littera parisiensis in the 13th century and early 14th century, and the littera oxoniensis form is almost indistinguishable from its Parisian counterpart; however, there are a few differences, such as the round final ⟨s⟩ forms, resembling the number ⟨8⟩, rather than the long ⟨s⟩ used in the final position in the Paris script.

Handbill of 1715, with the main text in blackletter type, publishing a royal proclamation for the apprehension of the Jacobite leader Sir William Wyndham

Printers of the late 15th and early 16th centuries commonly used blackletter typefaces, but under the influence of Renaissance tastes, Roman typefaces grew in popularity, until by about 1590 most presses had converted to them.^[9] However, blackletter was considered to be more readily legible (especially by the less literate classes of society), and it therefore remained in use throughout the 17th century and into the 18th for documents intended for widespread dissemination, such as proclamations and Acts of Parliament, and for literature aimed at the common people, such as ballads, chivalric romances, and jokebooks.^[10][11]

Chaucer's works had been printed in blackletter in the late 15th century, but were subsequently more usually printed in Roman type. Horace Walpole wrote in 1781 that "I am too, though a Goth, so modern a Goth that I hate the black letter, and I love Chaucer better in Dryden and Baskerville than in his own language and dress."^[12]

Cursiva

English cursiva began to be used in the 13th century, and soon replaced littera oxoniensis as the standard university script. The earliest cursive blackletter form is Anglicana, a very round and looped script, which also had a squarer and angular counterpart, Anglicana formata. The formata form was used until the 15th century and also was used to write vernacular texts. An Anglicana bastarda form developed from a mixture of Anglicana and textualis, but by the 16th century, the principal cursive blackletter used in England was the Secretary script, which originated in Italy and came to England by way of France. Secretary script has a somewhat haphazard appearance, and its forms of the letters ⟨a⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨r⟩ and ⟨s⟩ are unique, unlike any forms in any other English script.

France

Textualis

French textualis was tall and narrow compared to other national forms, and was most fully developed in the late 13th century in Paris. In the 13th century there also was an extremely small version of textualis used to write miniature Bibles, known as "pearl script". Another form of French textualis in this century was the script developed at the University of Paris, littera parisiensis, which also is small in size and designed to be written quickly, not calligraphically.

Cursiva

French cursiva was used from the 13th to the 16th century, when it became highly looped, messy, and slanted. Bastarda, the "hybrid" mixture of cursiva and textualis, developed in the 15th century and was used for vernacular texts as well as Latin. A more angular form of bastarda was used in Burgundy, the lettre de forme or lettre bourgouignonne, for books of hours such as the Très Riches Heures of John, Duke of Berry.

Germany

Schwabacher lettering. The text reads: "Beispiel Alte Schwabacher: Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den Sylter Deich." Roughly translated to English, it reads "Example of Old Schwabacher: Victor chases twelve boxers across the Sylt dike."

Despite the frequent association of blackletter with German, the script was actually very slow to develop in German-speaking areas. It developed first in those areas closest to France and then spread to the east and south in the 13th century. The German-speaking areas are, however, where blackletter remained in use the longest.

Schwabacher typefaces dominated in Germany from about 1480 to 1530, and the style continued in use occasionally until the 20th century. Most importantly, all of the works of Martin Luther, leading to the Protestant Reformation, as well as the Apocalypse of Albrecht Dürer (1498), used this typeface. Johann Bämler, a printer from Augsburg, probably first used it as early as 1472. The origins of the name remain unclear; some assume that a typeface-carver from the village of Schwabach—one who worked externally and who thus became known as the Schwabacher—designed the typeface.

Textualis

German Textualis is usually very heavy and angular, and there are few characteristic features that are common to all occurrences of the script. One common feature is the use of the letter ⟨w⟩ for Latin ⟨vu⟩ or ⟨uu⟩. Textualis was first used in the 13th and 14th centuries, and subsequently become more elaborate and decorated, as well as being reserved used for liturgical works only.

Johann Gutenberg used a textualis typeface for his famous Gutenberg Bible in 1455. Schwabacher, a blackletter with more rounded letters, soon became the usual printed typeface, but it was replaced by Fraktur in the early 17th century.

Fraktur lettering. The text reads: "Walbaum-Fraktur: Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den Sylter Deich." Roughly translated to English, it reads "Walbaum Fraktur: Victor chases twelve boxers across the Sylt dyke."

Fraktur came into use when Emperor Maximilian I (1493–1519) established a series of books and had a new typeface created specifically for this purpose. In the 19th century, the use of antiqua alongside Fraktur increased, leading to the Antiqua-Fraktur dispute, which lasted until the Nazis abandoned Fraktur in 1941. Since it was so common, all kinds of blackletter tend to be called Fraktur in German.

Cursiva

Main article: Kurrent

The names of four common blackletter typefaces written in their respective styles

German cursiva is similar to the cursive scripts in other areas, but forms of ⟨a⟩, ⟨s⟩ and other letters are more varied; here too, the letter ⟨w⟩ is often used. A hybrida form, which was basically cursiva with fewer looped letters and with similar square proportions as textualis, was used in the 15th and 16th centuries.

In the 18th century, the pointed quill was adopted for blackletter handwriting. In the early 20th century, the Sütterlin script was introduced in the schools.

Italy

Rotunda

Main article: Rotunda (script)

Italian blackletter also is known as rotunda, as it was less angular than those produced by northern printing centers. The most common form of Italian rotunda was littera bononiensis, used at the University of Bologna in the 13th century. Biting is a common feature in rotunda, but breaking is not.

Italian Rotunda also is characterized by unique abbreviations, such as ⟨q⟩ with a line beneath the bow signifying qui, and unusual spellings, such as ⟨x⟩ for ⟨s⟩ (milex rather than miles).

Cursiva

Italian cursive developed in the 13th century from scripts used by notaries. The more calligraphic form is known as minuscola cancelleresca italiana (or simply cancelleresca, chancery hand), which developed into a book hand, a script used for writing books rather than charters, in the 14th century. Cancelleresca influenced the development of bastarda in France and secretary hand in England.

The Netherlands

Textualis mixed with select use of Antiqua in an 1853 Dutch edition of the New Testament

Textualis

A textualis form, commonly known as Gotisch or "Gothic script", was used for general publications from the fifteenth century on, but became restricted to official documents and religious publications during the seventeenth century. Its use persisted into the nineteenth century for editions of the State Translation of the Bible, but otherwise became obsolete.

Unicode

Mathematical blackletter characters are separately encoded in Unicode in the Mathematical alphanumeric symbols range at U+1D504-1D537 and U+1D56C-1D59F (bold), except for individual letters already encoded in the Letterlike Symbols range (plus long s at U+017F).^[13][14] Fonts supporting the range include Code2001, Cambria Math, and Quivira (textura style).

This block of characters is intended for use in setting mathematical texts, which contrast blackletter characters with other letter styles.^[15] Outside of mathematics, the character set has seen some limited decorative use, but it lacks punctuation and other characters necessary for running text, and the Unicode standard for setting non-mathematical material in blackletter is to use ordinary Latin code points with a dedicated blackletter font.

Mathematical Fraktur:

𝔄 𝔅 ℭ 𝔇 𝔈 𝔉 𝔊 ℌ ℑ 𝔍 𝔎 𝔏 𝔐 𝔑 𝔒 𝔓 𝔔 ℜ 𝔖 𝔗 𝔘 𝔙 𝔚 𝔛 𝔜 ℨ
𝔞 𝔟 𝔠 𝔡 𝔢 𝔣 𝔤 𝔥 𝔦 𝔧 𝔨 𝔩 𝔪 𝔫 𝔬 𝔭 𝔮 𝔯 𝔰 𝔱 𝔲 𝔳 𝔴 𝔵 𝔶 𝔷

Mathematical Bold Fraktur:

𝕬 𝕭 𝕮 𝕯 𝕰 𝕱 𝕲 𝕳 𝕴 𝕵 𝕶 𝕷 𝕸 𝕹 𝕺 𝕻 𝕼 𝕽 𝕾 𝕿 𝖀 𝖁 𝖂 𝖃 𝖄 𝖅
𝖆 𝖇 𝖈 𝖉 𝖊 𝖋 𝖌 𝖍 𝖎 𝖏 𝖐 𝖑 𝖒 𝖓 𝖔 𝖕 𝖖 𝖗 𝖘 𝖙 𝖚 𝖛 𝖜 𝖝 𝖞 𝖟

Note: (The above may not render fully in all web browsers.)

See also

• Writing portal

• Antiqua (typeface class)
• Asemic writing
• Bastarda
• Book hand
• Calligraphy
• Chancery hand
• Court hand (also known as common law hand, Anglicana, cursiva antiquior, or charter hand)
• Cursive
• Hand (writing style)
• Handwriting
• History of writing
• Italic script
• Law hand
• Paleography
• Penmanship
• Ronde script (calligraphy)
• Rotunda (script)
• Round hand
• Secretary hand

References

1. 
   

Dowding, Geoffrey (1962). An introduction to the history of printing types; an illustrated summary of main stages in the development of type design from 1440 up to the present day: an aid to type face identification. Clerkenwell [London]: Wace. p. 5.

"Styles of Handwriting". Rigsarkivet. The Danish National Archives. Retrieved March 26, 2017.

"Gotiskais raksts". Tezaurs.lv. University of Latvia. Retrieved April 17, 2023.

Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum (in German)

The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP letterhead is printed in Fraktur.

"For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:

It is wrong to regard or to describe the so-called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so-called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.

Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.

The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.

On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script".

Berthold Louis Ullman, The Origin and Development of Humanistic Script. (Rome), 1960, p. 12.

"What's The Name For The Dot Over "i" And "j"?". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 30 July 2019.

John Man, How One Man Remade the World with Words

Distler, Hugo (c. 1935). Neues Chorliederbuch. Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag. Retrieved 1 September 2015.

Ferguson, W. Craig (1989). Pica Roman Type in Elizabethan England. Aldershot: Scolar Press. ISBN 0859677184.

Mish, Charles C. (1953). "Black letter as a social determinant in the seventeenth century". PLMA. 68 (3): 627–630. doi:10.2307/459873. JSTOR 459873. S2CID 163769557.

Thomas, Keith (1986). "The meaning of literacy in early modern England". In Bauman, Gerd (ed.). The Written Word: literacy in transition. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 97–131 (99). ISBN 0-19-875068-4.

Spurgeon, Caroline F. E. (1923). "Introduction". Five Hundred Years of Chaucer Criticism and Allusion (1357–1900). London: Chaucer Society. pp. xliv–xx.

"Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols Unicode Chart" (PDF).

"Letterlike Symbols Unicode Chart" (PDF).

15. "22.2 Letterlike Symbols, Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols". The Unicode Standard, Version 14.0 (PDF). Mountain View, CA: Unicode, Inc. September 2021.

Further reading

• Bernhard Bischoff, Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• Bain, Peter; Shaw, Paul, eds. (1998). Blackletter: type and national identity. Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-125-3.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Blackletter.

Look up black letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• 'Manual of Latin Palaeography' (A comprehensive PDF file containing 82 pages profusely illustrated, June 2014).
• Learn Blackletter Online
• Association for the German Script and Language
• Pfeffer Simpelgotisch A simple OpenType blackletter font setting ſ and s by itself
• London Review of Books article about blackletter fonts and font history in general

v t e Types of handwritten European scripts

v t e Typography

v t e Types of writing systems

Authority control

Categories:

• Blackletter
• Medieval scripts
• Palaeography
• Typography
• Western calligraphy

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackletter

 

Alte Schwabacher

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwabacher

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Arc length.

In typography, line length is the width of a block of typeset text, usually measured in units of length like inches or points or in characters per line (in which case it is a measure). A block of text or paragraph has a maximum line length that fits a determined design. If the lines are too short then the text becomes disjointed; if they are too long, the content loses rhythm as the reader searches for the start of each line.

Line length is determined by typographic parameters based on a formal grid and template with several goals in mind: balance and function for fit and readability with a sensitivity to aesthetic style in typography. Typographers adjust line length to aid legibility or copy fit. Text can be flush left and ragged right, flush right and ragged left, or justified where all lines are of equal length. In a ragged right setting, line lengths vary to create a ragged right edge. Sometimes this can be visually satisfying. For justified and ragged right settings typographers can adjust line length to avoid unwanted hyphens, rivers of white space, and orphaned words/characters at the end of lines (e.g., "The", "I", "He", "We").

^{[citation needed]}

Printed text

Traditional line length research, limited to print-based text, gave a variety of results, but generally for printed text it is widely accepted that line lengths fall between 45 and 75 characters per line (cpl), though the ideal is 66 cpl (including letters and spaces).^[1] For conventional books line lengths tend to be 30 times the size of the type, but between 20 and 40 times is considered acceptable (i.e., 30 × 10pt font = 300 pt line).^[1] Early studies considered line lengths of 59–97 mm (about 57 cpl) optimum for 10-point font.^[2] For printed works with multiple columns, 40–50 cpl is often better.^[1] For justified, English-language text the minimum number of characters per line is 40; anything less than 38–40 characters often results in splotches of white spaces (or rivers) or too many hyphenations in the block of text.^[1] Longer lines (85–90 cpl) may be acceptable for discontinuous text such as in bibliographies or footnotes, but for continuous text lines with more than 80 characters may be too long. Short text, such as ragged marginal notes, may be as little as 12–15 characters per line.^[1] Studies have shown that short lines are often preferred over long lines by study participants, likely because they feel more at ease with format, which contradicts research suggesting longer lines are best for quick reading.^[3] Punctuation should preferably hang outside the measure.^[4] Generally, if the measure is wide, the leading of a text should be increased—if the measure is short, it can safely be decreased. Reverse text, i.e. white text on black, also requires more leading.^[5][6]

The experience of the reader can also be considered as a factor when determining the count of characters within text lines. For novice readers, text lines should contain between 34 and 60 characters, 45 being the optimal number. Texts for expert readers could contain between 45 and 80 characters, with an optimal count of 60 characters.^[7]

Electronic text

Screen reading poses additional challenges, making the adoption of traditional line length research to the digital format problematic.^[8] Unlike printed text, writing for digital media must accommodate factors such as glare, flicker, and scrolling/paging.^[9]

The measure is the number of characters per line in a column of text. Using CSS to set the width of a box to 66ch fixes the measure to about 66 characters per line regardless of the text size as the ch unit is defined as the width of the glyph 0 (zero, the Unicode character U+0030) in the element's font.^[10] For user agents that do not support the ch unit a value of 33em can be used as, on average, one character takes up 0.5 of a typographic em.^[5]

Legibility research specific to digital text has shown that, like with printed text, line length can affect reading speed. If lines are too long it is difficult for the reader to quickly return to the start of the next line (saccade), whereas if lines are too short more scrolling or paging will be required.^[11]

Researchers have suggested that longer lines are better for quick scanning, while shorter lines are better for accuracy.^[3] Longer lines would then be better suited for cases when the information will likely be scanned, while shorter lines would be appropriate when the information is meant to be read thoroughly.^[3] One proposal advanced that, in order for on-screen text to have the best compromise between reading speed and comprehension, about 55 cpl should be used.^[11] On the other hand, there have been studies indicating that digital text at 100 cpl can be read faster than text with lines of 25 characters, while retaining the same level of comprehension.^[8]

Subjective factors also play a role in line length selection for digital text. One study has found that CPL had only small effects on readability, including factors of speed and comprehension; but when asked for preferences, 60% of respondents indicated a preference for either the shortest (35 CPL) or longest (95 CPL) lines used in the study. At the same time, 100% of respondents selected either one of these quantities as being the least desirable.^[12]

Calculation methods

Second page of the Spartan Type Specimen by American Type Founders (1953). The lowercase alphabet measurement for each of the sizes displayed on this page can be found on the left column.

There are a few methods to calculate line length to fit the intended average count of characters that such lines should contain based on the factors listed above. Most, if not all, of these methods use the length of the lowercase alphabet (LCA) as a reference for its calculation.^[13] The lowercase alphabet (a measurement of the array of characters of the hegemonic roman alphabet from a to z in typographic points) was sometimes included in type specimen booklets. If not available, the first step to calculate the line length for all these methods is the measurement of the LCA at the size that will be ultimately used.

The first of these methods consists of an adjacency matrix that positions the LCA in points on the x axis and the line length in picas on the y axis. The matrix is used by locating the number closest to the previously calculated LCA on the left column of the matrix and then scanning across the columns the number of characters that one would like to set in the text line. Once the number is located, the top row of the selected column will indicate the ideal line length.^[13]

The second method consists of a formula that uses the LCA as a unit in a rule of three calculation.^[7] Given that the lowercase alphabet has 26 characters, multiplying LCA by 1.75 roughly yields the optimal number of characters for novice readers (26 × 1.75 = 45.5 [≈ 45]). Multiplying the optimal number of character by 0.75 yields the minimum number of characters for novice readers (45.5 × 0.75 = 34.125 [≈ 34]), while multiplying this same number by 1.5 roughly yields the maximum number of characters for novice readers (45.5 × 1.5 = 68.25 [≈ 60]).

The third known method is also a formula (LCA’ × Cρ[S] = Ll) that consists of multiplying a modified version of LCA (the lowercase alphabet plus a space character [LCA’]) by the desired number of characters (Cρ) multiplied by a constant of 0.0345 (S).^[14]   

References

1. 
   

Bringhurst, R. (1992). Horizontal Motion. The Elements of Typographic Style, pp 25-36. Point Roberts, WA: Hartley & Marks.

Tinker, M. A., & Paterson, D. G. (1929). Studies of typographical factors influencing speed of reading. III. Length of line. Journal of Applied Psychology, 13(3), 205-219.

Ling, J., & Van Schaik, P. (2006). The influence of font type and line length on visual search and information retrieval in web pages. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64(5), 395-404.

"10 Great Tips For Improving Your Web Typography - SpyreStudios". 14 May 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2017.

Rutter, Richard. "Choose a comfortable measure - The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web". Retrieved 8 August 2022.

Boulton, Mark (13 April 2005). "Five simple steps to better typography".

Buen Unna, Jorge de. (2014). Manual de diseño editorial (4a ed., corr. y aum ed.). Somonte-Cenero, Gijón: Ediciones Trea. ISBN 9788497047623. OCLC 880551642.

Dyson, M. C., & Kipping, G. J. (1998). The Effects of Line Length and Method of Movement on Patterns of Reading from Screen. Visible Language, 32(2), 150-181.

Nanavati, A. A., & Bias, R. G. (2005). Optimal line length in reading - a literature review. Visible Language, 29(2), 121-145.

"<length> CSS data type". Retrieved 8 August 2022.

Dyson, M. C., & Haselgrove, M. (2001). The influence of reading speed and line length on the effectiveness of reading from screen. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 54(4), 585-612.

Shaikh, A. Dawn (July 2005). "The Effects of Line Length on Reading Online News". Usability News. 7 (2). Archived from the original on June 19, 2015.

Robert., Bringhurst (2012). The elements of typographic style (4th ed. (version 4.0) ed.). Seattle, WA: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 9780881792119. OCLC 808199932.

14. Peña, Ernesto (2016). "Calculating line length: an arithmetic approach". Visible Language. 50 (1): 112–125.

Categories:

• Typography
• Typesetting

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_length

AMS Euler

Category	Script
Designer(s)	Hermann Zapf Donald Knuth
Foundry	AMS
Date released	1983
Sample

AMS Euler is an upright cursive typeface, commissioned by the American Mathematical Society (AMS) and designed and created by Hermann Zapf with the assistance of Donald Knuth and his Stanford graduate students. It tries to emulate a mathematician's style of handwriting mathematical entities on a blackboard, which is upright rather than italic.^[1][2] It blends very well with other typefaces made by Hermann Zapf, such as Palatino, Aldus and Melior, but very badly with the default TeX font Computer Modern. All the alphabets were implemented with the computer-assisted design system Metafont developed by Knuth. Zapf designed and drew the Euler alphabets in 1980–81 and provided critique and advice of digital proofs in 1983 and later. The typeface family is copyright by American Mathematical Society, 1983. Euler Metafont development was done by Stanford computer science and/or digital typography students; first Scott Kim, then Carol Twombly and Daniel Mills, and finally David Siegel, all assisted by John Hobby. Siegel finished the Metafont Euler digitization project as his M.S. thesis in 1985.

The AMS Euler typeface is named after Leonhard Euler.^[3]

First implemented in METAFONT, AMS Euler was first used in the book Concrete Mathematics, which was co-authored by Knuth and dedicated to Euler.^[3] This volume also saw the debut of Knuth's Concrete Roman font, designed to complement AMS Euler. The Euler Metafont format fonts were converted to PostScript Type 1 font format by the efforts of several people, including Berthold Horn at Y&Y, Barry Smith at Bluesky Research, and Henry Pinkham and Ian Morrison at Projective Solutions. It is now also available in TrueType format. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMS_Euler

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with point code.

In character encoding terminology, a code point, codepoint or code position is a numerical value that maps to a specific character. Code points usually represent a single grapheme—usually a letter, digit, punctuation mark, or whitespace—but sometimes represent symbols, control characters, or formatting.^[1] The set of all possible code points within a given encoding/character set make up that encoding's codespace.^[2][3]

For example, the character encoding scheme ASCII comprises 128 code points in the range 0_hex to 7F_hex, Extended ASCII comprises 256 code points in the range 0_hex to FF_hex, and Unicode comprises 1,114,112 code points in the range 0_hex to 10FFFF_hex. The Unicode code space is divided into seventeen planes (the basic multilingual plane, and 16 supplementary planes), each with 65,536 (= 2¹⁶) code points. Thus the total size of the Unicode code space is 17 × 65,536 = 1,114,112. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_point

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Code unit)

Punched tape with the word "Wikipedia" encoded in ASCII. Presence and absence of a hole represents 1 and 0, respectively; for example, "W" is encoded as "1010111".

Character encoding is the process of assigning numbers to graphical characters, especially the written characters of human language, allowing them to be stored, transmitted, and transformed using digital computers.^[1] The numerical values that make up a character encoding are known as "code points" and collectively comprise a "code space", a "code page", or a "character map".

Early character codes associated with the optical or electrical telegraph could only represent a subset of the characters used in written languages, sometimes restricted to upper case letters, numerals and some punctuation only. The low cost of digital representation of data in modern computer systems allows more elaborate character codes (such as Unicode) which represent most of the characters used in many written languages. Character encoding using internationally accepted standards permits worldwide interchange of text in electronic form.

History

The history of character codes illustrates the evolving need for machine-mediated character-based symbolic information over a distance, using once-novel electrical means. The earliest codes were based upon manual and hand-written encoding and cyphering systems, such as Bacon's cipher, Braille, international maritime signal flags, and the 4-digit encoding of Chinese characters for a Chinese telegraph code (Hans Schjellerup, 1869). With the adoption of electrical and electro-mechanical techniques these earliest codes were adapted to the new capabilities and limitations of the early machines. The earliest well-known electrically transmitted character code, Morse code, introduced in the 1840s, used a system of four "symbols" (short signal, long signal, short space, long space) to generate codes of variable length. Though some commercial use of Morse code was via machinery, it was often used as a manual code, generated by hand on a telegraph key and decipherable by ear, and persists in amateur radio and aeronautical use. Most codes are of fixed per-character length or variable-length sequences of fixed-length codes (e.g. Unicode).^[2]

Common examples of character encoding systems include Morse code, the Baudot code, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Unicode. Unicode, a well-defined and extensible encoding system, has supplanted most earlier character encodings, but the path of code development to the present is fairly well known.

The Baudot code, a five-bit encoding, was created by Émile Baudot in 1870, patented in 1874, modified by Donald Murray in 1901, and standardized by CCITT as International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) in 1930. The name baudot has been erroneously applied to ITA2 and its many variants. ITA2 suffered from many shortcomings and was often improved by many equipment manufacturers, sometimes creating compatibility issues. In 1959 the U.S. military defined its Fieldata code, a six-or seven-bit code, introduced by the U.S. Army Signal Corps. While Fieldata addressed many of the then-modern issues (e.g. letter and digit codes arranged for machine collation), it fell short of its goals and was short-lived. In 1963 the first ASCII code was released (X3.4-1963) by the ASCII committee (which contained at least one member of the Fieldata committee, W. F. Leubbert), which addressed most of the shortcomings of Fieldata, using a simpler code. Many of the changes were subtle, such as collatable character sets within certain numeric ranges. ASCII63 was a success, widely adopted by industry, and with the follow-up issue of the 1967 ASCII code (which added lower-case letters and fixed some "control code" issues) ASCII67 was adopted fairly widely. ASCII67's American-centric nature was somewhat addressed in the European ECMA-6 standard.^[3]

Hollerith 80-column punch card with EBCDIC character set

Herman Hollerith invented punch card data encoding in the late 19th century to analyze census data. Initially, each hole position represented a different data element, but later, numeric information was encoded by numbering the lower rows 0 to 9, with a punch in a column representing its row number. Later alphabetic data was encoded by allowing more than one punch per column. Electromechanical tabulating machines represented date internally by the timing of pulses relative to the motion of the cards through the machine. When IBM went to electronic processing, starting with the IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, it used a variety of binary encoding schemes that were tied to the punch card code.

IBM's Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) was a six-bit encoding scheme used by IBM as early as 1953 in its 702^[4] and 704 computers, and in its later 7000 Series and 1400 series, as well as in associated peripherals. Since the punched card code then in use only allowed digits, upper-case English letters and a few special characters, six bits were sufficient. BCD extended existing simple four-bit numeric encoding to include alphabetic and special characters, mapping it easily to punch-card encoding which was already in widespread use. IBMs codes were used primarily with IBM equipment; other computer vendors of the era had their own character codes, often six-bit, but usually had the ability to read tapes produced on IBM equipment. BCD was the precursor of IBM's Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (usually abbreviated as EBCDIC), an eight-bit encoding scheme developed in 1963 for the IBM System/360 that featured a larger character set, including lower case letters.

The limitations of such sets soon became apparent,^{[to whom?]} and a number of ad hoc methods were developed to extend them. The need to support more writing systems for different languages, including the CJK family of East Asian scripts, required support for a far larger number of characters and demanded a systematic approach to character encoding rather than the previous ad hoc approaches.^{[citation needed]}

In trying to develop universally interchangeable character encodings, researchers in the 1980s faced the dilemma that, on the one hand, it seemed necessary to add more bits to accommodate additional characters, but on the other hand, for the users of the relatively small character set of the Latin alphabet (who still constituted the majority of computer users), those additional bits were a colossal waste of then-scarce and expensive computing resources (as they would always be zeroed out for such users). In 1985, the average personal computer user's hard disk drive could store only about 10 megabytes, and it cost approximately US$250 on the wholesale market (and much higher if purchased separately at retail),^[5] so it was very important at the time to make every bit count.

The compromise solution that was eventually found and developed into Unicode^[vague] was to break the assumption (dating back to telegraph codes) that each character should always directly correspond to a particular sequence of bits. Instead, characters would first be mapped to a universal intermediate representation in the form of abstract numbers called code points. Code points would then be represented in a variety of ways and with various default numbers of bits per character (code units) depending on context. To encode code points higher than the length of the code unit, such as above 256 for eight-bit units, the solution was to implement variable-length encodings where an escape sequence would signal that subsequent bits should be parsed as a higher code point.

Terminology

Terminology related to character encoding

• A character is a minimal unit of text that has semantic value.
• A character set is a collection of characters that might be used by multiple languages. Example: The Latin character set is used by English and most European languages, though the Greek character set is used only by the Greek language.
• A coded character set is a character set in which each character corresponds to a unique number.
• A code point of a coded character set is any allowed value in the character set or code space.
• A code space is a range of integers whose values are code points.
• A code unit is the "word size" of the character encoding scheme, such as 7-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit. In some schemes, some characters are encoded using multiple code units, resulting in a variable-length encoding. A code unit is referred to as a code value in some documents.^[6]

Character repertoire (the abstract set of characters)

The character repertoire is an abstract set of more than one million characters found in a wide variety of scripts including Latin, Cyrillic, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Hebrew, and Aramaic.

Other symbols such as musical notation are also included in the character repertoire. Both the Unicode and GB 18030 standards have a character repertoire. As new characters are added to one standard, the other standard also adds those characters, to maintain parity.

The code unit size is equivalent to the bit measurement for the particular encoding:

• A code unit in US-ASCII consists of 7 bits;
• A code unit in UTF-8, EBCDIC and GB 18030 consists of 8 bits;
• A code unit in UTF-16 consists of 16 bits;
• A code unit in UTF-32 consists of 32 bits.

Example of a code unit

Consider a string of the letters "ab̲c𐐀", that is, a string containing a Unicode combining character (U+0332 ̲ ) as well a supplementary character (U+10400 𐐀 ). This string has several representions which are logically equivalent, yet while each is suited to a diverse set of circumstances or range of requirements:

• Four composed characters:

  a, b̲, c, 𐐀

• Five graphemes:

  a, b, _, c, 𐐀

• Five Unicode code points:

  U+0061, U+0062, U+0332, U+0063, U+10400

• Five UTF-32 code units (32-bit integer values):

  0x00000061, 0x00000062, 0x00000332, 0x00000063, 0x00010400

• Six UTF-16 code units (16-bit integers)

  0x0061, 0x0062, 0x0332, 0x0063, 0xd801, 0xdc00

• Nine UTF-8 code units (8-bit values, or bytes)

  0x61, 0x62, 0xCC, 0xB2, 0x63, 0xf0, 0x90, 0x90, 0x80

Note in particular the last character, which is represented with either one 1 32-bit value, 2 16-bit values. or 4 8-bit values. Although each of those forms uses the same total number of bits (32) to represent the glyph, the actual numeric byte values and their arrangement appear entirely unrelated.

Code point

The convention to refer to a character in Unicode is to start with 'U+' followed by the codepoint value in hexadecimal. The range of valid code points for the Unicode standard is U+0000 to U+10FFFF, inclusive, divided in 17 planes, identified by the numbers 0 to 16. Characters in the range U+0000 to U+FFFF are in plane 0, called the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). This plane contains most commonly-used characters. Characters in the range U+10000 to U+10FFFF in the other planes are called supplementary characters.

The following table shows examples of code point values:

Character	Unicode code point	Glyph
Latin A	U+0041	Α
Latin sharp S	U+00DF	ß
Han for East	U+6771	東
Ampersand	U+0026	&
Inverted exclamation mark	U+00A1	¡
Section sign	U+00A7	§

A code point is represented by a sequence of code units. The mapping is defined by the encoding. Thus, the number of code units required to represent a code point depends on the encoding:

• UTF-8: code points map to a sequence of one, two, three or four code units.
• UTF-16: code units are twice as long as 8-bit code units. Therefore, any code point with a scalar value less than U+10000 is encoded with a single code unit. Code points with a value U+10000 or higher require two code units each. These pairs of code units have a unique term in UTF-16: "Unicode surrogate pairs".
• UTF-32: the 32-bit code unit is large enough that every code point is represented as a single code unit.
• GB 18030: multiple code units per code point are common, because of the small code units. Code points are mapped to one, two, or four code units.^[7]

Unicode encoding model

Unicode and its parallel standard, the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set, together constitute a modern, unified character encoding. Rather than mapping characters directly to octets (bytes), they separately define what characters are available, corresponding natural numbers (code points), how those numbers are encoded as a series of fixed-size natural numbers (code units), and finally how those units are encoded as a stream of octets. The purpose of this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be encoded in a variety of ways.^[8] To describe this model correctly requires more precise terms than "character set" and "character encoding." The terms used in the modern model follow:^[8]

A character repertoire is the full set of abstract characters that a system supports. The repertoire may be closed, i.e. no additions are allowed without creating a new standard (as is the case with ASCII and most of the ISO-8859 series), or it may be open, allowing additions (as is the case with Unicode and to a limited extent the Windows code pages). The characters in a given repertoire reflect decisions that have been made about how to divide writing systems into basic information units. The basic variants of the Latin, Greek and Cyrillic alphabets can be broken down into letters, digits, punctuation, and a few special characters such as the space, which can all be arranged in simple linear sequences that are displayed in the same order they are read. But even with these alphabets, diacritics pose a complication: they can be regarded either as part of a single character containing a letter and diacritic (known as a precomposed character), or as separate characters. The former allows a far simpler text handling system but the latter allows any letter/diacritic combination to be used in text. Ligatures pose similar problems. Other writing systems, such as Arabic and Hebrew, are represented with more complex character repertoires due to the need to accommodate things like bidirectional text and glyphs that are joined in different ways for different situations.

A coded character set (CCS) is a function that maps characters to code points (each code point represents one character). For example, in a given repertoire, the capital letter "A" in the Latin alphabet might be represented by the code point 65, the character "B" to 66, and so on. Multiple coded character sets may share the same repertoire; for example ISO/IEC 8859-1 and IBM code pages 037 and 500 all cover the same repertoire but map them to different code points.

A character encoding form (CEF) is the mapping of code points to code units to facilitate storage in a system that represents numbers as bit sequences of fixed length (i.e. practically any computer system). For example, a system that stores numeric information in 16-bit units can only directly represent code points 0 to 65,535 in each unit, but larger code points (say, 65,536 to 1.4 million) could be represented by using multiple 16-bit units. This correspondence is defined by a CEF.

Next, a character encoding scheme (CES) is the mapping of code units to a sequence of octets to facilitate storage on an octet-based file system or transmission over an octet-based network. Simple character encoding schemes include UTF-8, UTF-16BE, UTF-32BE, UTF-16LE or UTF-32LE; compound character encoding schemes, such as UTF-16, UTF-32 and ISO/IEC 2022, switch between several simple schemes by using a byte order mark or escape sequences; compressing schemes try to minimize the number of bytes used per code unit (such as SCSU, BOCU, and Punycode).

Although UTF-32BE is a simpler CES, most systems working with Unicode use either UTF-8, which is backward compatible with fixed-length ASCII and maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of octets, or UTF-16BE, which is backward compatible with fixed-length UCS-2BE and maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words. See comparison of Unicode encodings for a detailed discussion.

Finally, there may be a higher-level protocol which supplies additional information to select the particular variant of a Unicode character, particularly where there are regional variants that have been 'unified' in Unicode as the same character. An example is the XML attribute xml:lang.

The Unicode model uses the term character map for historical systems which directly assign a sequence of characters to a sequence of bytes, covering all of CCS, CEF and CES layers.^[8]

Character sets, character maps and code pages

Historically, the terms "character encoding", "character map", "character set" and "code page" were synonymous in computer science, as the same standard would specify a repertoire of characters and how they were to be encoded into a stream of code units – usually with a single character per code unit. But now the terms have related but distinct meanings,^[9] due to efforts by standards bodies to use precise terminology when writing about and unifying many different encoding systems.^[8] Regardless, the terms are still used interchangeably, with character set being nearly ubiquitous.

A "code page" usually means a byte-oriented encoding, but with regard to some suite of encodings (covering different scripts), where many characters share the same codes in most or all those code pages. Well-known code page suites are "Windows" (based on Windows-1252) and "IBM"/"DOS" (based on code page 437), see Windows code page for details. Most, but not all, encodings referred to as code pages are single-byte encodings (but see octet on byte size.)

IBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA) designates entities with coded character set identifiers (CCSIDs), each of which is variously called a "charset", "character set", "code page", or "CHARMAP".^[8]

The term "code page" does not occur in Unix or Linux where "charmap" is preferred, usually in the larger context of locales.

In contrast to a "coded character set", a "character encoding" is a map from abstract characters to code words. A "character set" in HTTP (and MIME) parlance is the same as a character encoding (but not the same as CCS).

"Legacy encoding" is a term sometimes used to characterize old character encodings, but with an ambiguity of sense. Most of its use is in the context of Unicodification, where it refers to encodings that fail to cover all Unicode code points, or, more generally, using a somewhat different character repertoire: several code points representing one Unicode character,^[10] or versa (see e.g. code page 437). Some sources refer to an encoding as legacy only because it preceded Unicode.^[11] All Windows code pages are usually referred to as legacy, both because they antedate Unicode and because they are unable to represent all 2²¹ possible Unicode code points.

Character encoding translation

As a result of having many character encoding methods in use (and the need for backward compatibility with archived data), many computer programs have been developed to translate data between encoding schemes as a form of data transcoding. Some of these are cited below.

Cross-platform:

• Web browsers – most modern web browsers feature automatic character encoding detection. On Firefox 3, for example, see the View/Character Encoding submenu.
• iconv – a program and standardized API to convert encodings
• luit – a program that converts encoding of input and output to programs running interactively
• convert_encoding.py – a Python-based utility to convert text files between arbitrary encodings and line endings^[12]
• decodeh.py – an algorithm and module to heuristically guess the encoding of a string^[13]
• International Components for Unicode – A set of C and Java libraries to perform charset conversion. uconv can be used from ICU4C.
• chardet – This is a translation of the Mozilla automatic-encoding-detection code into the Python computer language.
• The newer versions of the Unix file command attempt to do a basic detection of character encoding (also available on Cygwin).
• charset – C++ template library with simple interface to convert between C++/user-defined streams. charset defined many character-sets and allows you to use Unicode formats with support of endianness.

Unix-like:

• cmv – a simple tool for transcoding filenames.^[14]
• convmv – converts a filename from one encoding to another.^[15]
• cstocs – converts file contents from one encoding to another for the Czech and Slovak languages.
• enca – analyzes encodings for given text files.^[16]
• recode – converts file contents from one encoding to another.^[17]
• utrac – converts file contents from one encoding to another.^[18]

Windows:

• Encoding.Convert – .NET API^[19]
• MultiByteToWideChar/WideCharToMultiByte – to convert from ANSI to Unicode & Unicode to ANSI^[20]
• cscvt – a character set conversion tool^[21]
• enca – analyzes encodings for given text files.^[22]

See also

• Percent-encoding
• Alt code
• Character encodings in HTML
• Category:Character encoding – articles related to character encoding in general
• Category:Character sets – articles detailing specific character encodings
• Hexadecimal representations
• Mojibake – character set mismap
• Mojikyō – a system ("glyph set") that includes over 100,000 Chinese character drawings, modern and ancient, popular and obscure
• Presentation layer
• TRON, part of the TRON project, is an encoding system that does not use Han Unification; instead, it uses "control codes" to switch between 16-bit "planes" of characters.
• Universal Character Set characters
• Charset sniffing – used in some applications when character encoding metadata is not available

Common character encodings

• ISO 646
  • ASCII
• EBCDIC
• ISO 8859:
  • ISO 8859-1 Western Europe
  • ISO 8859-2 Western and Central Europe
  • ISO 8859-3 Western Europe and South European (Turkish, Maltese plus Esperanto)
  • ISO 8859-4 Western Europe and Baltic countries (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Lapp)
  • ISO 8859-5 Cyrillic alphabet
  • ISO 8859-6 Arabic
  • ISO 8859-7 Greek
  • ISO 8859-8 Hebrew
  • ISO 8859-9 Western Europe with amended Turkish character set
  • ISO 8859-10 Western Europe with rationalised character set for Nordic languages, including complete Icelandic set
  • ISO 8859-11 Thai
  • ISO 8859-13 Baltic languages plus Polish
  • ISO 8859-14 Celtic languages (Irish Gaelic, Scottish, Welsh)
  • ISO 8859-15 Added the Euro sign and other rationalisations to ISO 8859-1
  • ISO 8859-16 Central, Eastern and Southern European languages (Albanian, Bosnian, Croatian, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Serbian and Slovenian, but also French, German, Italian and Irish Gaelic)
• CP437, CP720, CP737, CP850, CP852, CP855, CP857, CP858, CP860, CP861, CP862, CP863, CP865, CP866, CP869, CP872
• MS-Windows character sets:
  • Windows-1250 for Central European languages that use Latin script, (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Slovene, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Romanian and Albanian)
  • Windows-1251 for Cyrillic alphabets
  • Windows-1252 for Western languages
  • Windows-1253 for Greek
  • Windows-1254 for Turkish
  • Windows-1255 for Hebrew
  • Windows-1256 for Arabic
  • Windows-1257 for Baltic languages
  • Windows-1258 for Vietnamese
• Mac OS Roman
• KOI8-R, KOI8-U, KOI7
• MIK
• ISCII
• TSCII
• VISCII
• JIS X 0208 is a widely deployed standard for Japanese character encoding that has several encoding forms.
  • Shift JIS (Microsoft Code page 932 is a dialect of Shift_JIS)
  • EUC-JP
  • ISO-2022-JP
• JIS X 0213 is an extended version of JIS X 0208.
  • Shift_JIS-2004
  • EUC-JIS-2004
  • ISO-2022-JP-2004
• Chinese Guobiao
  • GB 2312
  • GBK (Microsoft Code page 936)
  • GB 18030
• Taiwan Big5 (a more famous variant is Microsoft Code page 950)
  • Hong Kong HKSCS
• Korean
  • KS X 1001 is a Korean double-byte character encoding standard
  • EUC-KR
  • ISO-2022-KR
• Unicode (and subsets thereof, such as the 16-bit 'Basic Multilingual Plane')
  • UTF-8
  • UTF-16
  • UTF-32
• ANSEL or ISO/IEC 6937

References

1. 
   

Definition from The Tech Terms Dictionary

Tom Henderson (17 April 2014). "Ancient Computer Character Code Tables – and Why They're Still Relevant". Smartbear. Retrieved 29 April 2014.

Tom Jennings (1 March 2010). "An annotated history of some character codes". Retrieved 1 November 2018.

"IBM Electronic Data-Processing Machines Type 702 Preliminary Manual of Information" (PDF). 1954. p. 80. 22-6173-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

Strelho, Kevin (15 April 1985). "IBM Drives Hard Disks to New Standards". InfoWorld. Popular Computing Inc. pp. 29–33. Retrieved 10 November 2020.

"Unicode glossary". Unicode consortium.

"Terminology (The Java Tutorials)". Oracle. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

"Unicode Technical Report #17: Unicode Character Encoding Model". 11 November 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2009.

Shawn Steele (15 March 2005). "What's the difference between an Encoding, Code Page, Character Set and Unicode?". Microsoft Docs.

"Processing database information using Unicode, a case study". Archived from the original on 17 June 2006.

Constable, Peter (13 June 2001). "Character set encoding basics". Implementing Writing Systems: An introduction. SIL International. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2010.

convert encoding.py on GitHub

"Decodeh – heuristically decode a string or text file". Archived from the original on 8 January 2008.

"CharsetMove – Simple Tool for Transcoding Filenames".

"Convmv – converts filenames from one encoding to another".

"Extremely Naive Charset Analyser". Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2008.

recode on GitHub

"Utrac Homepage".

"Encoding.Convert Method". Microsoft .NET Framework Class Library.

"MultiByteToWideChar/WideCharToMultiByte – Convert from ANSI to Unicode & Unicode to ANSI". Microsoft Support.

"Kalytta's Character Set Converter".

22. "Enca binary compiled for 32 bit Windows". Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2011.

Further reading

• Mackenzie, Charles E. (1980). Coded Character Sets, History and Development. The Systems Programming Series (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-201-14460-4. LCCN 77-90165.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Encodings.

Wikiversity has learning resources about Character encoding

• Character sets registered by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
• Characters and encodings, by Jukka Korpela
• Unicode Technical Report #17: Character Encoding Model
• Decimal, Hexadecimal Character Codes in HTML Unicode – Encoding converter
• The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!) by Joel Spolsky (Oct 10, 2003)

v t e Character encodings

Categories:

• Character encoding
• Natural language and computing

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding#Terminology

Replacement character

Replacement character

The replacement character � (often displayed as a black rhombus with a white question mark) is a symbol found in the Unicode standard at code point U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to correct symbols.^[4]

Consider a text file containing the German word für (meaning 'for') encoded in ISO 8859-1 (0x66 0xFC 0x72). This file is now opened with a text editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and third bytes are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, but the second byte (0xFC) is not valid in UTF-8. The text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character to produce a valid string of Unicode code points for display, so the user sees "f�r".

A poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement character when writing the file back out; the data in the file will then become 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72. If the file is then re-opened using ISO 8859-1, it displays "f�r" (this is called mojibake). Since the replacement is the same for all errors it is impossible to recover the original character. A design that is better (but harder to implement) is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence, while still showing the error indicator to the user.

At one time the replacement character was often used when there was no glyph available in a font for that character. However, most modern text rendering systems instead use a font's .notdef character, which in most cases is an empty box (or "?" or "X" in a box^[5]), sometimes called a 'tofu' (this browser displays 􏿾). There is no Unicode code point for this symbol.

Thus the replacement character is now only seen for encoding errors, such as invalid UTF-8. Some software attempts to hide this by translating the bytes of invalid UTF-8 to matching characters in Windows-1252 (since that is the most likely source of these errors), so that the replacement character is never seen. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character

Unicode chart

Specials[1][2][3] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+FFFx										IAA	IAS	IAT		�
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points 3.^ Black areas indicate noncharacters (code points that are guaranteed never to be assigned as encoded characters in the Unicode Standard)

History

The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Specials block:

Version	Final code points[a]	Count	UTC ID	L2 ID	WG2 ID	Document
1.0.0	U+FFFD	1				(to be determined)
	U+FFFE..FFFF	2				(to be determined)
				L2/01-295R		Moore, Lisa (2001-11-06), "Motion 88-M2", Minutes from the UTC/L2 meeting #88
				L2/01-355	N2369 (html, doc)	Davis, Mark (2001-09-26), Request to allow FFFF, FFFE in UTF-8 in the text of ISO/IEC 10646
				L2/02-154	N2403	Umamaheswaran, V. S. (2002-04-22), "9.3 Allowing FFFF and FFFE in UTF-8", Draft minutes of WG 2 meeting 41, Hotel Phoenix, Singapore, 2001-10-15/19
2.1	U+FFFC	1	UTC/1995-056			Sargent, Murray (1995-12-06), Recommendation to encode a WCH_EMBEDDING character
			UTC/1996-002			Aliprand, Joan; Hart, Edwin; Greenfield, Steve (1996-03-05), "Embedded Objects", UTC #67 Minutes
					N1365	Sargent, Murray (1996-03-18), Proposal Summary – Object Replacement Character
					N1353	Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1996-06-25), "8.14", Draft minutes of WG2 Copenhagen Meeting # 30
				L2/97-288	N1603	Umamaheswaran, V. S. (1997-10-24), "7.3", Unconfirmed Meeting Minutes, WG 2 Meeting # 33, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, 20 June – 4 July 1997
				L2/98-004R	N1681	Text of ISO 10646 – AMD 18 for PDAM registration and FPDAM ballot, 1997-12-22
				L2/98-070		Aliprand, Joan; Winkler, Arnold, "Additional comments regarding 2.1", Minutes of the joint UTC and L2 meeting from the meeting in Cupertino, February 25-27, 1998
				L2/98-318	N1894	Revised text of 10646-1/FPDAM 18, AMENDMENT 18: Symbols and Others, 1998-10-22
3.0	U+FFF9..FFFB	3		L2/97-255R		Aliprand, Joan (1997-12-03), "3.D Proposal for In-Line Notation (ruby)", Approved Minutes – UTC #73 & L2 #170 joint meeting, Palo Alto, CA – August 4-5, 1997
				L2/98-055		Freytag, Asmus (1998-02-22), Support for Implementing Inline and Interlinear Annotations
				L2/98-070		Aliprand, Joan; Winkler, Arnold, "3.C.5. Support for implementing inline and interlinear annotations", Minutes of the joint UTC and L2 meeting from the meeting in Cupertino, February 25-27, 1998
				L2/98-099	N1727	Freytag, Asmus (1998-03-18), Support for Implementing Interlinear Annotations as used in East Asian Typography
				L2/98-158		Aliprand, Joan; Winkler, Arnold (1998-05-26), "Inline and Interlinear Annotations", Draft Minutes – UTC #76 & NCITS Subgroup L2 #173 joint meeting, Tredyffrin, Pennsylvania, April 20-22, 1998
				L2/98-286	N1703	Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1998-07-02), "8.14", Unconfirmed Meeting Minutes, WG 2 Meeting #34, Redmond, WA, USA; 1998-03-16--20
				L2/98-270		Hiura, Hideki; Kobayashi, Tatsuo (1998-07-29), Suggestion to the inline and interlinear annotation proposal
				L2/98-281R (pdf, html)		Aliprand, Joan (1998-07-31), "In-Line and Interlinear Annotation (III.C.1.c)", Unconfirmed Minutes – UTC #77 & NCITS Subgroup L2 # 174 JOINT MEETING, Redmond, WA -- July 29-31, 1998
				L2/98-363	N1861	Sato, T. K. (1998-09-01), Ruby markers
				L2/98-372	N1884R2 (pdf, doc)	Whistler, Ken; et al. (1998-09-22), Additional Characters for the UCS
				L2/98-416	N1882.zip	Support for Implementing Interlinear Annotations, 1998-09-23
				L2/98-329	N1920	Combined PDAM registration and consideration ballot on WD for ISO/IEC 10646-1/Amd. 30, AMENDMENT 30: Additional Latin and other characters, 1998-10-28
				L2/98-421R		Suignard, Michel; Hiura, Hideki (1998-12-04), Notes concerning the PDAM 30 interlinear annotation characters
				L2/99-010	N1903 (pdf, html, doc)	Umamaheswaran, V. S. (1998-12-30), "8.2.15", Minutes of WG 2 meeting 35, London, U.K.; 1998-09-21--25
				L2/98-419 (pdf, doc)		Aliprand, Joan (1999-02-05), "Interlinear Annotation Characters", Approved Minutes -- UTC #78 & NCITS Subgroup L2 # 175 Joint Meeting, San Jose, CA -- December 1-4, 1998
			UTC/1999-021			Duerst, Martin; Bosak, Jon (1999-06-08), W3C XML CG statement on annotation characters
				L2/99-176R		Moore, Lisa (1999-11-04), "W3C Liaison Statement on Annotation Characters", Minutes from the joint UTC/L2 meeting in Seattle, June 8-10, 1999
				L2/01-301		Whistler, Ken (2001-08-01), "E. Indicated as "strongly discouraged" for plain text interchange", Analysis of Character Deprecation in the Unicode Standard

Proposed code points and characters names may differ from final code points and names

See also

• Unicode control characters

References

1. 
   

"Unicode character database". The Unicode Standard. Archived from the original on 2017-09-25. Retrieved 2016-07-09.

"Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard". The Unicode Standard. Archived from the original on 2016-06-29. Retrieved 2016-07-09.

"3.8: Block-by-Block Charts" (PDF). The Unicode Standard. version 1.0. Unicode Consortium. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-11. Retrieved 2020-09-30.

Wichary, Marcin. "When Fonts Fall". Figma. Archived from the original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2021.

5. "Recommendations for OpenType Fonts (OpenType 1.7) - Typography". docs.microsoft.com. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.

v t e Unicode

Category:

• Unicode blocks

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character

 

Universal Coded Character Set

Alias(es)	UCS, Unicode
Language(s)	International
Standard	ISO/IEC 10646
Encoding formats	UTF-8, UTF-16, GB 18030 Less common: UTF-32, BOCU, SCSU, UTF-7
Preceded by	ISO/IEC 8859, ISO/IEC 2022, various others.
v t e

The Universal Coded Character Set (UCS, Unicode) is a standard set of characters defined by the international standard ISO/IEC 10646, Information technology — Universal Coded Character Set (UCS) (plus amendments to that standard), which is the basis of many character encodings, improving as characters from previously unrepresented typing systems are added.

The UCS has over 1.1 million possible code points available for use/allocation, but only the first 65,536, which is the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP), had entered into common use before 2000. This situation began changing when the People's Republic of China (PRC) ruled in 2006 that all software sold in its jurisdiction would have to support GB 18030. This required software intended for sale in the PRC to move beyond the BMP.

The system deliberately leaves many code points not assigned to characters, even in the BMP. It does this to allow for future expansion or to minimise conflicts with other encoding forms.

The original edition of the UCS defined UTF-16, an extension of UCS-2, to represent code points outside the BMP. A range of code points in the S (Special) Zone of the BMP remains unassigned to characters. UCS-2 disallows use of code values for these code points, but UTF-16 allows their use in pairs. Unicode also adopted UTF-16, but in Unicode terminology, the high-half zone elements become "high surrogates" and the low-half zone elements become "low surrogates".^{[clarification needed]}

Another encoding, UTF-32 (previously named UCS-4), uses four bytes (total 32 bits) to encode a single character of the codespace. UTF-32 thereby permits a binary representation of every code point in the APIs, and software applications. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Coded_Character_Set

The zero-width space (​), abbreviated ZWSP, is a non-printing character used in computerized typesetting to indicate word boundaries to text-processing systems in scripts that do not use explicit spacing, or after characters (such as the slash) that are not followed by a visible space but after which there may nevertheless be a line break. It is also used with languages without visible space between words, for example, Japanese.^[1] Normally, it is not a visible separation, but it may expand in passages that are fully justified.^[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-width_space

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitespace_character#Hair_spaces_around_dashes

Computing applications

Programming languages

In programming language syntax, spaces are frequently used to explicitly separate tokens. In most languages multiple whitespace characters are treated the same as a single whitespace character (outside of quoted strings); such languages are called free-form. In a few languages, including Haskell, occam, ABC, and Python, whitespace and indentation are used for syntactical purposes. In the satirical language called Whitespace, whitespace characters are the only valid characters for programming, while any other characters are ignored.

Excessive use of whitespace, especially trailing whitespace at the end of lines, is considered a nuisance. However correct use of whitespace can make the code easier to read and help group related logic.

Most languages only recognize ASCII characters as whitespace, or in some cases Unicode newlines as well, but not most of the characters listed above. The C language defines whitespace characters to be "space, horizontal tab, new-line, vertical tab, and form-feed".^[29] The HTTP network protocol requires different types of whitespace to be used in different parts of the protocol, such as: only the space character in the status line, CRLF at the end of a line, and "linear whitespace" in header values.^[30] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitespace_character#Hair_spaces_around_dashes

A numeric character reference (NCR) is a common markup construct used in SGML and SGML-derived markup languages such as HTML and XML. It consists of a short sequence of characters that, in turn, represents a single character. Since WebSgml, XML and HTML 4, the code points of the Universal Character Set (UCS) of Unicode are used. NCRs are typically used in order to represent characters that are not directly encodable in a particular document (for example, because they are international characters that do not fit in the 8-bit character set being used, or because they have special syntactic meaning in the language). When the document is interpreted by a markup-aware reader, each NCR is treated as if it were the character it represents. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeric_character_reference

Procedural signs or prosigns are shorthand signals used in Morse code radio telegraphy procedure, for the purpose of simplifying and standardizing radio communication protocol. They are separate from Morse code abbreviations, which consist mainly of brevity codes that convey messages to other parties with greater speed and accuracy.

In general prosigns are just standardised parts of short form radio protocol, and can include any abbreviation. An example would be K for "okay, heard you, continue". In a more limited role the term refers to something akin to that of the nonprinting control characters in teleprinter and computer character sets, such as Baudot or ASCII. Different from abbreviations, those are universally recognizable across language barriers as distinct and well-defined symbols.

At the coding level, prosigns admit any form the Morse code can take, unlike abbreviations which have to follow letter form. Many of them are longer than typical characters and are rendered without intercharacter commas or pauses. They are individual and indivisible code points within the broader Morse code, fully at par with basic letters.

The development of prosigns began in the 1860s for wired telegraphy. Since telegraphy preceded voice communications by several decades, many of the much older Morse prosigns have acquired precisely equivalent prowords for use in more recent voice protocols.

In printed material describing their meaning and use, prosigns are represented by either a sequence of dots and dashes for the sound of a telegraph, or by an overlined sequence of letters composed of International Morse Code, which if sent without the usual spacing, sounds like the prosign symbol. The most well-known example of the convention is the preamble to the standard distress call: SOS. As a prosign it is not really composed of the three separate letters S, O and S, but is run together as a single symbol of   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ; it is a sign in its own right.

Not all prosigns are standardised. There are specialised variations of the coding convention used in certain radio networks to manage transmission and formatting of messages, and many unofficial prosign conventions exist; some of which might be ambiguous. One typical example of something which is not a recognized prosign but is yet recognizable is one or two freely timed dits at the end of a message, for OUT (the formal version being prosign AR, or   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ) ^[1][2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosigns_for_Morse_code

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Procedural signs or prosigns are shorthand signals used in Morse code radio telegraphy procedure, for the purpose of simplifying and standardizing radio communication protocol. They are separate from Morse code abbreviations, which consist mainly of brevity codes that convey messages to other parties with greater speed and accuracy.

In general prosigns are just standardised parts of short form radio protocol, and can include any abbreviation. An example would be K for "okay, heard you, continue". In a more limited role the term refers to something akin to that of the nonprinting control characters in teleprinter and computer character sets, such as Baudot or ASCII. Different from abbreviations, those are universally recognizable across language barriers as distinct and well-defined symbols.

At the coding level, prosigns admit any form the Morse code can take, unlike abbreviations which have to follow letter form. Many of them are longer than typical characters and are rendered without intercharacter commas or pauses. They are individual and indivisible code points within the broader Morse code, fully at par with basic letters.

The development of prosigns began in the 1860s for wired telegraphy. Since telegraphy preceded voice communications by several decades, many of the much older Morse prosigns have acquired precisely equivalent prowords for use in more recent voice protocols.

In printed material describing their meaning and use, prosigns are represented by either a sequence of dots and dashes for the sound of a telegraph, or by an overlined sequence of letters composed of International Morse Code, which if sent without the usual spacing, sounds like the prosign symbol. The most well-known example of the convention is the preamble to the standard distress call: SOS. As a prosign it is not really composed of the three separate letters S, O and S, but is run together as a single symbol of   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ; it is a sign in its own right.

Not all prosigns are standardised. There are specialised variations of the coding convention used in certain radio networks to manage transmission and formatting of messages, and many unofficial prosign conventions exist; some of which might be ambiguous. One typical example of something which is not a recognized prosign but is yet recognizable is one or two freely timed dits at the end of a message, for OUT (the formal version being prosign AR, or   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ) ^[1][2]

History

In the early decades of telegraphy, many efficiency improvements were incorporated into operations. The Morse code itself was one of these: it roughly coded more commonly used symbols into shorter keying sequences, and the rare ones into longer, thus leading to data compression online. The introduction of Morse symbols called procedural signs or prosigns was then just a logical progression. They were not defined by the inventors of Morse code, but were gradually introduced to improve the speed and accuracy of high-volume message handling, especially between professional telegraph operators operating over the time's long distance contacts, such as short wave radio and transatlantic cable.

Improvements to the legibility of formal written telegraph messages (telegrams) using white space formatting were thus supported by the creation of procedure symbols. Mastery of these Morse code prosigns was important in becoming an efficient telegraph operator, as was the command of many other forms of abbreviation.

Notation and representations

There are at least three methods used to represent Morse prosign symbols:

1. Unique dot/dash sequences, e.g.   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  
2. Unique audible sounds, e.g. dah di di di dah 
3. Non-unique printed or written overlined character groups, e.g. BT (When overlining is not available, the same characters can be written in angle brackets <BT> or with underlining BT.)

Although some of the prosigns as-written appear to be simply two adjacent letters, most prosigns are transmitted as digraphs that have no spacing between the patterns that represent the "combined" letters, and are most commonly written with a single bar over the merged letters (if more than one single character) to indicate this.^[3] The difference in the transmission is subtle, but the difference in meaning is gross. For example, the prosign AA (  ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ) indicates that the receiving Morse operator should space down one line, but the two separate letter sign or abbreviation AA (  ▄ ▄▄▄   ▄ ▄▄▄ ) indicates either the voice procedure words ALL AFTER, used to indicate that part of the previously transmitted message needs to be re-transmitted, or for signal lights, has the same meaning as the voice procedure word UNKNOWN STATION. The difference in representation between the Morse code prosign and the separate letter signs is the presence or absence of an inter-letter space between the two "dot dash" sequences.

Because there are no letter boundaries in the transmitted prosigns, their division into letters is arbitrary and may be done in multiple equivalent ways. For example, AA (  ▄ ▄▄▄ +  ▄ ▄▄▄ ) is exactly equivalent to EK (  ▄ +  ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ) and RT (  ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ +  ▄▄▄ ). Likewise, the well-known prosign SOS could just as well be written VZE (  ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ +  ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ +  ▄ ), VGI (  ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ +  ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ +  ▄ ▄ ), or even 3B (  ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ +  ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ). Normally, one particular form is used by convention, but some prosigns have multiple forms in common use.

Many Morse code prosigns do not have written or printed textual character representations in the original source information, even if they do represent characters in other contexts. For example, when embedded in text the Morse code sequence   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  represents the "double hyphen" character (normally "=", but also "– –").^[4] When the same code appears alone it indicates the action of spacing down two lines on a page in order to create the white space indicating the start of a new paragraph^[2] or new section in a message heading.^[4] When used as a prosign, there is no actual written or printed character representation or symbol for a new paragraph (i.e. no symbol corresponding to "¶"), other than the two-line white space itself.

Some prosigns are in unofficial use for special characters in languages other than English, for example AA is used unofficially for both the "blank line" prosign and for "Ä", neither of which is in the international standard.^[4] Other prosigns are officially designated for both letters and prosigns, such as AR equiv. "+", which marks the end of a message.^[a][4] Some genuinely have only one use, such as CT or the equivalent KA (  ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ), the International Morse prosign that marks the start of a new transmission^[4] or new message.^[2]

International Morse code

The procedure signs below are compiled from the official specification for Morse Code, ITU-R M.1677, International Morse Code,^[4] while others are defined the International Radio Regulations, including ITU-R M.1170,^[5] ITU-R M.1172,^[3] and the International Code of Signals, with a few details of their usage appearing in ACP-131, which otherwise defines operating signals, not procedure signals.

Prosigns

The following table of prosigns includes K and R, which could be considered either abbreviations (for "okay, go ahead", and for "received") or prosigns that are also letters. All of the rest of the symbols are not letters, but in some cases are also used as punctuation.

General-use procedure signs

Prosign	Matching voice procedure word	Code symbol	Defined in	Explanation
AA	UNKNOWN STATION	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	International Code of Signals[6]	This is only used for directional signal lights. It is never used in radio telegraphy, where it represents an accented letter Ä or Á.
R	ROGER	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Means the last transmission has been received, but does not necessarilly indicate the message was understood or will be complied with.   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  0:01
K	OVER	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	Invitation to transmit after terminating the call signal. (e.g.   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ).   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  0:01
AR	OUT	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3] ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	End of transmission / End of message / End of telegram.[a] (Same as EC "end copy", and character +.)[b]   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  0:02
AS	WAIT	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M. 1170[8] ITU-R M.1172[3] ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	"I must pause for a few minutes."[c] Also means "I am engaged in a contact with another station [that you may not hear]; please wait quietly."   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄  0:02
AS AR	WAIT OUT	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄    ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	ACP 124	I must pause for more than a few minutes.
VE	VERIFIED	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	Message is verified.   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄  0:02
?	SAY AGAIN?	▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1677-1[4] ACP‑124[9]	When standing alone, a note of interrogation or request for repetition of the immediate prior transmission that was not understood. When ? is placed after a coded signal, modifies the code to be a question or request.   ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄  0:02
INT	INTERROGATIVE	▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ACP124,[9] ACP‑131, Radiotelegraph Operations Guide[10]	Military replacement for the ? prosign; equivalent to Spanish ¿ punctuation mark. When placed before a signal, modifies the signal to be a question/request.[11][d]
HH ...	CORRECTION (kor-rek-shun)	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	Preceding text was in error. The following is the corrected text. (Same as EEEEEEEE.)   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄  0:02
HH AR	DISREGARD THIS TRANSMISSION OUT	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄    ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄		The entire message just sent is in error, disregard it. (Same as EEEEEEEE AR.)[e]
BT	BREAK	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3] ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	Start new section of message. Same as character = or – –.
KA	ATTENTION	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3] ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	Message begins / Start of work / New message (Starting signal that precedes every transmission session. Sometimes written as CT.)   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄  0:02
SK	OVER AND OUT	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3] ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	End of contact / End of work / Line is now free / Frequency no longer in use (Ending signal that follows every transmission session. Occasionally written VA.)

Abbreviations for message handling

The following table of abbreviations are strictly used as strings of one to several letters, never as digraph symbols, and have standard meanings used for the management of sending and receiving messages. Dots following indicate that in use, the abbreviation is always followed by more information.

General-use abbreviations and letter-codes

Abbrev.	Matching voice procedure word	Code symbol	Defined in	Explanation
DE ...	[THIS IS] FROM	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄    ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3] ITU-R M.1677-1[4]	Used to precede the name or other identification of the calling station (Morse abbreviation).
NIL	NOTHING HEARD	▄▄▄ ▄    ▄ ▄    ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄		General-purpose response to any request or inquiry for which the answer is "nothing" or "none" or "not available" (Morse abbr.). Also means "I have no messages for you."
CL	CLOSING	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Announcing station shutdown (Morse abbr.).
CQ	CALLING	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	General call to any station (Morse abbr.).
CP ... ...	CALLING FOR	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Specific call to two or more named stations (Morse abbr.).
CS ...	CALLING STATION	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Specific call to exactly one named station (Morse abbr.).
CS?	WHO?	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄ ▄ ▄    ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	What is the name or identity signal of your station? (Morse abbr.) In many contexts, the question mark is optional.
WA ...	WORD AFTER	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄    ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	(Morse abbr.)
WB ...	WORD BEFORE	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄    ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	(Morse abbr.)
AA ...	ALL AFTER	▄ ▄▄▄    ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	The portion of the message to which I refer is all that follows the text ... (Morse abbr.)
AB ...	ALL BEFORE	▄ ▄▄▄    ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	The portion of the message to which I refer is all that precedes the text ... (Morse abbr.)
BN ... ...	ALL BETWEEN	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄    ▄▄▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	The portion of the message to which I refer is all that falls between ... and ... (Morse abbr.)
C	CORRECT / YES / AFFIRMATIVE / CONFIRM	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Answer to prior question is "yes". (Morse abbr.)
N	NO / NEGATIVE	▄▄▄ ▄	International Code of Signals[6] ACP 131	Answer to prior question is "no". (Morse abbr.)[f]
ZWF ...	WRONG	▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄   ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄		Your last transmission was wrong. The correct version is ...
QTR?	REQUEST TIME CHECK	▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄   ▄▄▄   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄		Time-check request. / What is the correct time? (Time is always UTC, unless explicitly requested otherwise, e.g. QTR HST ?)
QTR ...	TIME IS	▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄   ▄▄▄   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄		The following is the correct UTC in HHMM 24 hour format
BK	BREAK-IN	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Signal used to interrupt a transmission already in progress (Morse abbr.). AX in ACP131. In military networks   ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄  ≈ TTTT is used instead.
CFM	CONFIRM / I ACKNOWLEDGE	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Message received (Morse abbr.). (Same as R.)
WX ...	WEATHER IS	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	Weather report follows (Morse abbr.).
INTERCO	INTERCO (in-tur-ko)	▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄▄▄   ▄   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄	ITU-R M.1172[3]	International Code of Signals groups follow (Morse abbr.).

Amateur radio National Traffic System

For the special purpose of exchanging ARRL Radiograms during National Traffic System nets, the following prosigns and signals can be used, but many of them do not have equivalents in any other definition of Morse code signals, including the ITU-R and Combined Communications Electronics Board telecommunications specifications.

Table of Morse code prosigns and useful Morse code abbreviations^[1][4]

Prosign	Code symbol	Meaning	Comments	Verbalization	As text
AA	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	Start new line	Space down one line; typewritten as Carriage Return, Line Feed (CR-LF). Only used instead of BT in sectioned messages, where BT would start a pending next section prematurely.[2] Also written RT.	di dah di dah	Ä, Á[g]
AR	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	Message separator, start new message / telegram.[4][1]	New Page, space down several lines.[1] Decoder software may show "+".[4] Alternative for "Break" in conversational Morse.[2] Also written RN.	di dah di dah dit	+[4]
AS	▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	Wait [4][1]	Respond with: SN, or characters "R" (Received) or "C" (Confirmed).[1][4]	di dah di di dit	&[h]
BT	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	Start of new section[4] / new paragraph.[1]	Space down two lines; typewritten CR-LF-LF. Decoder software may show "=".[4]	dah di di di dah	=, – – [4]
CT	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	Start of transmission[4] Start of new message.[1]	Attention[1] commencing transmission. Also written KA.	dah di dah di dah
HH	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	Error / correction[4][1]	Always followed by correct text.[1] Sometimes transcribed as "????". Sometimes written EEEEEEEE.	di di di di di di di dit
K	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	Invitation for any station to transmit[4][1]	Lone alphabetic character "K" at the end of a transmission.[1]	dah di dah	K[4]
X	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	Full stop[1]	Lone alphabetic character "X" surrounded by word spaces.[1] Substitute for period AAA in batched messages.	dah di di dah	X[4]
?	▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	Please say again[4][1]	Lone question mark "?" from the receiving station in response to a transmission; possibly followed by AA ... or AB ... .[1]	di di dah dah di dit	?[4][1]
KN	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	Invitation for named station to transmit[1]	Go ahead, specific named station.[1] Decoder software may show equivalent character "(".[4]	dah di dah dah dit	( [4]
NJ	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄	Shift to Wabun code	Shift from Morse code to Wabun code Kana characters. Also written XM.	dah di di dah dah dah
SK	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	End of contact[1] / End of work[4]	Also written VA.	di di di dah di dah
SN	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	Understood.[1] Verified.[4]	Message received and checks okay. Alternatively shift from Wabun to Morse code. "SN?" verification requested. Also written VE.	di di di dah dit	Š, Ś[g]
SOS	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	Start of distress signal[4][1]	Only used by original message sender, and only for imminent danger to life or property.[4] (listen (help·info))	di di di dah dah dah di di dit
DDD	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	Start of a distress signal relayed from another station	Used to forward a copy of a received "SOS".	dah di di dah di di dah di dit
BK	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄	Break in conversation[1]	Morse abbreviation for "back-to you" (Morse abbr.).[1] In conversational Morse some use either AR, BT, KN, or "K" instead.	dah di di dit   da di dah	BK
CL	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	Closing down[1]	Abbreviation for "closing station" (Morse abbr.).	dah di dah dit   di dah di dit	CL

Obsolete prosigns

Historical Morse code prosigns

Prosign	Matching Voice Procedure Word	Former Code Symbol	Explanation	Defined in
CQD	Distress call	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄    ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄    ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	Obsolete code used to call all stations during distress (see CQ). Replaced by SOS (see above).
VE	General call	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄	Code re-used for "Message verified" or "Message understood" (see SN above).	1937 Royal Navy Signal Card[12][13]
NNNNN	Answering sign	▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄
ii	Separative sign break	▄ ▄   ▄ ▄	Generally replaced by BT, although it is still used in MARS CW operations.[10] This prosign was also defined in ACP‑124, "Communication Instructions Radio Telegraph Procedure".[9] Later re-used for both a "ditto" mark and as the warning "I repeat" before a duplicated transmission.
EEEEE	Erase sign	▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄	Exactly five dots (code for numeral 5). Replaced by HH (exactly eight, EEEEEEEE).
RRRRR	Receipt sign	▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄	Replaced by R.
e	Further message sign	▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄	Re-purposed original ITU symbol for É not used in English.

See also

• Morse code abbreviations
• Brevity code
• Procedure word (proword)
• Q code
• QSA and QRK code
• Z code
• Ground Air Emergency Code

Notes

1. 
   

AR was used to mark the end of individual telegrams within a batched-message.

As of 2017 the is a proposal that (perhaps inadvertently) changes AR protocol.^[7]

AS may optionally be followed by the estimated number of minutes of waiting time.

1945 procedural use: "The correctness of a short portion of a message may be questioned directly by the receiving operator using the interrogatory prosign INT, but this method should not be used to question a part of a message for which a receipt has been given.^[11]

The prowords HH AR may not be used to cancel a message after it has already been completely transmitted, and receipt acknowledged.

When Morse was still being used in aeronautics, the entire word NO (  ▄▄▄ ▄   ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ) was sent instead of the abbreviation N.

Non-ITU Code adopted nationally for languages with letters not used in Latin, English, or Italian.

8. Proposed double-use as punctuation ampersand; non-standard. Abbreviation "E S" is typically used instead.

References

1. 
   

ARRL Operating Manual (10 ed.). Newington, CT: American Radio Relay League. 8 October 2012. ISBN 978-0872595965.

Chapter 3: Sending messages in CW (PDF). ARRL network reference. Newington, CT: American Radio Relay League. 25 September 2002.

Miscellaneous abbreviations and signals to be used for radiocommunications in the maritime mobile service. Radiocommunication Sector. ITU.int (Report). ITU Recommendation. Geneva, CH: International Telecommunication Union. ITU-R M.1172.

International Morse Code. Radiocommunication Sector (Report). ITU Recommendation. Geneva, CH: International Telecommunication Union. October 2009. ITU-R M.1677-1.

Morse telegraphy procedures in the maritime mobile service (PDF). Radiocommunication Sector. ITU.int (Report). ITU Recommendation. Geneva, CH: International Telecommunication Union. March 2012. ITU-R M.1170-1.

"International Code of Signals" (PDF). SeaSources.net (1969 (reaffirmed 2003) ed.).

Benediktsson, Kristjan (TF3KB); Kjartansson, Villi; et al. (Iceland Radio Association) (21–27 September 2014). Resolution on conflicting CW procedure (PDF). International Amateur Radio Union Region 1 2014 General Conference. Varna-Albena, Bulgaria. paper VA14 C3 40.

"Morse telegraphy procedures in the maritime mobile service" (PDF). ITU.int. ITU Recommendations. Geneva, CH: International Telecommunication Union. ITU-R M.1170-1.

"Communication Instructions Radio Telegraph Procedure" (PDF). Navy-Radio. ACP124.

"Radiotelegraph Operations Guide" (PDF). QSL.net. May 2009.

United States War Department (1945). Radio Operator's Manual. Field Manual. Fort Monroe, VA: Army Field Printing Plant, CAS. FM24-6.

"1937 Royal Navy Signal Card". 1937.

13. "Signal Card".

v t e International Morse code
Transmission methods	Electrical telegraph On–off keying Continuous wave Modulated continuous wave Heliograph Signal lamp
Notable signals	SOS CQD Morse code mnemonics Prosigns for Morse code Morse code abbreviations Q code Z code
Other writing systems in Morse code	American Morse code Greek alphabet Cyrillic script Russian Hebrew script Arabic script Wabun code Chinese telegraph code Korean code

Categories:

• Morse code
• Operating signals

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosigns_for_Morse_code

 

• Read
• Edit
• View history

Tools

• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  

• 
  
• 
  

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Form feed)

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Page break" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

For making pagebreaks on Wikipedia, see Template:Page break.

A page break is a marker in an electronic document that tells the document interpreter that the content which follows is part of a new page. A page break causes a form feed to be sent to the printer during spooling of the document to the printer. Thus it is one of the elements that contributes to pagination.

Form feed

Form feed is a page-breaking ASCII control character. It directs the printer to eject the current page and to continue printing at the top of another. Often, it will also cause a carriage return. The form feed character code is defined as 12 (0xC in hexadecimal), and may be represented as Ctrl+L or ^L. In a related use, Ctrl+L can be used to clear the screen in Unix shells such as bash. In the C programming language (and other languages derived from C), the form feed character is represented as '\f'. Unicode also provides the character U+21A1 ↡ DOWNWARDS TWO HEADED ARROW as a printable symbol for a form feed (not as the form feed itself).^[1] The form feed character is considered whitespace by the C character classification function isspace().

Form feed is seldom used when programming with modern printers in modern operating environments like Windows, Unix, Linux or macOS. Instead, form feeds are generated by having the printing program call a form feed API function. For example, when printing using the .NET Framework, the PrintPageEventArgs.HasMorePages property is used to indicate a form feed is desired.

Semantic use

The form feed character is sometimes used in plain text files of source code as a delimiter for a page break, or as marker for sections of code. Some editors, in particular emacs and vi, have built-in commands to page up/down on the form feed character. This convention is predominantly used in Lisp code, and is also seen in C and Python source code. GNU Coding Standards require such form feeds in C.^[2]

In Usenet, the form feed character is used by several newsreaders as a "spoiler character", causing them to automatically hide the following text until prompted, as a way to prevent spoilers from being inadvertently revealed.^[3] The precise behavior depends on the client displaying the article: for example, Gnus displays "Next page..." in boldface, and switches to a second screen to display text after the form feed; slrn displays all non-space characters following the form feed as asterisks; Dialog turns the font and background color red between form feeds; and XRN simply inserts blank lines to fill up the remainder of the article display area so the user must scroll down to reveal the spoiler. This use of the form feed character is not supported by all newsreaders, and is not standardized, although it has appeared in a draft of a Usenet Best Practices document by the IETF's USEFOR working group, as a feature that user agents should (but are not required to) support.^[4]

See also

• Carriage control tape
• Newline

References

1. 
   

"Unicode" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-05-11.

"Formatting Your Source Code (C)". GNU Coding Standards.

Spoilers on newsreaders.com

4. IETF USEFOR USEAGE Draft

Category:

• Control characters

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page_break#Form_feed

In computer programming, trimming (trim) or stripping (strip) is a string manipulation in which leading and trailing whitespace is removed from a string.

For example, the string (enclosed by apostrophes)

'  this is a test  '

would be changed, after trimming, to

'this is a test'

Variants

Left or right trimming

The most popular variants of the trim function strip only the beginning or end of the string. Typically named ltrim and rtrim respectively, or in the case of Python: lstrip and rstrip. C# uses TrimStart and TrimEnd, and Common Lisp string-left-trim and string-right-trim. Pascal and Java do not have these variants built-in, although Object Pascal (Delphi) has TrimLeft and TrimRight functions.^[1]

Whitespace character list parameterization

Many trim functions have an optional parameter to specify a list of characters to trim, instead of the default whitespace characters. For example, PHP and Python allow this optional parameter, while Pascal and Java do not. With Common Lisp's string-trim function, the parameter (called character-bag) is required. The C++ Boost library defines space characters according to locale, as well as offering variants with a predicate parameter (a functor) to select which characters are trimmed.

Special empty string return value

An uncommon variant of trim returns a special result if no characters remain after the trim operation. For example, Apache Jakarta's StringUtils has a function called stripToNull which returns null in place of an empty string.

Space normalization

Space normalization is a related string manipulation where in addition to removing surrounding whitespace, any sequence of whitespace characters within the string is replaced with a single space. Space normalization is performed by the function named Trim() in spreadsheet applications (including Excel, Calc, Gnumeric, and Google Docs), and by the normalize-space() function in XSLT and XPath,

In-place trimming

While most algorithms return a new (trimmed) string, some alter the original string in-place. Notably, the Boost library allows either in-place trimming or a trimmed copy to be returned.

Definition of whitespace

The characters which are considered whitespace varies between programming languages and implementations. For example, C traditionally only counts space, tab, line feed, and carriage return characters, while languages which support Unicode typically include all Unicode space characters. Some implementations also include ASCII control codes (non-printing characters) along with whitespace characters.

Java's trim method considers ASCII spaces and control codes as whitespace, contrasting with the Java isWhitespace() method,^[2] which recognizes all Unicode space characters.

Delphi's Trim function considers characters U+0000 (NULL) through U+0020 (SPACE) to be whitespace.

Non-space blanks

The Braille Patterns Unicode block contains U+2800 ⠀ BRAILLE PATTERN BLANK, a Braille pattern with no dots raised. The Unicode standard explicitly states that it does not act as a space.

The Non-breaking space U+00A0   NO-BREAK SPACE (&nbsp;, &NonBreakingSpace;) can also be treated as non-space for trimming purposes.

Usage

Main article: Comparison of programming languages (string functions) § trim

References

1. 
   

"Trim". Freepascal.org. 2013-02-02. Retrieved 2013-08-24.

2. "Character (Java 2 Platform SE 5.0)". Java.sun.com. Retrieved 2013-08-24.

External links

• Tcl: string trim
• Faster JavaScript Trim - compares various JavaScript trim implementations
• php string cut and trimming- php string cut and trimming

Category:

• String (computer science)

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimming_(computer_programming)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the meaning of braille dot patterns, see English Braille.

Braille Patterns
Range	U+2800..U+28FF (256 code points)
Plane	BMP
Scripts	Braille
Assigned	256 code points
Unused	0 reserved code points
Source standards	ISO 11548-1
Unicode version history
3.0 (1999)	256 (+256)
Chart
Code chart
Note: [1][2]

This article contains Unicode Braille characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Braille characters.

The Unicode block Braille Patterns (U+2800..U+28FF) contains all 256 possible patterns of an 8-dot braille cell, thereby including the complete 6-dot cell range.^[3] In Unicode, a braille cell does not have a letter or meaning defined. For example, Unicode does not define U+2817 ⠗ to be "R".

Symbols, not letters

In Unicode braille characters are not defined as belonging to any other script, but are defined as the Braille script.^[3] That is, the patterns are available as symbols, without connection to an alphabetic letter or a number. This is because the same symbol can be used in multiple scripts, e.g. as a Latin character, a Vietnamese character, a Chinese character and a digit. For example: although U+2813 ⠓ BRAILLE PATTERN DOTS-125 represents the letter "H" in basic braille, its Unicode definition makes no reference to "H", and it is just as valid representing Korean ᄐ t-, or Japanese り ri.

For this reason – a dot-pattern is not a letter – Unicode declares that, strictly speaking, braille patterns are 'symbols', not 'letters'. The General Property is "So" (Symbol, other), not "Lo" (Letter, other). Beyond that declaration, however, braille is treated as a script in multiple places. E.g., the character property "Script" for the 256 braille code points is ISO 15924 "Brai", for braille. This way, searching users and programs are led to the right place.

Identifying, naming and ordering

Braille dot numbering

The coding is in accordance with ISO/TR 11548-1 Communication aids for blind persons.^[3] Unicode uses the standard dot-numbering 1 to 8. Historically only the 6-dot cell was used in braille. The lower two dots were added later, which explains the irregular numbering 1-2-3-7 in the left column and 4-5-6-8 in the right column. Where dots 7 and 8 are not raised, there is no distinction between 6-dot and 8-dot definitions.

The Unicode name of a specific pattern mentions the raised dots: U+2813 ⠓ BRAILLE PATTERN DOTS-125 has dots 1, 2 and 5 raised. By exception, the zero dot raised pattern is named U+2800 ⠀ BRAILLE PATTERN BLANK.^[4]

In the 8-dot cell each dot individually can be raised or not. That creates 2⁸=256 different patterns. By mapping each of the eight dots to a bit in a byte (in a little-endian order), and by defining "0"/"1" for not raised/raised per bit, every specific pattern generates an identifying binary number. So the pattern with dots 1-2-5 raised would yield (00010011)₂, equivalent to (13)₁₆ or (19)₁₀.

The mapping can also be computed by adding together the hexadecimal values, seen at right, of the dots raised. So the pattern with dots 1-2-5 raised would yield 1₁₆+2₁₆+10₁₆ = 13₁₆. Whether computed directly in hexadecimal, or indirectly via binary, the result is added to 2800₁₆, the offset for the Braille Patterns Unicode block.

Unicode: Braille Pattern encoding examples v t e
Braille symbol	⠓	⣇	⣿
Unicode character	U+2813	U+28C7	U+28FF
Name	BRAILLE PATTERN DOTS-125	BRAILLE PATTERN DOTS-12378	BRAILLE PATTERN DOTS-12345678
Dot numbers available	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8	1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dot raised=1	1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0	1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1	1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Reverse order (lowest value right, as in decimal notation)	0 0 0 1 0 0 1 12	1 1 0 0 0 1 1 12	1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12
Hex value of dots	10+2+116	80+40+4+2+116	80+40+20+10+8+4+2+116
Total hexadecimal value	1316	C716	FF16
Into block, offset U+280016	280016+1316=U+2813	280016+C716=U+28C7	280016+FF16=U+28FF

There is no regular mapping to the braille ASCII numbering.

Colloquial names

The Unicode names of braille dot patterns are not the same as what many English speakers would use colloquially. In particular, Unicode names use the word dots in the plural even when only one dot is listed: thus Unicode says braille pattern dots-5 when most English-speaking users of braille would simply say "braille dot 5" or just "dot 5".

In addition, some English-speaking users of braille use the word "and" when listing only two dots. Thus braille pattern dots-45 would be spoken as "braille dots 4 and 5". The word "and" is not always used when listing many dots however.

Block

Braille was added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.

When using punching, the filled (black) dots are to be punched.

The Unicode block for braille is U+2800 ... U+28FF:

Braille Patterns[1] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

A

B

C

D

E

F

U+280x

⠀

⠁

⠂

⠃

⠄

⠅

⠆

⠇

⠈

⠉

⠊

⠋

⠌

⠍

⠎

⠏

U+281x

⠐

⠑

⠒

⠓

⠔

⠕

⠖

⠗

⠘

⠙

⠚

⠛

⠜

⠝

⠞

⠟

U+282x

⠠

⠡

⠢

⠣

⠤

⠥

⠦

⠧

⠨

⠩

⠪

⠫

⠬

⠭

⠮

⠯

U+283x

⠰

⠱

⠲

⠳

⠴

⠵

⠶

⠷

⠸

⠹

⠺

⠻

⠼

⠽

⠾

⠿

(end of 6-dot cell patterns)

U+284x

⡀

⡁

⡂

⡃

⡄

⡅

⡆

⡇

⡈

⡉

⡊

⡋

⡌

⡍

⡎

⡏

U+285x

⡐

⡑

⡒

⡓

⡔

⡕

⡖

⡗

⡘

⡙

⡚

⡛

⡜

⡝

⡞

⡟

U+286x

⡠

⡡

⡢

⡣

⡤

⡥

⡦

⡧

⡨

⡩

⡪

⡫

⡬

⡭

⡮

⡯

U+287x

⡰

⡱

⡲

⡳

⡴

⡵

⡶

⡷

⡸

⡹

⡺

⡻

⡼

⡽

⡾

⡿

U+288x

⢀

⢁

⢂

⢃

⢄

⢅

⢆

⢇

⢈

⢉

⢊

⢋

⢌

⢍

⢎

⢏

U+289x

⢐

⢑

⢒

⢓

⢔

⢕

⢖

⢗

⢘

⢙

⢚

⢛

⢜

⢝

⢞

⢟

U+28Ax

⢠

⢡

⢢

⢣

⢤

⢥

⢦

⢧

⢨

⢩

⢪

⢫

⢬

⢭

⢮

⢯

U+28Bx

⢰

⢱

⢲

⢳

⢴

⢵

⢶

⢷

⢸

⢹

⢺

⢻

⢼

⢽

⢾

⢿

U+28Cx

⣀

⣁

⣂

⣃

⣄

⣅

⣆

⣇

⣈

⣉

⣊

⣋

⣌

⣍

⣎

⣏

U+28Dx

⣐

⣑

⣒

⣓

⣔

⣕

⣖

⣗

⣘

⣙

⣚

⣛

⣜

⣝

⣞

⣟

U+28Ex

⣠

⣡

⣢

⣣

⣤

⣥

⣦

⣧

⣨

⣩

⣪

⣫

⣬

⣭

⣮

⣯

U+28Fx

⣰

⣱

⣲

⣳

⣴

⣵

⣶

⣷

⣸

⣹

⣺

⣻

⣼

⣽

⣾

⣿

Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0

Font differences

When showing braille graphically in printed instruction manuals, it can be useful to indicate the dots that are not punched, especially if a single braille cell of only one or two punched dots is shown out of context: in this case it might otherwise be difficult to judge the vertical alignment of the dots and tell the difference between, say, dots 2 and 4 versus dots 3 and 5.

The current Unicode charts, and some fonts, use empty circles to indicate dots that are not punched. This does not always render very clearly: if the circle outlines are printed heavily then it can be difficult to tell at a glance whether the dot is filled in or not. The braille package for LaTeX (and several printed publications such as the printed manual for the new international braille music code) show unpunched dots as very small dots (much smaller than the filled-in dots) rather than circles, and this tends to print better.

Some braille fonts do not indicate unpunched dots at all. Additionally, some Linux braille fonts (e.g. GNU Unifont and the DejaVu fonts) use small squares instead of small circles to indicate dots.^[5]

Other uses

The Braille Pattern characters are commonly^[6] used in terminal applications as a way to draw multiple pixels per character.

History

The following Unicode-related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Braille Patterns block:

Version	Final code points[a]	Count	UTC ID	L2 ID	WG2 ID	Document
3.0	U+2800..28FF	256		X3L2/90-064		Extracts from "A Proposal for Funding the Programs of Braille Research and Literacy", 1990-01-01
				X3L2/91-085		TC 173 Proposals for new work items for Braille Coding, 1991-03-20
				X3L2/92-039		Bishop, Avery (1991-10-29), The long awaited draft reply on Braille symbol encoding
					N1093	Shibano, Kohji (1994-12-26), Braille Letters
					N1203	Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1995-05-03), "6.1.3.3", Unconfirmed minutes of SC2/WG2 Meeting 27, Geneva
				X3L2/95-114	N1279	Braille letters (addition request), 1995-10-27
					N1303 (html, doc)	Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1996-01-26), "8.14 Braille", Minutes of Meeting 29, Tokyo
				X3L2/95-125		Duran, Peter (1990-05-24), A Proposal for Funding the Programs of Braille Research and Literacy
			UTC/1996-002			Aliprand, Joan; Hart, Edwin; Greenfield, Steve (1996-03-05), "Braille", UTC #67 Minutes
			UTC/1996-007			Hart, Edwin (1996-03-07), Contribution on Encoding Braille in ISO/IEC 10646
					N1342	Sato, Takayuki K. (1996-03-19), Braille letters (confirmation of request)
					N1339	Ksar, Mike (1996-03-28), Liaison Letter on Braille to ISO/TC137 Secretariat
					N1345	Hart, Edwin (1996-04-01), Initial comments on encoding Braille into ISO/IEC 10646
					N1353	Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1996-06-25), "8.9", Draft minutes of WG2 Copenhagen Meeting # 30
			UTC/1996-027.2			Greenfield, Steve (1996-07-01), "K. Braille Proposal", UTC #69 Minutes (PART 2)
					N1409R	Braille Symbols, 1996-08-12
					N1453	Ksar, Mike; Umamaheswaran, V. S. (1996-12-06), "8.9", WG 2 Minutes - Quebec Meeting 31
				L2/97-047	N1541	Everson, Michael (1997-03-11), Proposed pDAM text for Braille
					N1588	DIS 11 548-1 - Communication aids for blind persons Part 1: Braille identifiers and shift marks - General guidelines, 1997-06-23
					N1588.1	DIS 11 548-2 - Communication aids for blind persons Part 2: Latin alphabet based character sets
				L2/97-157	N1612	Report of ad-hoc group on Braille encoding, 1997-07-01
				L2/97-288	N1603	Umamaheswaran, V. S. (1997-10-24), "8.4", Unconfirmed Meeting Minutes, WG 2 Meeting # 33, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, 20 June - 4 July 1997
				L2/98-136	N1770	Paterson, Bruce (1998-04-06), Revised Text of 10646-1/FPDAM 16: Amendment 16: Braille Patterns
				L2/98-286	N1703	Umamaheswaran, V. S.; Ksar, Mike (1998-07-02), "6.2.2 FPDAM-16 - Braille patterns", Unconfirmed Meeting Minutes, WG 2 Meeting #34, Redmond, WA, USA; 1998-03-16--20

Proposed code points and characters names may differ from final code points and names

References

1. 
   

"Unicode character database". The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 2016-07-09.

"Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard". The Unicode Standard. Retrieved 2016-07-09.

Unicode Chapter 15, section 15.10

Unicode chart U+2800, braille patterns

"Braille Pattern Dots-1358 (U+2895) Font Support". fileformat.info. Retrieved December 7, 2014.

6. "Iirelu/Braillify". GitHub. 22 July 2021.

v t e Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑

v t e Unicode

Categories:

• Braille patterns
• Unicode blocks

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braille_Patterns

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Braille (first edition)
Script type	alphabet
Time period	1824 to ca. 1837
Languages	French
Related scripts
Parent systems	night writing Braille (first edition)
Child systems	modern French Braille
Unicode
Unicode range	(not supported)

Louis Braille's original publication, Procedure for Writing Words, Music, and Plainsong in Dots (1829),^[1] credits Barbier's night writing as being the basis for the braille script. It differed in a fundamental way from modern braille: It contained nine decades (series) of characters rather than the modern five, utilizing dashes as well as dots. Braille recognized, however, that the dashes were problematic, being difficult to distinguish from the dots in practice, and those characters were abandoned in the second edition of the book.

The first four decades indicated the 40 letters of the alphabet (39 letters of the French alphabet, plus English w); the fifth the digits; the sixth punctuation; the seventh and part of the eighth mathematical symbols. The seventh decade was also used for musical notes. Most of the remaining characters were unassigned.

Script

The character tables of Braille's 1829 publication.

As in modern braille, most of the higher decades were derived from the first:

• Decades 1–4 were the same as today and had their modern French values.
• Decade 5 was not derived from the first. (See image at left or table below.) Like the first decade, only the top half of the cell was used.^[2] The digit 1 was a dash in the top row; 2 was dashes in the top and mid rows. (That is, these were a and b, or modern digits 1 and 2, but with dashes in place of dots.) 3–5 were a top dash with a left, double, and right dot in the middle; 6–8 were a mid dash with a left, double, and right dot at top. 9 and 0 were a and b shifted to the right (that is, the modern French superscript and currency signs, ⠈ and ⠘):
• Decade 6 was derived from the first by adding dash at the bottom. That is, it resembled the 3rd decade with the two bottom dots connected into a line.
• Decade 7 was formed with a dash in the top row of the cell, displacing the dots of the first decade downward. That is, it was much like the modern fifth decade with an overstruck dash at the top. For the 1st and 3rd characters of the decade, however, the dots were shifted all the way down to the bottom row, rather than shifted once to the middle as in the modern 5th decade: No character outside the original 1st and 5th decades occupied just the top half of the cell.
• Decade 8 was formed by splitting the first decade with a dash, placing it between the upper and lower parts of each sign.^[3] That is, a dash appeared in the middle row, displacing the dots of that row to the bottom of the cell. In the case of first and 3rd characters (from a and c), which did not have dots in the middle row, the dots at the top were displaced to the bottom instead. That is, this decade was equivalent to adding an overstrike to ⠄⠅⠤⠩⠡⠍⠭⠥⠌⠬.
• Decade 9 was derived from the fifth (the digits) by adding a dash in the bottom row. These were left unassigned apart from the first three, which were used when needed as markers of words, music, and plainsong, respectively.

Thus the 1st and 5th decades occupied only the top half of the cell, while all characters in the other decades had a dot or dash in the bottom row.

Table

1829 Braille cells

Decade	numeric sequence
I	a	b	c	d	e	f	g	h	i	j
II	k	l	m	n	o	p	q	r	s	t
III	u	v	x	y	z	ç	é	à	è	ù
IV	â	ê	î	ô	û	ë	ï	ü	œ	w
V	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	0
VI	,	;	:	.	?	!	( )	« »	*	|
VII	+	−	±	=	<	>	×	※	²√	.
VIII	[[:]]	∷	÷	∺
IX
Supp.	'	-	∝

The supplemental signs were ⠄⠤⠜⠼ and a top dash with ⠠⠰.^[4] Of the 125 (5³) possible patterns, 97 were used. The modern 5th decade and other supplemental signs do not appear in the 1829 version of braille, apart from ⠐ and ⠒ in plainsong notation.

Punctuation differed slightly from today, even accounting for the shift downward when the dash was dropped from the bottom row of the cell. ⠶ was used for both parentheses, as in modern English braille. ⠦ was used for either quotation mark; ⠴ was a pipe. ⠢ was the question mark, as in modern French braille, while ⠔ was the asterisk, which is used doubled in English braille.

Substitutions for the dash

Anticipating that the dashes might prove problematic, Braille provided that the supplemental sign ⠼ (now known as the number sign) would shift the decade by four. That is, adding it to the first four decades would produce substitutes for the fifth through eighth. Only its use to replace the old fifth decade has been retained; the old sixth decade survives as the modern fifth, with the dash removed and the dots shifted down to replace it. The original proposal was as follows:

Digraph substitutions for characters containing dashes

(5th)		⠼⠁ 1	⠼⠃ 2	⠼⠉ 3	⠼⠙ 4	⠼⠑ 5	⠼⠋ 6	⠼⠛ 7	⠼⠓ 8	⠼⠊ 9	⠼⠚ 0
(6th)		⠼⠅ ,	⠼⠇  ;	⠼⠍  :	⠼⠝ .	⠼⠕  ?	⠼⠏  !	⠼⠟ ()	⠼⠗ «»	⠼⠎ *	⠼⠞ |
(7th)		⠼⠥ +	⠼⠧ −	⠼⠭ ±	⠼⠽ =	⠼⠵ <	⠼⠯ >	⠼⠿ ×	⠼⠷ ※ ♯	⠼⠮ ²√ ♭	⠼⠾ . ♮
(8th)		⠼⠡ :	⠼⠣ ∷	⠼⠩ ÷	⠼⠹ ∺

Musical notation

The book allots a great deal of space to the representation of music. Instrumental notation was largely a one-to-one transcription of the system already in use for the blind. The durations of the notes and the accidentals, however, had to be replaced; for these the 7th decade was used, as shown in the table above.^[5]

A simplified system for plainsong was provided. The twelve notes are the twelve characters of the upper half of the cell (the first and fifth decades) which do not have dashes.^[6] By themselves (1st decade), they indicate half notes. Quarter notes are 2nd decade, dotted quarter notes 3rd, and eighth notes 4th. Dotted half notes are indicated by a dash below (6th decade), whole notes by a dash above (7th decade), and dotted whole notes by a mid dash (8th decade). The alto, bass, treble, and tenor clefs were indicated by the 5th–8th characters of the fifth decade. ⠐ is the sharp-note prefix, ⠒ the bass-note prefix, and the equivalent with a dash the natural prefix. ⠄⠤ are the repetition sign and 'star'.

Shorthand

The book finishes with a proposal for braille shorthand, utilizing the first decade for vowels, and the fifth for consonants (without a voicing distinction). That is, Braille's shorthand used a 4-dot cell rather than the standard 6-dot cell, taking two-thirds the space of normal braille, and one-third the space of Barbier's night writing.

Braille shorthand

I
	a	é è	i	o	u ou	an	in un	on	eu	oi

V
	b p	d t	g q	j ch	v f	z s	l	m	n gn	r

Second edition

The final form of Braille's alphabet, according to Henri (1952). The decade diacritics are listed at left, and the supplementary letters are assigned to the appropriate decade at right. "(1)" indicates markers for musical and mathematical notation.

In the classroom, Braille's students found the characters with dashes to be impractical, as the dashes were not easily distinguishable from pairs of dots, and they were quickly abandoned. The second edition of the Procédé, published in 1837, sets out French Braille essentially as we know it today.^[7] According to Henri (1952), at right, the numerical sign was used with the new fifth decade, plus one of the supplementary characters, for mathematical notation: ⠼⠖ +, ⠼⠤ −, ⠼⠦ ×, ⠼⠲ /, ⠼⠶ =, ⠼⠜ √. Several of these values continue today in Antoine notation.

Computer encoding

The official Unicode encoding for Braille only specifies codepoints for modern dot-only patterns. An unofficial encoding for dash patterns can be found in the Under-ConScript Unicode Registry,^[8] and as such may be found in some fonts that cover characters from that agreement. Together, these two blocks can represent all cell definitions from the 1829 Braille specification.

Braille Patterns[1] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

A

B

C

D

E

F

U+280x

⠀

⠁

⠂

⠃

⠄

⠅

⠆

⠇

⠈

⠉

⠊

⠋

⠌

⠍

⠎

⠏

U+281x

⠐

⠑

⠒

⠓

⠔

⠕

⠖

⠗

⠘

⠙

⠚

⠛

⠜

⠝

⠞

⠟

U+282x

⠠

⠡

⠢

⠣

⠤

⠥

⠦

⠧

⠨

⠩

⠪

⠫

⠬

⠭

⠮

⠯

U+283x

⠰

⠱

⠲

⠳

⠴

⠵

⠶

⠷

⠸

⠹

⠺

⠻

⠼

⠽

⠾

⠿

(end of 6-dot cell patterns)

U+284x

⡀

⡁

⡂

⡃

⡄

⡅

⡆

⡇

⡈

⡉

⡊

⡋

⡌

⡍

⡎

⡏

U+285x

⡐

⡑

⡒

⡓

⡔

⡕

⡖

⡗

⡘

⡙

⡚

⡛

⡜

⡝

⡞

⡟

U+286x

⡠

⡡

⡢

⡣

⡤

⡥

⡦

⡧

⡨

⡩

⡪

⡫

⡬

⡭

⡮

⡯

U+287x

⡰

⡱

⡲

⡳

⡴

⡵

⡶

⡷

⡸

⡹

⡺

⡻

⡼

⡽

⡾

⡿

U+288x

⢀

⢁

⢂

⢃

⢄

⢅

⢆

⢇

⢈

⢉

⢊

⢋

⢌

⢍

⢎

⢏

U+289x

⢐

⢑

⢒

⢓

⢔

⢕

⢖

⢗

⢘

⢙

⢚

⢛

⢜

⢝

⢞

⢟

U+28Ax

⢠

⢡

⢢

⢣

⢤

⢥

⢦

⢧

⢨

⢩

⢪

⢫

⢬

⢭

⢮

⢯

U+28Bx

⢰

⢱

⢲

⢳

⢴

⢵

⢶

⢷

⢸

⢹

⢺

⢻

⢼

⢽

⢾

⢿

U+28Cx

⣀

⣁

⣂

⣃

⣄

⣅

⣆

⣇

⣈

⣉

⣊

⣋

⣌

⣍

⣎

⣏

U+28Dx

⣐

⣑

⣒

⣓

⣔

⣕

⣖

⣗

⣘

⣙

⣚

⣛

⣜

⣝

⣞

⣟

U+28Ex

⣠

⣡

⣢

⣣

⣤

⣥

⣦

⣧

⣨

⣩

⣪

⣫

⣬

⣭

⣮

⣯

U+28Fx

⣰

⣱

⣲

⣳

⣴

⣵

⣶

⣷

⣸

⣹

⣺

⣻

⣼

⣽

⣾

⣿

Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0

Braille Extended (Images)
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+EB6x
U+EB7x
U+EB8x
U+EB9x
Notes Added to UCSUR 2020-04-28.

Braille Extended (Plain Text)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

A

B

C

D

E

F

U+EB6x

































U+EB7x

































U+EB8x

































U+EB9x



























Notes Added to UCSUR 2020-04-28.

References

1. 
   

Procédé pour écrire les Paroles, la Musique, et le Plain-chant au moyen de points Archived 2015-06-03 at the Wayback Machine

In the image, digits 9 and 0 appear shifted downward. However, the verbal description clarifies that they also occupy the top half of the cell.

Braille conceived of his script as being based on a 4-dote, 2×2 square supplemented with additional dots and dashes. Thus the middle row is the lower part of the basic sign, and the bottom row is below the basic sign; thus the letter b has a dot in "each" position of the left-hand column, while the letter l has an additional dot "below" the column.

Only the four of these without a dash were defined, with their modern values of apostrophe, hyphen, proportionality (∝), and the number/symbol indicator.

If the symbols do not display in your browser, they are whole note, half note, quarter note, etc.

These are the twelve characters in the top row of the table for the 64 Braille cells in the main article.

Zina Weygand, 2003, Aveugles dans la société française, du Moyen Age au siècle de Louis Braille

8. "Under-ConScript Unicode Registry". Retrieved 2020-06-19.

External links

• Photographs of the pages of Procédé pour écrire les Paroles, la Musique, et le Plain-chant au moyen de points, with French transcription and English translation (archived here)

v t e Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑
Braille cell	1829 braille International uniformity ASCII braille Unicode braille patterns
Braille scripts	French-ordered Albanian Azerbaijani Cantonese Catalan Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned) Czech Dutch English (Unified English) Esperanto French German Ghanaian Guarani Hawaiian Hungarian Iñupiaq IPA Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dot) Maltese Māori Navajo Nigerian Philippine Polish Portuguese Romanian Samoan Slovak South African Spanish Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned) Turkish Vietnamese Welsh Yugoslav Zambian Nordic family Estonian Faroese Icelandic Northern Sami Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Norwegian Swedish Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic-mediated scripts Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic-mediated scripts Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan) Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India) Other scripts Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan Reordered Algerian Braille (obsolete) Frequency-based American Braille (obsolete) Independent Chinese semi-syllabaries Cantonese Mainland Chinese Mandarin Taiwanese Mandarin Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin) Japanese Korean Eight-dot Luxembourgish Kanji Gardner–Salinas braille codes (GS8)
Symbols in braille	Braille music Canadian currency marks Computer Braille Code Gardner–Salinas braille codes (science; GS8/GS6) International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Nemeth braille code
Braille technology	Braille e-book Braille embosser Braille translator Braille watch Mountbatten Brailler Optical braille recognition Perforation Perkins Brailler Refreshable braille display Slate and stylus Braigo
People	Louis Braille Charles Barbier Róża Czacka Valentin Haüy Harris Mowbray Thakur Vishva Narain Singh Sabriye Tenberken William Bell Wait
Organisations	Braille Institute of America Braille Without Borders Japan Braille Library National Braille Association Blindness organizations Schools for the blind American Printing House for the Blind
Other tactile alphabets	Decapoint Moon type New York Point Night writing Vibratese
Related topics	Accessible publishing Braille literacy RoboBraille

Categories:

• 1829 non-fiction books
• 1829 in France
• 1829 introductions
• Braille
• Miscellaneous Unicode blocks

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1829_braille

Cirth
The word "Cirth" written using the Cirth in the Angerthas Daeron mode
Script type	Alphabet
Creator	J. R. R. Tolkien
Direction	Varies
Languages	Khuzdul, Sindarin, Quenya, Westron, English
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Cirt (291), ​Cirth
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

The Cirth (Sindarin pronunciation: ​[ˈkirθ], meaning "runes"; sg. certh [ˈkɛrθ]) is a semi‑artificial script, based on real‑life runic alphabets, one of several scripts invented by J. R. R. Tolkien for the constructed languages he devised and used in his works. Cirth is written with a capital letter when referring to the writing system; the letters themselves can be called cirth.

In the fictional history of Middle-earth, the original Certhas was created by the Sindar (or Grey Elves) for their language, Sindarin. Its extension and elaboration was known as the Angerthas Daeron, as it was attributed to the Sinda Daeron, despite the fact that it was most probably arranged by the Noldor in order to represent the sounds of other languages like Quenya and Telerin.

Although it was later largely replaced by the Tengwar, the Cirth was nonetheless adopted by the Dwarves to write down both their Khuzdul language (Angerthas Moria) and the languages of Men (Angerthas Erebor). The Cirth was also adapted, in its oldest and simplest form, by various races including Men and even Orcs. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirth

Zonal auxiliary languages, or zonal constructed languages, are constructed languages made to facilitate communication between speakers of a certain group of closely-related languages. They form a subgroup of the international auxiliary languages but are intended to serve a limited linguistic or geographic area, rather than the whole world like Esperanto and Volapük. Although most zonal auxiliary languages are based on European language families, they should not be confused with "Euroclones", a somewhat derogatory term for languages intended for global use but based (almost) exclusively on European material. Since universal acceptance is not the goal for zonal auxiliary languages, the traditional claims of neutrality and universalism, typical for IALs, do not apply. Although they may share the same internationalist commitments of the latter, zonal auxiliary languages have also been proposed as a defense against the effects of the growing hegemony of English on other cultures or as a means to promote a sense of ethnicity or community in a manner similar to revitalized languages, such as Modern Hebrew and Cornish.^[1] Related concepts are koiné language, a dialect that naturally emerges as a means of communication among speakers of divergent dialects of a language, and Dachsprache, a dialect that serves as a standard language for other, sometimes mutually unintelligible, dialects. The difference is that a zonal language is typically a mixture of several natural languages and is aimed to serve as an auxiliary for the speakers of different but related languages of the same family.^[2]

Most zonal constructed languages were developed during the period of romantic nationalism at the end of the 19th century, but some were created later. Most older zonal constructed languages are now known only to specialists. A modern example is Interslavic, which has become the most successful example of all zonal constructed languages.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zonal_auxiliary_language

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Linguistic map of Slavic languages

A pan-Slavic language is a zonal auxiliary language for communication among the Slavic peoples.

There are approximately 400 million speakers of the Slavic languages. In order to communicate with each other, speakers of different Slavic languages often resort to international lingua francas, primarily English, or Russian in East Slavic zonal cases. But since Slavic languages are closely related lexically and grammatically and are comparatively easier to learn when another Slavic language is already known, there have been numerous attempts to construct a more neutral auxiliary language that could act as a common language for slavophones. The earliest pan-Slavic linguistic efforts preceded academic knowledge and reconstruction of Proto-Slavic, which was likely spoken between 2nd century BCE and 6th century CE, from which all Slavic languages developed in following centuries.

History

Cyrillic edition of Gramatíčno izkâzanje ob rúskom jezíku (1665) by Križanić, the first pan-Slavic grammar book

The history of zonal Slavic languages is closely connected with Pan-Slavism, an ideology that endeavors cultural and political unification of all Slavs, based on the conception that all Slavic people are part of a single Slavic nation. Along with this belief came also the need for an umbrella Slavic language. The strongest candidate for that position among modern languages is Russian, the language of the largest (and, during most of the 19th century, the only) Slavic state, and mother tongue of more than half of Slavs. This option enjoys most of its popularity in Russia itself, but has also been favoured by Pan-Slavists abroad, for example the Slovak Ľudovít Štúr.^[1] Others have proposed that Old Church Slavonic would be a better and more neutral solution. In previous centuries, Old Church Slavonic had served as an administrative language across a large part of the Slavic world, and it is still used on a large scale in Eastern Orthodox liturgy, where it plays a role similar to Latin in the West. Old Church Slavonic has the additional advantage of being similar to the common ancestor of the Slavic languages, Proto-Slavic. However, it has several practical disadvantages as well: its grammar is complex, and its vocabulary is characterized by many words that have been lost from the modern languages, as well as an absence of words for modern concepts. Hence, early pan-Slavic language projects aimed at modernizing Old Church Slavonic and adapting it to the needs of everyday communication.^{[citation needed]}

Early projects

The first pan-Slavic grammar, Gramatíčno izkâzanje ob rúskom jezíku by the Croatian priest Juraj Križanić, was written in 1665.^[2] He referred to the language as Ruski jezik ("Russian language"), but in reality it was mostly based on a mixture of the Russian edition of Church Slavonic and his own Southern Chakavian dialect of Croatian. Križanić used it not only for this grammar, but also in other works, including the treatise Politika (1663–1666). According to an analysis of the Dutch Slavist Tom Ekman, 59% of the words used in Politika are of common Slavic descent, 10% come from Russian and Church Slavonic, 9% from Croatian and 2.5% from Polish.^[3]

Križanić was not the first who attempted writing in a language understandable to all Slavs. In 1583 another Croatian priest, Šime Budinić, had translated the Summa Doctrinae Christanae by Petrus Canisius into Slovignsky,^[4] in which he used both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets.^[5]

After Križanić, numerous other efforts have been made to create an umbrella language for the speakers of Slavic languages.^[6] A notable example is Universalis Lingua Slavica by the Slovak attorney Ján Herkeľ (1786–1853), published in Latin in 1826.^[7] Unlike Križanić' project, this project was closer to the West Slavic languages.^{[citation needed]}

During the second half of the 19th century Pan-Slavic language projects were mostly the domain of Slovenes and Croats. In this era of awakening national consciousness, the Russians were the only Slavs who had their own state; other Slavic peoples inhabited large, mostly non-Slavic states, and clear borders between the various nations were mostly lacking. Among the numerous efforts at creating written standards for the South Slavic languages there were also efforts at establishing a common South Slavic language, Illyrian, that might also serve as a literary language for all Slavs in the future. Of special importance is the work of Matija Majar (1809–1892), a Slovenian Austroslavist who later converted to Pan-Slavism. In 1865 he published Uzajemni Pravopis Slavjanski ("Mutual Slavic Orthography").^[8] In this work, he postulated that the best way for Slavs to communicate with other Slavs was by taking their own language as a starting point and then modifying it in steps. First, he proposed changing the orthography of each individual language into a generic ("mutual") Pan-Slavic orthography, subsequently he described a grammar that was based on comparing five major Slavic languages of his days: Old Church Slavonic, Russian, Polish, Czech and Serbian. Apart from a book about the language itself, Majar also used it for a biography of Cyril and Methodius^[9] and for a magazine he published in the years 1873–1875, Slavjan. A fragment in the language can still be seen on the altar of Majar's church in Görtschach.^[10] Other Pan-Slavic language projects were published in the same period by the Croatian Matija Ban,^[11] the Slovenes Radoslav Razlag [sl] and Božidar Raič [sl],^[12] as well as the Macedonian Bulgarian Grigor Parlichev^[13] – all based on the idea of combining Old Church Slavonic with elements from the modern South Slavic languages.^{[citation needed]}

• Authors of Pan-Slavic language projects in the 19th century
• 

  Matija Ban
  (1818–1903)

• 

  Radoslav Razlag
  (1826–1880)

• 

  Božidar Raič
  (1827–1886)

• 

  Matija Majar-Ziljski
  (1809–1892)

• 

  Grigor Parlichev
  (1830–1893)

All authors mentioned above were motivated by the belief that all Slavic languages were dialects of one single Slavic language rather than separate languages. They deplored the fact that these dialects had diverged beyond mutual comprehensibility, and the Pan-Slavic language they envisioned was intended to reverse this process. Their long-term objective was that this language would replace the individual Slavic languages.^[14]: 86 Majar, for example, compared the Pan-Slavic language with standardized languages like Ancient Greek and several modern languages:

The ancient Greeks spoke and wrote in four dialects, but nevertheless they had one single Greek language and one single Greek literature. Many modern educated nations, for example the French, the Italians, the English and the Germans, have a higher number of more divergent dialects and subdialects than we Slavs, and yet they have one single literary language. What is possible for other nations and what really exists among them, why should this be impossible only for us Slavs?^[9]: 154

— Matija Majar, Sveta brata Ciril i Metod, slavjanska apostola i osnovatelja slovstva slavjanskoga (1864)

Consequently, these authors did not consider their projects constructed languages at all. In most cases they provided grammatical comparisons between the Slavic languages, sometimes but not always offering solutions they labelled as "Pan-Slavic". What their projects have in common that they neither have a rigidly prescriptive grammar, nor a separate vocabulary.^{[citation needed]}

The twentieth century

Bohumil Holý (1885–1947)

In the early 20th century it had become clear that the divergence of the Slavic languages was irreversible and the concept of a Pan-Slavic literary language was no longer realistic. The Pan-Slavic dream had lost most of its power, and Pan-Slavists had to satisfy themselves with the formation of two multinational Slavic states, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. However, the need for a common language of communication for Slavs was still felt, and due to the influence of constructed languages like Esperanto, efforts were made to create a language that was no longer supposed to replace the individual Slavic languages, but to serve as an additional second language for pan-Slavic communication.^[14]: 118

In the same period, the nexus of pan-Slavic activity shifted to the North, especially to the Czech lands. In 1907 the Czech dialectologist Ignác Hošek (1852–1919) published a grammar of Neuslavisch, a proposal for a common literary language for all Slavs within the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.^[15] Five years later another Czech, Josef Konečný, published Slavina, a "Slavic Esperanto", which however had very little in common with Esperanto, but instead was mostly based on Czech.^{[16][17]: 196} Whereas these two projects were naturalistic, the same cannot be said about two other projects by Czech authors, Slovanština by Edmund Kolkop^[18] and Slavski jezik by Bohumil Holý.^[19] Both projects, published in 1912 and 1920 respectively, show a clear tendency towards simplification, for example by eliminating grammatical gender and cases, and schematicism.^{[17]: 214  [14]: 128–132, 137–143, 159}

During the 1950s the Czech poet and former Esperantist Ladislav Podmele [eo] (1920–2000), also known under his pseudonym Jiří Karen, worked for several years with a team of prominent interlinguists on an elaborate project, Mežduslavjanski jezik ("Interslavic language"). Among other things, they wrote a grammar, an Esperanto–Interslavic word list, a dictionary, a course and a textbook. Although none of those were ever published, the project gained some attention of linguists from various countries.^{[17]: 301–302 [20]} Probably due to the political reality of those days, this language was primarily based on Russian.^{[citation needed]}

The digital age

Although Pan-Slavism has not played a role of any significance since the collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, globalization and new media like the Internet have led to a renewed interest in a language that would be understandable for all Slavs alike. After the fall of the USSR, the role of the Russian language as a lingua franca in Eastern Europe and the Balkans diminished, also because many inhabitants of other countries in the region perceived it as the language of their former oppressor.^[21] Older projects were largely forgotten, but as it became relatively easy for authors to publish their work, several new projects emerged, mostly in Slavic émigrée circles.^[22] Thus, during the first years of the 21st century projects appeared under names like Slovo, Glagolica, Proslava and Ruslavsk.^[23]: 25 Most of them were incomplete and abandoned by their authors after a while.

The only project that acquired some fame in the same period was Slovio of the Slovak Mark Hučko. Unlike most previous projects it was not a naturalistic, but a schematic language, its grammar being based almost entirely on Esperanto.^[24] In addition, it was a fully functional language, and it became the first pan-Slavic language with a small user community. Slovio was not only intended to serve as an auxiliary language for Slavs, but also for use on a global scale like Esperanto. For that reason it gained little acceptance among Slavs: a high degree of simplification, characteristic for most international auxiliary languages, makes it easier to learn for non-Slavs, but widens the distance with the natural Slavic languages and gives the language an overly artificial character, which by many is considered a disadvantage.^[25] Hučko maintained a proprietary hold on Slovio, and since 2011 the language is no longer being developed and is effectively defunct.

Partly in response to the problems of Slovio, a more naturalistic and community-based project was started in 2006 under the name Slovianski by a group of people from different countries. Initially, it was being developed in three grammar versions: a naturalistic version by Jan van Steenbergen, a more simplified, pidgin-like version by Ondrej Rečnik and a schematic version by Gabriel Svoboda, but in 2009 it was decided that only the naturalistic version would be continued under the name Slovianski.^[26] Slovianski was mostly used in Internet traffic and in a news letter, Slovianska Gazeta.^[27][28] In 2012, its user community numbered several hundreds of people.^[29]

An effort to bring Slovianski and Slovio together resulted in Slovioski in 2009. Its original purpose was to provide Slovio with a more naturalistic grammar, but gradually it developed into a separate language project. Like Slovianski, it was a collaborative project that existed in two variants: a "full" and a simplified version.^[30] Another project that saw the light in the same period was Novoslověnsky ("Neoslavonic") by the Czech Vojtěch Merunka, based on Old Church Slavonic grammar but using part of Slovianski's vocabulary.^[31][32]

In 2011, Slovianski, Slovioski and Novoslověnsky were merged under the name Interslavic (Medžuslovjanski).^[26] In 2017 and 2018 Interslavic conferences took place in the Czech Republic, and in 2019 the language was featured in Václav Marhoul's movie The Painted Bird. By July 2021, its user community on Facebook had grown to over 15,000 people.^[33]

Individual projects

Early Modern

Šime Budinić

Šime Budinić
(ca. 1530–1600)

As early as 1583, the Venetian-Croatian priest writer Šime Budinić from Zadar translated Petrus Canisius' Summa doctrinae christinae into a language he called Slovignsky or Slouignsky iazik ("Slavic language"), using both the Latin and the Cyrillic alphabets.^[4] Budinić did not actually give a description of this language, but according to some authors it was a mixture of Serbo-Croatian, Church Slavonic, Czech, and Polish.^[14]: 90 However, Nicolina Trunte argues that Church Slavonic, Polish or Czech were not used in the work at all, and that the language Budinić used was merely Shtokavian-Ijekavian with a number of hyper-Ijekavisms and Chakavisms.^[34]

Sample:

Koie iz Vlasskoga, illi Latinskoga iazika, v Slouignsky Iazik protumačio iest pop Ssimvn Bvdineo Zadranin.

"Translated from the Italian or Latin language into the Slavic Language by father Šimun Budinić from Zadar."

Juraj Križanić

In Siberia in 1666, the Croat Juraj Križanić wrote Gramatíčno izkâzanje ob rúskom jezíku (Граматично исказанје об руском језику "Grammatical overview of the Russian Language"). In this work he described in fact not the Russian language but a Common Slavonic language based on different Slavic languages, mostly on Russian and Chakavian Croatian. The author used it not only for this grammar, but also in other works, including the treatise Politika (1663–1666). According to an analysis of the Dutch Slavist Tom Ekman, 59% of the words used in Politika are of common Slavic descent, 10% come from Russian and Church Slavonic, 9% from Croatian and 2.5% from Polish.^[3]

Sample (Romanized, original in Cyrillic):

Iazika sowerszenost iest samo potrebno orudie k mudrosti, i iedwa ne stanowito iee zname. Czim kiu narod imaet izradney iazik, tim prigodnee i witwornee razprawlyaet remestwa i wsakije umitelyi i promisli. Obilie besedi i legota izgowora mnogo pomagaet na mudrich sowetow izobretenie i na wsakich mirnich i ratnich del leznee obwerszenie.

Modern

Ján Herkeľ

Another early example of a zonal language for Slavs was Universalis Lingua Slavica ("Universal Slavic language" or "All-Slavic language"). It was created and published by the Slovak attorney Ján Herkeľ (1786–1853) in his work Elementa universalis linguae Slavicae in 1826.^[7] Unlike languages like Esperanto, it had no well-defined grammar and no vocabulary of its own. Like many other pan-Slavists in the 19th century, Herkeľ considered the Slavic languages dialects of a single Slavic language, and his book is mostly a comparative grammar of these dialects, in which he sometimes offered grammatical solutions explicitly characterized by him as "Universal Slavic".

Although Herkeľ found Cyrillic more suitable for the Slavic languages, he nevertheless chose the Latin alphabet for his project, with the addition of a few Cyrillic letters:^[35] ч and ш for č and š (remarkably, for ž he preferred ƶ, although he explicitly did not exclude Cyrillic ж either), as well as x for h/ch.^[7]: 11

Near the end of his book, Herkeľ gave a few examples of his Stylus Universalis, applied to the "Pannonian" (Slovak) dialect:^{[7]: 163–164}

Za starego vieku byla jedna kralica, koja mala tri prelepije dievice: milicu, krasicu a mudricu; vse tri byle bogate, okrem bogatstva milica byla pokorna, krasica uctiva, a mudrica umena.

"In olden times there was a queen who had three very beautiful girls: Kindness, Beauty, and Wisdom; all three were rich, in addition to being rich Kindness was humble, Beauty was polite, and Wisdom was wise."

Slavina

Slavina was created by Josef Konečný in 1912 in Prague and published in the same year in a booklet titled Mluvnička slovanského esperanta "Slavina". According to the author, its main purpose was to serve as a communication tool in trade and industry. The subtitle of the language, "a Slavic Esperanto" (or its Esperanto translation "Slava Esperanto"), is sometimes erroneously cited as the name of the language, but in reality the language had very little in common with Esperanto. Instead, it was a clear example of a naturalistic language, with three grammatical genders, seven noun cases and five verbal tenses. Although Konečný claimed his language was based on all Slavic languages, it bore a striking similarity to his native Czech, both orthographically, phonologically, lexically and morphologically. Particularly unusual for a pan-Slavic language project was the distinction between long and short consonants.^{[14]: 133–137}

The first sentence from the song Hey, Slavs:^[16]: 29

Hej, Slované, naši lepo slovanó rěč máme, dokud naše věrné srece pro náš národ dáme.

"Hey, Slavs, we will have our beautiful Slavic language, as long as we give our faithful heart for our people."

Slovanština

Slovanština (Czech for "Slavic language") is the oldest example of a schematic language for pan-Slavic use. It was published in 1912 by the Czech linguist and esperantist Edmund Kolkop (1877–1915) in his booklet Pokus o dorozumívací jazyk slovanský.^[18] Kolkop had no political, pan-Slavic ambitions but felt frustrated by the fact that Slavs had to resort to German for their communication and believed that they would be helped with a simple, artificially created Slavic language, for which he took Esperanto as an example.^{[14]: 128–132} The language had no grammatical gender and no cases, all nouns and adjectives ended in a consonant, plurals were formed with -a for nouns and -i for adjectives, and verbs were conjugated only for tense. Slavic word roots were derived regularly from Church Slavonic, and international vocabulary was used when a Slavic word was hard to find.^[18]: 5 The language was written in the Latin alphabet with a few unusual additions: ſ for š, з for ž, ч for č, y for j, j for ť, θ for ď and ι for ň.^[18]: 3

The Gospel of Matthew, 3:1–2:^[18]: 15

Ve tamji dιa priideo Yan Krestar, kazaya na puſj ve zem Yudesk; i rekaya: Pokayaιiy nehaj vi чiιi, bo pribliзio sa carstviy nebesk.

"In those days John the Baptist came, preaching in the wilderness of Judea; and saying: Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near."

Neposlava

Vsevolod Cheshikhin (1865–1934)

Neposlava was an unpublished project, created by the Russian writer, publicist and music critic Vsevolod Yevgrafovich Cheshikhin (Всеволод Евграфович Чешихин) in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. It was based on a system created by him in 1913 to construct zonal languages based on Esperanto affixes which are used with national roots and called it Nepo. According to that principle, he created Neposlava ("Slavic Nepo"), a Nepo-language based on Russian, Polish, Czech and Serbian lexicon, in 1915 or 1916. It is unknown how elaborated this language project really was.^[14]: 154 He also used this system to construct other "new Esperantoes" based on Latin-Romance and Germanic languages.^[36][37]

A fragment from the Lord's Prayer:^[17]: 199

Vatero nia, kotoryja estas in la njebov, heiligia estu nomo via.

"Our father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name."

Mežduslavjanski jezik

Mežduslavjanski jezik ("Interslavic language") was an elaborate project worked on during the years 1954–1958 in Czechoslovakia by a group of interlinguists, led by the poet Ladislav Podmele a.k.a. Jiří Karen (1920–2000) and the pedagogue Jaroslav Podobský (1895–1962), both of whom were prominent members of the Occidental movement. Their idea was that four zonal languages (an inter-Germanic, an inter-Romance, an inter-Slavic and an inter-Indic language) together would enable two thirds of the world's population to communicate with each other. The language they created used grammatical and lexical features of various Slavic languages, primarily Russian and Czech, and may be viewed as a naturalistic planned language. They wrote a grammar (Kratka grammatika mežduslavjanskego jezika), an Esperanto–Interslavic word list, a dictionary, a course, a textbook and a few longer texts, practically none of which were ever published.^[38] Nevertheless, the project gained some attention of linguists from various countries.^{[17]: 301–302 [20]}

An excerpt from the manuscript Revolucija v istoriji interlingvistiki:^[38]

Do tego casu bila aktivnost za meždunarodni jezik osnovana na principach utopizma, jež ždal si jedinego jezika za ves mir bez vzgleda na fakt, cto taki jezik ne može bit v nikakim pripadu rezultatem realnego razvoja jezikov živich, cto on bude vsegda tolika vidumana, spekulativna konstrukcija.

"To date, activity for an international language has been based on principles of utopianism, which endeavoured one language for the whole world without regard to the fact that such a language can in no way result from real development of living languages, that it wil always be an invented, speculative construction."

Slovio

Mark Hučko

One of the first projects in the digital era was Slovio, a project created in 1999 and published in 2001 by the Slovak Mark Hučko. Unlike previous projects, Slovio was not only intended to serve as a pan-Slavic language, but also to compete with languages like Esperanto and Ido as a global international auxiliary language. Most of its vocabulary was based on Slavic roots, but its grammar was almost entirely based on Esperanto, with an emphasis on simplicity. Verb conjugations were regular apart from the four verbs es ("be"), mozx ("can"), hce ("want"), dolzx ("must"). Adjectives typically ended in -ju, the nouns formed their plural in -s or -is, and the only case was the accusative in -f or -uf (plural: -fs or -ifs). Slovio could be written in Latin or Cyrillic, but was typically written in Latin, with digraphs in x replacing the haček (e.g. zx for ž).

Slovio was the first Slavic-based constructed language with a substantial dictionary and a small user community, at its peak consisting of 10–15 users (mostly diaspora Slavs) and a number of interested bystanders. In spite of heavy marketing on the part of its creator, Slovio gained little support; it was heavily criticized for its artificial, un-Slavic character and the radical Slavic-nationalist views expressed by its users. Perhaps due to Hučko's insistence on owning the language and his hostile attitude towards proposed changes (similar to the situation with Volapük), people interested in a pan-Slavic language moved on to other projects. It became defunct by about 2011.

A passage on the origin of the Europeans:^[23]: 4

To es bezsporju historju fakt zxe sovremju Europanis (negda imenitju Indo-Europanis) es potomkis om Dunavju Slavis (negda imenitju Dunavju Lesju Ludis). Odnakuo to es bezsporju fakt zxe vse Europju jazikas originijut iz odnakju jazika, jazika om Dunavju Slavis.

"It's an undisputed historical fact that the current day Europeans (sometimes called Indo-Europeans) are all descendants of the Danubian Slavs (sometimes called the Danubian Forest People). Equally, it is an undisputed fact that all European languages originate from the same common language, the language of the Danubian Slavs."

Slovianski

Jan van Steenbergen

To address the problems of Slovio, a community-based project called Slovianski was begun in 2006. Its main purpose was to create a simple, naturalistic language that would be understandable to Slavs without prior learning. This was approached with a voting system to choose words for the lexicon and a grammar consisting of material existing in all or most Slavic languages, without any artificial additions.^[39] Slovianski was developed in different versions. The version of its principal author, Jan van Steenbergen, had three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), six cases and full conjugation of verbs. A high level of simplification was achieved by means of simple, unambiguous endings and irregularity being kept to a minimum.

Slovianski was mostly used in Internet traffic and in a news letter, Slovianska Gazeta.^[40] In 2012, the language was reported to have several hundreds of speakers.^[29]

The Lord's Prayer in Slovianski:^[41]

Naš otec, ktori jesi v nebah, da svečene je tvoje imeno, da prijde tvoje krolevstvo, da bude tvoja volia, kak v nebah tak i na zemie. Hleb naš každodenni daj nam tutden', i izvinij nam naše grehi, tak kak mi izvinime naših grešnikov, i ne vedij nas v pokušenie, ali spasij nas od zlogo.

"Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil."

Slovioski

In 2009, Slovioski (a portmanteau of Slovio and Slovianski) was launched with the idea of bringing together both language projects. Its initial purpose was merely to provide Slovio with a more Slavic grammar (for example, by substituting the adjective ending -ju with -ij and the plural ending -is with -i), but gradually, it developed into a separate language project, widening its distance to Slovio and abandoning the Slovio dictionary in 2010. After Slovianski was reworked into Interslavic, Slovioski was discontinued.^[42]

Neoslavonic

Vojtěch Merunka

Novoslovienskij ("Neoslavonic") was published in a 128-page book by the Czech pedagogue and programmer Vojtěch Merunka as a study of what Old Church Slavonic might look like today if it had not stopped developing in the Middle Ages. As a result, Neoslavonic had a complex grammar characterized by various archaisms, for example: four types of past tense, dual, seven cases and the Cyrillic letter ѣ, but on the other hand, it contained few exceptions and a relatively small number of repetitive rules. Neoslavonic could be written in four alphabets, Latin, Cyrillic, Greek and Glagolitic.

Example:^[43]

Uvažimi gospodi! Tu jest projekt jezyka novoslovienskego. Prošu Vas, da byste jego čitali i poslali Vašim prijateljam, jako li oni hočut to vidieti.

"Dear Sirs! Here is the Neoslavonic language project. I ask you to read it and send it to your friends if they want to see it."

Contemporary pan-Slavic

Main article: Interslavic

In 2011, Slovianski was renamed Medžuslovjanski ("Interslavic"), and its grammar and dictionary were revised to include all options of Neoslavonic and several older projects.^[26] A close collaboration was started between them, resulting in a common dictionary, a common news portal and a common wiki, and during the years to follow, Medžuslovjanski and Novoslovienskij (soon renamed Novoslověnsky) gradually grew closer to each other. As a result, most differences between both projects vanished in a natural way. After the first Conference on the Interslavic Language in 2017, Merunka and Van Steenbergen eliminated the last few remaining differences, and in the same year they published a unified grammar and orthography together, soon to be followed by a multilingual online dictionary covering English and most modern Slavic languages.^[44] Medžuslovjansky jezyk has gained some attention from the media, and by 2021 its user community had grown to over 15,000 people.^[33]

See also

• Pan-Slavism
• Proto-Slavic, the common ancestor of all Slavic languages
• Army Slavic
• Slavonic-Serbian
• Iazychie
• Lydnevi

References

1. 
   

Л.П. Рупосова, История межславянского языка, in: Вестник Московского государственного областного университета (Московский государственный областной университет, 2012 no. 1, p. 55. (in Russian)

Juraj Križanić, Граматично изказанје об руском језику. Moscow, 1665.

"ИЗ ИСТОРИИ ИНТЕРЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКОЙ МЫСЛИ В РОССИИ". Miresperanto.com. Retrieved 11 January 2015.

Petrus Canisius, "Svmma navka christianskoga / sloxena castnim včitegliem Petrom Kanisiem; tvmacena iz latinskoga jazika v slovignsky, i vtisstena po zapoviedi presuetoga Otca Pape Gregoria Trinaestoga [...] Koie iz Vlasskoga, illi Latinskoga iazika, v Slouignsky Jazik protumačio iest pop Ssimvn Bvdineo Zadranin". Rome, 1583.

Hanna Orzechowska, Mieczysław Basaj, Instytut Słowianoznawstwa (Polska Akademia Nauk), Prekursorzy słowiańskiego jezykoznawstwa porównawczego, do końca XVIII wiek. Warsaw, 1987, p. 124. (in Polish)

Jan van Steenbergen. "Constructed Slavic Languages". Steen.free.fr. Retrieved 11 January 2015.

Ján Herkeľ, Elementa universalis linguae Slavicae e vivis dialectis eruta at sanis logicae principiis suffulta. Budapest, 1826, 164 pp. (in Latin)

Matija Majar-Ziljski, Uzajemni Pravopis Slavjanski, to je: Uzajemna Slovnica ali Mluvnica Slavjanska. Prague, 1865.

Matija Majar Ziljski, Sveta brata Ciril i Metod, slavjanska apostola i osnovatelja slovstva slavjanskoga. Prague, 1864.

Robert Gary Minnich, "Collective identity formation and linguistic identities in the Austro-Italian Slovene border region", in: Dieter Stern & Christian Voss, Marginal Linguistic Identities: Studies in Slavic Contact and Borderland Varieties, p. 104.

Matija Ban, "Osnova Sveslavjanskoga jezika", in: Dubrovnik. Cviet narodnog književstva. Svezak drugi. Zagreb, 1851, pp. 131–174. (in Croatian)

Božidar Raič, "Vvod v slovnicų vseslavenskųjų", in: Radoslav Razlag red., Zora Jugoslavenska no. 2, Zagreb, 1853, pp. 23–44.

Г.П. [Григор Прличев], Кратка славянска грамматика. Constantinople, 1868.

Anna-Maria Meyer (2014). Wiederbelebung einer Utopie. Probleme und Perspektiven slavischer Plansprachen im Zeitalter des Internets (Bamberger Beiträge zur Linguistik 6) (in German). Bamberg: Univ. of Bamberg Press. ISBN 978-3-86309-233-7.

Ignác Hošek, Grammatik der Neuslawischen Sprache. Kremsier, 1907. (in German)

Josef Konečný, Mluvnička slovanského esperanta "Slavina". Jednotná spisovná slovanská dorozumívací rěč, jak pro obchod, tak průmysl. Prague, 1912. (in Czech)

А. Д Дуличенко, Международные вспомогательные языки. Tallinn, 1990. (in Russian)

Edmund Kolkop, Pokus o dorozumívací jazyk slovanský. Prague, 1912, 16 pp. (in Czech)

B. Holý, Slavski jezik. Stručná mluvnice dorozumívacího i jednotícího jazyka všeslovanského. S pomocí spolupracovníků podává stenograf В. Holý. Nové Město nad Metují, 1920. (in Czech)

Věra Barandovská-Frank, "Panslawische Variationen", in: Cyril Brosch & Sabine Fiedler (eds.), Florilegium Interlinguisticum. Festschrift für Detlev Blanke zum 70. Geburtstag. Frankfurt am Main, 2011, pp. 220–223. (in German)

Leonidas Donskis, "The Failed Lingua Franca of Eastern Europe?". In: New Eastern Europe 2 (VI), pp. 63–72.

Tilman Berger (2009). "Panslavismus und Internet" (PDF) (in German). p. 37. Retrieved 11 January 2015.

Tilman Berger, "Vom Erfinden Slavischer Sprachen", in: M. Okuka & U. Schweier, eds., Germano-Slavistische Beiträge. Festschrift für P. Rehder zum 65. Geburtstag. München, 2004, ISBN 3-87690-874-4). (in German)

Katherine Barber, "Old Church Slavonic and the 'Slavic Identity'". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Трошки про Штучні Мови: Панслов'янська Мова (in Ukrainian). Narodna.pravda.com.ua. Retrieved 11 January 2015.

"A Short History of Interslavic". May 12, 2013. Retrieved December 9, 2014.

Н. М. Малюга, "Мовознавство в питаннях і відповідях для вчителя й учнів 5 класу", in: Філологічні студії. Науковий вісник Криворізького державного педагогічного університету. Збірник наукових праць, випуск 1. Kryvyj Rih, 2008, ISBN 978-966-17-7000-2, p. 147. (in Ukrainian)

Алина Петропавловская, Славянское эсперанто Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine. Европейский русский альянс, 23 June 2007. (in Russian)

G. Iliev, Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet. International Journal of Russian Studies, issue no. 2 (2013/2), p. 258.

Дора Солакова, "Съвременни опити за създаване на изкуствен общославянски език", in: Езиков свят – Orbis Linguarum, Issue no.2/2010 (Югозападен Университет "Неофит Рилски", Blagoevgrad, 2010, ISSN 1312-0484), p. 248. (in Bulgarian)

Vojtěch Merunka, Jazyk novoslovienskij. Prague 2010, ISBN 978-80-87313-51-0), pp. 15–16, 19–20. (in Czech)

Dušan Spáčil, "Je tu nový slovanský Jazyk", in: Květy no. 31, July 2010. (in Czech)

"Interslavic – Medžuslovjanski – Меджусловјански". Facebook. Retrieved 7 November 2021.

Nicolina Trunte, "Википедїѩ словѣньскъ ѩзыкъ. Neo-Altkirchenslavisch oder Conlang?", p. 29. Published in: Zeitschrift für Slavische Philologie 74/2 (Heidelberg, 2018), pp. 389–437. (in German)

Ľudmila Buzássyová, "Filologická koncepcia Jána Herkeľa v diele Základy všeobecného slovanského jazyka odvodené zo živých rečí a podložené zdravými zásadami logiky", in: Biografické štúdie 28 (Žáner: Literárna veda, 2002), p. 28.

Dulichenko, A.D. "ИЗ ИСТОРИИ ИНТЕРЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКОЙ МЫСЛИ В РОССИИ (1900–1917)". Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-07-12.

Pei, Mario (1958). One Language for the World. p. 137. ISBN 0-8196-0218-3.

Věra Barandovská-Frank, "Lingvopolitiko kaj interslavismo de Ladislav Podmele". In: Grundlagenstudien aus Kybernetik und Geisteswissenschaft, no. 54:4, December 2013, Akademia Libroservo, ISSN 0723-4899, pp. 176–189.

Bojana Barlovac, Creation of 'One Language for All Slavs' Underway. BalkanInsight, 18 February 2010.

Алина Петропавловская, [Славянское эсперанто at the Wayback Machine (archived 2011-07-20). Европейский русский альянс, 23 June 2007. (in Russian)

"The Lord's Prayer". March 2010. Retrieved November 6, 2021.

Jan van Steenbergen (March 2010). "The Slovio Myth". Fiat Lingua. p. 28. Retrieved November 6, 2021.

"Novosloviensky jezyk – predslovije".

44. Interslavic dictionary

External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Slovio

• Vikisbornik – a collection of texts in Interslavic
• List of constructed Slavic languages
• Interslavic – Medžuslovjansky
• Interslavic information portal
• Interslavic dictionary
• Neoslavonic
• Interslavic on-line newspaper
• Interslavic Wiki
• Neoslavonic Memorandum

v t e Slavic languages

v t e Pan-Slavism

Categories:

• Interlinguistics
• Pan-Slavic languages
• Zonal constructed languages

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Slavic_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Slavic_language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_movement

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Moskvityanin (Москвитянин, "The Muscovite")^[1] was a monthly literary review published by Mikhail Pogodin in Moscow between 1841 and 1856.^[2] It was the mouthpiece of the Official Nationality theory espoused by Count Sergey Uvarov. The literary section was edited by Stepan Shevyrev. Gogol's novella Rome was first printed in Moskvityanin, as were many Slavophile papers.^{[citation needed]} In 1850 the magazine was taken over by a young generation of Slavophiles which included Apollon Grigoryev. Their object of adulation was Alexander Ostrovsky. The frequency of the magazine switched from monthly to biweekly in 1849.^{[2][better source needed]}

References

1. 
   

Tatiana Yudenkova (2012). "Pride of the Nation. Pavel Tretyakov's Gallery of Portraits". Heritage. 3 (36). Retrieved 31 October 2015.

2. "Moskvityanin vols 1842-1856". 1842., "vol. 1842 (2,3)". 1842. "same vol". 1842., "vol. 1843 (5,9)". 1843., "vol. 1843 (6,11)". 1843., "vol. 1844". 1844.

This article about a literary magazine published in Russia or the former USSR is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. See tips for writing articles about magazines. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.

Categories:

• 1841 establishments in the Russian Empire
• 1856 disestablishments in the Russian Empire
• Biweekly magazines
• Defunct literary magazines published in Europe
• Defunct magazines published in Russia
• Magazines established in 1841
• Magazines disestablished in 1856
• Magazines published in Moscow
• Literary magazines published in Russia
• Russian-language magazines
• Monthly magazines published in Russia
• Literary magazines published in Europe stubs
• Mass media in Russia stubs

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moskvityanin

The Vienna Literary Agreement (Serbo-Croatian: Bečki književni dogovor, Бечки књижевни договор) was the result of a meeting held in March 1850, when writers from Croatia, Serbia and Carniola (Slovenia) met to discuss the extent to which their literatures could be conjoined and united to create a standardized Serbo-Croatian language.^[1]
The agreement recognized the commonality of South Slavic dialects and enumerated a basic set of grammar rules which they shared.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Literary_Agreement

Interslavic (Medžuslovjansky / Меджусловјанскы) is a pan-Slavic auxiliary language. Its purpose is to facilitate communication between speakers of various Slavic languages, as well as to allow people who do not speak a Slavic language to communicate with Slavic speakers by being mutually intelligible with most, if not all, Slavic languages. For Slavs and non-Slavs, it can fulfill an educational role as well.

Interslavic can be classified as a semi-constructed language. It is essentially a modern continuation of Old Church Slavonic, but also draws on the various improvised language forms Slavs have been using for centuries to communicate with Slavs of other nationalities, for example in multi-Slavic environments and on the Internet, providing them with a scientific base. Thus, both grammar and vocabulary are based on the commonalities between the Slavic languages, and non-Slavic elements are avoided. Its main focus lies on instant understandability rather than easy learning, a balance typical for naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) languages.^[4]

The Interslavic project began in 2006 under the name Slovianski. In 2011, Slovianski underwent a thorough reform and merged with two other projects, with the result called "Interslavic", a name that was first proposed by the Czech Ignác Hošek in 1908.^[5][6]

As with the languages of the Slavic language family, Interslavic is generally written using either Latin or Cyrillic letters, or on rare occasions the Glagolitic script. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interslavic

 

The Baška tablet, found in the 19th century on Krk, conventionally dated to about 1100.^[7]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolitic_script}

 

• Article
• Talk

• Read
• Edit
• View history

Tools

• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  

• 
  
• 
  

• 
  

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Old Great Bulgaria.

Bulgarian Empire Блъгарьско цѣсарьствиѥ българско царство
681–1018
First Bulgarian Empire in 850[1][2][3]
Capital	Pliska (681–893) Preslav (893–968/972) Skopje (972–992) Ohrid (992–1015) Bitola (1015–1018)
Common languages	Bulgar[4] Proto-Slavic Byzantine Greek[5][6][7] Balkan Latin Old Church Slavonic (In Bulgaria today, this language is known as Old Bulgarian) (official from 893)[8]
Religion	Tengrism, Slavic paganism (681–864) Orthodox Christianity (state religion from 864)
Demonym(s)	Bulgarian
Government	Autocracy, Absolute monarchy
Monarch
• 681–700 (first)	Asparuh
• 1015–1018 (last)	Ivan Vladislav
Historical era	Middle Ages
• Asparuh arrives and defeats Eastern Roman Empire at the Battle of Ongal	680
• New Bulgarian state recognized by Eastern Roman Empire	681
• Christianisation	864
• Adoption of Old Bulgarian as a national language	893
• Simeon I assumes the title of Tsar (Emperor)	913
• Theme Bulgaria established in Byzantine Empire	1018
Area
850[9]	400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi)
950[10]	240,000 km2 (93,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty Old Great Bulgaria Bulgaria (theme) Second Bulgarian Empire

The First Bulgarian Empire (Church Slavonic: блъгарьско цѣсарьствиѥ, romanized: blagarysko tsesarystviye; Bulgarian: Първо българско царство) was a medieval state that existed in Southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded in 680–681 after part of the Bulgars, led by Asparuh, moved south to the northeastern Balkans. There they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. During the 9th and 10th century, Bulgaria at the height of its power spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River to the Adriatic Sea and became an important power in the region competing with the Byzantine Empire.^[11] It became the foremost cultural and spiritual centre of south Slavic Europe throughout most of the Middle Ages. 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire

 

 

Meerkat Temporal range: Early Pleistocene–Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ [1]
A mob of meerkats in Tswalu Kalahari Reserve

Illustration of meerkats by Robert Jacob Gordon (1777)

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkat

Phylogeny and evolution

Meerkat fossils dating back to 2.59 to 0.01 million years ago have been excavated in various locations in South Africa.^[15] A 2009 phylogenetic study of the family Herpestidae split into two lineages around the Early Miocene (25.4–18.2 mya)—eusocial and solitary mongooses. The meerkat belongs to the monophyletic eusocial mongoose clade along with several other African mongooses: Crossarchus (kusimanse), Helogale (dwarf mongoose), Liberiictis (Liberian mongoose) and Mungos (banded mongoose). The solitary mongoose lineage comprises two clades including species such as Meller's mongoose (Rhynchogale melleri) and the yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata). The meerkat genetically diverged from the rest of the clade 22.6–15.6 mya. The phylogenetic relationships of the meerkat are depicted as follows:^[16]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkat

Common kusimanse
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Suborder:	Feliformia
Family:	Herpestidae
Genus:	Crossarchus
Species:	C. obscurus
Binomial name
Crossarchus obscurus G. Cuvier, 1825
Common kusimanse range

The common kusimanse (Crossarchus obscurus), also known as the long-nosed kusimanse or simply kusimanse,^[2] is a small, diurnal member of the Mungotinae.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_kusimanse

Ethiopian dwarf mongoose
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Suborder:	Feliformia
Family:	Herpestidae
Genus:	Helogale
Species:	H. hirtula
Binomial name
Helogale hirtula Thomas, 1904
Ethiopian dwarf mongoose range

The Ethiopian dwarf mongoose (Helogale hirtula), also known as the desert dwarf mongoose or Somali dwarf mongoose, is a mongoose native to East Africa, particularly Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia.^[1]

The Ethiopian dwarf mongoose will send out warning calls to its family if a predator is detected. They have also been known to produce general alarm calls when danger is not present. These calls have different pitches which indicate different levels of urgency for the family. A study of dwarf mongoose suggested that they could convey the predator's species, distance and elevation to the family all through alarm calls.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_dwarf_mongoose

Marsh mongoose
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Suborder:	Feliformia
Family:	Herpestidae
Subfamily:	Herpestinae
Genus:	Atilax
Species:	A. paludinosus
Binomial name
Atilax paludinosus G. Cuvier, 1829

The marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus), also known as the water mongoose^[1][2] or the vansire,^[3] is a medium-sized mongoose native to sub-Saharan Africa that inhabits foremost freshwater wetlands. It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2008.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh_mongoose

Bdeogale
Drawing, 1850
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Suborder:	Feliformia
Family:	Herpestidae
Subfamily:	Herpestinae
Genus:	Bdeogale Peters, 1850
Type species
Bdeogale crassicauda Peters, 1850
Species
see text
Bdeogale crassicauda - blue Bdeogale jacksoni - violet Bdeogale nigripes - green

Bdeogale is a mongoose genus that was proposed by Wilhelm Peters in 1850 based on a mongoose specimen collected in Mozambique.^[1] Bdeogale species have compact paws with four symmetrical toes, round ears and a blunt muzzle with a broad round and bare rhinarium. The genus contains four species that are primarily terrestrial and omnivorous and forage in dense vegetation.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bdeogale

 A hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) at the Black Hills dive site in Útila, Honduras.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_animals#/media/File:Hawksbill_Turtle.jpg

 

Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans).

 

Ilish fish, National Fish of BD. -mamun2a

 

Monument for the Kouprey, landmark of Saen Monourom, Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia

 

Thamantibis gigantea

 

Northern river terrapin.

 

A pair of Giant barb Catlocarpio siamensis

 

Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) at Cruz del Cóndor in Colca Canyon, Colca Valley, Peru. Digital photo taken by author and post-processed with The GIMP.

 

A manatee and her calf. West Indian Manatee, an endangered aquatic mammal of Puerto Rico.

 

Cygnus olor

 

Small Tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae), Lichtenwalde, Germany

 

Imperial Amazon (also known as the Imperial Parrot and Sisserou Parrot) at the Parrot Conservation and Research Centre Botanical Gardens, Roseau, Dominica.

 

7-Spotted Ladybug / Ladybird - Coccinella septempunctata

 

Resplendent quetzal, Monteverde, Costa Rica

 

A white-tailed deer

 

Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) in Ribeirão Preto, SP

 

White Wagtail

 

Markhor (Schraubenziege), Capra falconeri, Zoo Augsburg

 

     

Male Harpy Eagle, shot at Parque das Aves, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil. The background has been blurred in an image editor.

 

 

Andean Cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruviana). A male at San Diego Zoo, USA.

 

A St Vincent Amazon in the rehabilitation and breeding centre in the Botanical Gardens, Kingstown, on the island of Saint Vincent.

 

A Blue Crane (also known as the Stanley Crane and the Paradise Crane) at Etosha National Park, Namibia. It was one of two birds dozing by a waterhole.

 

Dichistius capensis (Dichistius)

 

A Giraffe in the Mikumi National Park, Tanzania

 

Indian elephant bull in musth in Bandipur National Park

 

Balearica regulorum, Gruidae, Grey Crowned Crane; Réserve africaine de Sigean, Sigean, France

List of national animals

• Article
• Talk

• Read
• Edit
• View history

Tools

• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  
• 
  

• 
  
• 
  

• 
  

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (December 2021)

This is a list of countries that have officially designated one or more animals as their national animals.

National animal

• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• L
• M
• N
• P
• Q
• S
• T
• U
• V
• Z

Country	Name of animal	Scientific name (Latin name)	Picture	Ref.
Algeria	Fennec fox (national animal)	Vulpes zerda		[1]
Argentina	Rufous hornero (national bird)	Furnarius rufus		[2]
Antigua and Barbuda	European fallow deer (national animal)	Dama dama		[3]
	Frigate (national bird)	Fregata magnificens		[3]
	Hawksbill turtle (national sea creature)	Eretmochelys imbricata		[3]
Azerbaijan	Karabakh horse (national horse)	Equus caballus		[4]
Bahamas	Blue marlin (national fish)	Makaira nigricans		[5]
	Flamingo (national bird)	Phoenicopterus ruber		[5]
Bangladesh	Bengal tiger (national animal)	Panthera tigris tigris		[6]
	Magpie robin (national bird)	Copsychus saularis		[6]
	Ilish (national fish)	Tenualosa ilisha		[6]
Belize	Baird's tapir (national animal)	Tapirus bairdii		[7]
	Keel-billed toucan (national bird)	Ramphastos sulfuratus		[8]
Botswana	Plains zebra (national animal)	Equus quagga		[9]
Brazil	Rufous-bellied thrush (national bird)	Turdus rufiventris		[10]
Cambodia	Kouprey (national mammal)	Bos sauveli		[11][better source needed]
	Giant ibis (national bird)	Pseudibis gigantea		[11][better source needed]
	Northern river terrapin (national reptile)	Batagur baska		[11][better source needed]
	Giant barb (national fish)	Catlocarpio siamensis		[11][better source needed]
Canada	North American beaver (national animal)	Castor canadensis		[12][13]
	Canadian horse (national horse)	Equus caballus		[13]
Colombia	Andean Condor (national bird)	Vultur gryphus		[14]
Costa Rica	Yigüirro (national bird)	Turdus grayi		[15]
	West Indian manatee (national aquatic animal)	Trichechus manatus		[15]
	Three-toed sloth Two-toed sloth	Choloepus hoffmanni Bradypus variegatus		[16]
Cuba	Cuban trogon (national bird)	Priotelus temnurus		[17]
Denmark	Red squirrel (national mammal)	Sciurus vulgaris		[18]
	Mute swan (national bird)	Cygnus olor		[18]
	Small tortoiseshell (national butterfly)	Aglais urticae		[18]
Dominica	Sisserou parrot (national bird)	Amazona imperalis		[19]
Dominican Republic	Palmchat (national bird)	Dulus dominicus		[20]
El Salvador	Turquoise-browed motmot (national bird)	Eumomota superciliosa		[21]
Finland	Brown bear	Ursus arctos		[22]
	Whooper Swan (national bird)	Cygnus cygnus		[22]
	European perch (national fish)	Perca fluviatilis		[22]
	Seven-spot ladybird (national insect)	Coccinella septempunctata		[22]
Grenada	Grenada dove (national bird)	Leptotila wellsi		[23]
Guatemala	Resplendent quetzal (national bird)	Pharomachrus mocinno		[24]
Honduras	White-tailed deer (national animal)	Odocoileus virginianus		[25]
	Scarlet macaw (national bird)	Ara macao		[26]
India	Bengal Tiger (national animal)	Panthera tigris tigris		[27]
	Indian peafowl (national bird)	Pavo cristatus		[28]
	Ganges river dolphin (national aquatic animal)	Platanista gangetica		[29]
	Indian elephant (national heritage animal)	Elephas maximus indicus		[30]
Indonesia	Komodo dragon (national animal)	Varanus komodoensis		[31]
	Javan hawk-eagle (national bird)	Nisaetus bartelsi		[31]
	Asian arowana (national fish)	Scleropages formosus		[31]
Jamaica	Red-billed streamertail (national bird)	Trochilus polytmus		[32]
Latvia	White wagtail (national bird)	Motacilla alba		[26]
	Two-spotted ladybird (national insect)	Adalia bipunctata		[26]
Lebanon	Striped hyena (national animal)	Hyaena hyaena		[33]
Lithuania	White stork (national bird)	Ciconia ciconia		[34]
Mongolia	Saker falcon (national bird)	Falco cherrug		[35][better source needed] [36][better source needed]
Malaysia	Malayan Tiger (national animal)	Felis tigris		[37][better source needed]
Nicaragua	Turquoise-browed motmot (national bird)	Eumomota superciliosa	[38]
Pakistan	Markhor (national animal)	Capra falconeri		[39]
	Indus river dolphin (national aquatic mammal)	Platanista minor		[39]
	Chukar (national bird)	Alectoris chukar		[39]
	Mugger crocodile (national reptile)	Crocodylus palustris		[39]
	Shaheen falcon (heritage bird)	Falco peregrinus peregrinator		[40]
	Snow leopard (national predator)	Panthera uncia		[39]
Panama	Harpy eagle (national bird)	Harpia harpyja		[41]
Peru	Andean cock-of-the-rock (national bird)	Rupicola peruviana		[42]
Philippines	Philippine eagle (national bird)	Pithecophaga jefferyi		[43]
Qatar	Arabian oryx (national animal)	Oryx leucoryx		[44]
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Brown Pelican (national bird)	Pelecanus occidentalis		[45]
Saint Lucia	Saint Lucia amazon (national bird)	Amazona versicolor		[46]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Saint Vincent amazon (national bird)	Amazona guildingii		[47]
South Africa	Springbok (national animal)	Antidorcas marsupialis		[48]
	Blue crane (national bird)	Anthropoides paradiseus		[49]
	Galjoen (national fish)	Dichistius capensis		[50]
Sri Lanka	Sri Lankan junglefowl (national bird)	Gallus lafayettii		[51]
Tanzania	Giraffe (national animal)	Giraffa sp.		[52][53][54]
Thailand	Asian elephant (national animal)	Elephas maximus		[55]
	Siamese fighting fish (national aquatic animal)	Betta splendens		[56][57]
Uganda	Grey crowned crane (national bird)	Balearica regulorum		[58]
United States	Bald eagle (national bird)	Haliaeetus leucocephalus		[59]
	American bison (national mammal)	Bison bison		[60]
Venezuela	Venezuelan troupial (national bird)	Icterus icterus		[61][62]
Zimbabwe	Bateleur (national bird)	Terathopius ecaudatus		[63]

• Animals portal
• Lists portal

• State animal
• List of national birds
• Animals as heraldic charges
• Floral emblem
• National personification

References

1. 
   

"The Fennec Fox: Algeria's National Animal". algeria.com. Retrieved 21 March 2013.

"Furnarius rufus (Hornero, Casero, Caserito, Albañil, Hornerillo, Alonsito (Argentina), Joao-de-barro (Brasil), Alonso García (Paraguay), Tiluchi (Bolivia), Obirog, Ogaraití (guaraní) - Rufous Hornero) | SIB, Parques Nacionales, Argentina". Sistema de Información de Biodiversidad.

Government of Antigua and Barbuda. "Official Website for the Government of Antigua and Barbuda". ab.gov.ag. Retrieved 10 October 2020.

"Qarabağ atı". 17 November 2020.

Government of The Bahamas. "Official Website for the Government of The Bahamas". bahamas.gov.bs. Retrieved 10 October 2020.

"NATIONAL SYMBOLS". Bangladesh Tourism Board. Bangladesh: Ministry of Civil Aviation & Tourism. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2015.

"National Symbols – Government of Belize Press Office". Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"The National Symbols". Government of Belize. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2016.

"National Symbols – EMBASSY AND PERMANENT MISSION OF BOTSWANA IN SWITZERLAND". Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Embassy of Brazil in Washington". Retrieved 17 March 2018.

"Forestry.gov.kh" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2013.

"National Emblems: The Beaver". Canadian Heritage. 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.

"Official Symbols of Canada". Canadian Heritage. 2016. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.

"National symbols and other information of interest | Cancillería". www.cancilleria.gov.co. Retrieved 23 March 2023.

"Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica". Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica (in Spanish). Retrieved 22 June 2022.

lectura, Comunicados··3 Minutos de (24 August 2021). "¡Perezoso es oficialmente símbolo nacional!". Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica (in Spanish). Retrieved 22 June 2022.

AMPP YAGUAJAY COMMUNICATOR. "El Tocororo, Ave Nacional de Cuba, the most beautiful in the country". Portal del ciudadano de Yaguajay.

"Nationalplanter og -dyr" [Nationalplants and -animals] (in Danish). Naturstyrelsen, Danish Ministry of the Environment. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.

"National Bird - Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica". dominica.gov.dm. Retrieved 23 March 2023.

"Flora y Fauna". GoDominicanRepublic.com (in European Spanish). Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Decreto Legislativo No 735 del 21 de octubre de 1999" (PDF). Diario Oficial (in Spanish). San Salvador: Imprenta Nacional de El Salvador. 345 (216): 6. 19 November 1999. Retrieved 22 July 2017.

"Iconic Finnish nature symbols stand out". thisisFINLAND. 25 August 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2023.

"National Symbols". Government of Grenada | Web Portal. Retrieved 23 March 2023.

"05 de septiembre, Día del Quetzal, Ave Nacional". CONAP (in Spanish). 4 September 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"MiAmbiente+ participa en la 6ta Liberación de Guacamayas en Valle de Copán".

"Symbols". Latvia.eu. 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2016.

"National Animal -National Symbols - Know India: National Portal of India". National Portal of India. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2012.

"National Bird -National Symbols - Know India: National Portal of India". National Portal of India. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2012.

"National Aquatic Animal -National Symbols - Know India: National Portal of India". National Portal of India. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2012.

"Elephant declared National Heritage Animal in India". Breaking News Online (India). 2010. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2011.

"Keputusan Presiden (KEPPRES) tentang Satwa dan Bunga Nasional" [Presidential Decrees Number 4 of 1993]. Presidential Decrees No. 4 of 1993 (in Indonesian). Government of the Republic of Indonesia. p. 1-4. Retrieved 13 May 2023.

"National Symbols of Jamaica". jis.gov.jm. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. Retrieved 2 December 2011.

Sullivan, Helen; Sanchez, Diego Ibarra (30 October 2019). "Fear and Sport Imperil Lebanon's Striped Hyenas". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 31 January 2023.

"The number of storks is not decreasing in the Žuvintas biosphere reserve | STATE SERVICE FOR PROTECTED AREAS under the Ministry of Environment".

"Mongolia names falcon as national bird". wwf.panda.org. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Saker Falcon, A National Bird of Mongolia". Birds Mongolia (in Mongolian). Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Nameless Story".

"Ley No. 795 que declara al guardabarranco, ave nacional de Nicaragua". Diario Oficial (in Spanish). Managua: La Gaceta (118). 25 June 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2017.

"National Symbols of Pakistan". Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2016.

"National Symbols of Pakistan". Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013.

Prensa (10 April 2021). "Panamá posee la población más grande de Águilas Harpías de Centroamérica – MiAmbiente" (in Spanish). Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas por el Estado - SERNANP". old.sernanp.gob.pe. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Proclamation No. 615, s. 1995". gov.ph. 4 July 1995. Retrieved 12 August 2012.

"Arabian Oryx". www.visitqatar.qa. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"National Symbols | Gov.Kn". 4 November 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2023.

"The Saint Lucia Parrot (Amazona versicolor)". archive.stlucia.gov.lc. Retrieved 23 March 2023.

"The National Bird". foreign.gov.vc. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2013.

"National animal | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"National bird | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"National fish | South African Government". www.gov.za. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"Sri Lanka National Bird". Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012.

"National Symbols: National Animal". tanzania.go.tz. Tanzania Government Portal. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.

Foley, Charles; Foley, Lara; Lobora, Alex; De Luca, Daniela; Msuha, Maurus; Davenport, Tim R.B.; Durant, Sarah M. (8 June 2014). A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Tanzania. Princeton University Press. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-1-4008-5280-2.

Knappert, Jan (1987). East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda. New Delhi: Vikas Pub. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-7069-2822-8. Retrieved 28 June 2011.

"The government gazette about National symbols of Thailand" (PDF). Royal Thai Government Gazette. 118 (99D): 1. 11 December 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2012.

"Siamese fighting fish confirmed as national aquatic animal". Bangkok Post. Retrieved 29 July 2019.

AFP (5 February 2019). "Thailand makes Siamese fighting fish national aquatic animal". Business Standard India. Retrieved 29 July 2019.

"National Symbols". www.gou.go.ug. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.

"The American Bald Eagle" (PDF). United States Department of Veterans Affairs.

"Bison Bellows: America's New National Mammal (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

"EFEMÉRIDES | el Turpial es declarado Ave Nacional en 1958". 23 May 2018.

"23 de Mayo: Declaración de la Orquídea y el Turpial como Símbolos Nacionales — Venezolana de Televisión". www.vtv.gob.ve. Archived from the original on 25 May 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2022.

63. "Zimbabwe Bird". Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal. Retrieved 23 March 2022.

v t e National symbols (list)
Topics	Coat of arms Colour Deity Dish Emblem Father Flower Myth Patron saint Personification Poetry Epic Poets Religion Sport
Lists	Animals birds Anthems Dances Founders Fruits Instruments Drinks liquors Mottos Trees
Galleries	Country coats of arms State flags

Categories:

• Lists of national symbols
• Lists of animals by country

 

              

 

 

 

 

Herpestidae

eusocial Meerkat (Suricata suricatta) Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) Liberian mongoose (Liberiictis kuhni) Helogale Common dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula) Ethiopian dwarf mongoose (Helogale hirtula) Crossarchus Common kusimanse (Crossarchus obscurus) Alexander's kusimanse (Crossarchus alexandri) solitary Ichneumia, Cynictis, Paracynictis, Rhynchogale, Bdeogale, Galerella and Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) Asian Herpestes, long-nosed mongoose (H. naso) and marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus)

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_animals

 

 

 Vulpes zerda

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_animals

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_of_the_Nation

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_personification

 

Watercolour of the Lady of the Mountain, 1864, by Johann Baptist Zwecker. Now in Aberystwyth University School of Art Museum.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_of_the_Mountain

 

The Little Boy from Manly, drawn by Norman Lindsay during the 1916 Conscription Referendum

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Boy_from_Manly

Christopher Columbus leads expedition to the New World, 1492.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas

Satellite photo of the Americas on Earth

 

Aconcagua, in Argentina, is the highest peak in the Americas.

 

Meissen porcelain, c. 1760, modeled by Johann Joachim Kändler, who did several versions of the Four continents

 

 

Set of porcelain figures, German, c. 1775, from left: Asia, Europe, Africa, America, with parrot and cornucopia.

 

 

English print, 1634. America holds a human leg.

 

Italian majolica tile, 1740s

 

Chelsea porcelain, Europe and America (with their sceptre and bow now broken off), c. 1760. A purple alligator between America's feet.

18th-century stucco in the Jesuit church, Mindelheim. Now tepees and a bison appear to the sides, though the old South American feather costume remains.

 

Detail from a 1855–1856 fresco by Constantino Brumidi in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., Columbia (left) and a late appearance of the Indian princess

Europa regina in Sebastian Münster's "Cosmographia".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_regina

Europa regina and the House of Habsburg

A rotated Europa regina compared to the Habsburg realms (green) under Charles V, who in addition was emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (comprising Central Europe, not shown)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_regina

 

   

 

Woman clothed with the Sun or Woman of the Apocalypse – main metaphore in the Book of Revelation – painting by Ferenc Szoldatits

 

An illustration of the woman of the Apocalypse in Hortus deliciarum (redrawing of an illustration dated c. 1180), depicting various events from the narrative in Revelation 12 in a single image

 

Shining Madonna (Master of the Life of Mary, 1460–1480)

 

John the Evangelist and the Woman Clothed with the Sun (William de Pannemaker, mid XVI century)

 

 

The Virgin of Guadalupe has been depicted as the Woman of the Apocalypse since the 16th century.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_of_the_Apocalypse

Colored version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther's 1534 translation of the Bible

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon

 

The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem, by David Roberts (1850)      

 

 

For medieval Spanish Catholics, the Whore of Babylon (Revelation, 17.4–5)^[36] (a Christian allegory of evil) was incarnated by the Emirate of Córdoba. 

 

 

Ku Klux Klan cartoon depicting the Whore of Babylon wearing the papal tiara, 1925

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon

First Peter (1 Peter 5:13) implies the author is in "Babylon", which has been held to be a coded reference to Rome.^[8][9][10] Many Biblical scholars^[11][12] believe that "Babylon" is a metaphor for the pagan Roman Empire at the time it persecuted Christians, before the Edict of Milan in 313. According to Eusebius of Caesarea Babylon would be Rome or the Roman Empire:

And Peter makes mention of Mark in his first epistle which they say that he wrote in Rome itself, as is indicated by him, when he calls the city, by a figure, Babylon, as he does in the following words: «The church that is at Babylon, elected together with you, salutes you; and so does Marcus my son.»(1 Peter 5:13)"^[13]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon

Saint Michael
Saint Michael in The Fall of the Rebel Angels by Luca Giordano
Archangel, Prince (Commander) of the Heavenly Host
Venerated in	Judaism All Christian denominations which venerate saints Islam Baháʼí Faith
Major shrine	Mont-Saint-Michel, The Sanctuary of Saint Michael the Archangel
Feast	29 September ("Michaelmas" - Catholic Church, Anglican Communion and Lutheranism) 8 November (New Calendar Eastern Orthodox Churches) 8 November (Eastern Catholic Churches) 21 November (Old Calendar Eastern Orthodox Churches) 12th of each month in Coptic calendar (Coptic Churches) Many other local and historical feasts
Attributes	banner, scales, weighing souls, sword, slaying Satan or a dragon
Patronage	Protector of the Jewish people,[1] Guardian of the Catholic Church,[2] Vatican City[3][4] France, Germany, Normandy, Poor souls, against lightningstroke and windstorm[5]

Michael,^{[Notes 1]} also called Saint Michael the Archangel, Archangel Michael and Saint Michael the Taxiarch^[6] is an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baha'i faith. The earliest surviving mentions of his name are in 3rd and 2nd-century BC Jewish works, often but not always apocalyptic, where he is the chief of the angels and archangels, and he is the guardian prince of Israel and is responsible for the care of Israel.^{[7][8][9][10]} Christianity adopted nearly all the Jewish traditions concerning him,^[11] and he is mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12:7–12,^[12] where he does battle with Satan,^[13] and in the Epistle of Jude, where the author denounces heretics by contrasting them with Michael.^[14] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_(archangel)

The star Wormwood falls towards the earth (1909 Old Believer illustration)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormwood_(Bible)

 Wormwood strikes the earth (Douce Apocalypse, late 13th century)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormwood_(Bible)#/media/File:Douce_Apocalypse_-_Bodleian_Ms180_-_p.025_Third_trumphet.jpg

 

 

The Vision of John on Patmos by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1860)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon

Revelation 3
← chapter 2 chapter 4 →
Revelation 3:19-4:3 on Uncial 0169 from the fourth century.
Book	Book of Revelation
Category	Apocalypse
Christian Bible part	New Testament
Order in the Christian part	27

Revelation 3 is the third chapter of the Book of Revelation or the Apocalypse of John in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The book is traditionally attributed to John the Apostle,^[1] but the precise identity of the author remains a point of academic debate.^[2] This chapter contains messages to the churches of Sardis and Philadelphia and Laodicea, three of the seven churches of Asia located in modern-day Turkey, continuing from the messages for the other four churches which appear in chapter 2.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revelation_3

 

  https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Revelation

https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Biblia_Sacra_Vulgata_(Stuttgartensia)/Apocalypsis

https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CF%88%CE%B9%CF%82_%CE%99%CF%89%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(American_Standard)/Revelation

 

The AD 70 destruction of Jerusalem (Francesco Hayez painting pictured) is seen by preterists as being allegorically portrayed in the Book of Revelation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_France

 

Set design for Andromedé by Pierre Corneille, (1650)

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Daraga Church is an example of Earthquake Baroque architecture with thick buttresses supporting the walls

Earthquake Baroque or Seismic Baroque is a style of Baroque architecture found in the former Spanish East Indies and Guatemala, both prior Spanish ruled territories, which suffered destructive earthquakes during the 17th century and 18th century, where large public buildings, such as churches, were rebuilt in a Baroque style during the Spanish Colonial periods in those countries.^[1]

Similar events led to the Pombaline architecture in Lisbon following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and Sicilian Baroque in Sicily following the 1693 earthquake.

Top to Bottom: Panay church entrance with view of façade Pilasters, Paoay church buttresses.

Characteristics

In the Spanish East Indies, destruction of earlier churches from frequent earthquakes have made the church proportion lower and wider; side walls were made thicker and heavily buttressed for stability during shaking. The upper structures were made with lighter materials.^[2] Instead of lighter materials thinner walls were introduced by progressively decreasing in thickness to the topmost levels.^[3]

Bell towers are usually lower and stouter compared to towers in less seismically active regions of the world.^[4] Towers are thicker in the lower levels, progressively narrowing to the topmost level.^[2] In some churches of the Philippines, aside from functioning as watchtowers against pirates, some bell towers are detached from the main church building to avoid damage in case of a falling bell tower due to an earthquake.^{[citation needed]}

• 

  San Agustin Church (Manila)

• 

  Morong Church

• 

  Paoay Church

• 

  Miagao Church

• 

  Loboc Church

• 

  Loon Church

• 

  Loay, Church

• 

  Anini-y Church, Antique

• 

  Santa Maria Church (Ilocos Sur)

• 

  Panay Church

• 

  Malate Church

See also

Church architecture

• Spanish Colonial architecture
  • Churrigueresque
  • Plateresque

References

1. 
   

"Antigua’s Environs – Antigua, Guatemala". BootsnAll Indie Travel Guide. Retrieved on 2011-07-06.

"The City of God: Churches, Convents and Monasteries". Discovering Philippines. Retrieved on 2011-07-06.

Reitherman, Robert Consortium of Universities (2016). Seismic Architecture - The architecture of earthquake resistant structures, Llunji Mentor, Earthquake Spectra. Msproject. ISBN 9789940979409.

4. Finch, Ric. "Antigue Guatemala-- Monumental City of the Americas". Rutahsa Adventures. Retrieved on 2011-07-06.

External links

• "Earthquake Baroque: Paoay Church in the Ilocos" from the Heritage Conservation Society
• San Pedro de las Huertas, an Earthquake Baroque church in Guatemala
• Earthquake baroque churches of the Philippines

v t e Spanish / Hispanic Colonial architecture articles

v t e Spanish Empire

Categories:

• Baroque architectural styles
• Baroque architecture in the Spanish Empire
• Baroque architecture in the Philippines
• Earthquake engineering

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_Baroque

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Petersburg Railroad

Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap Original route (Click to enlarge)
Overview
Headquarters	Petersburg
Dates of operation	1833–1898
Successor	Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
Technical
Track gauge	5 ft (1,524 mm)
Length	60 miles (97 km)

The Petersburg Railroad ran from Petersburg, Virginia, south to Garysburg, North Carolina, from which it ran to Weldon via trackage rights over the Seaboard and Roanoke Railroad (later eliminated with a new alignment).

History

Map of the Petersburg Railroad in 1838

Founding

In 1830 the North Carolina General Assembly and Virginia General Assembly (state legislatures) granted a charter for the Petersburg Railroad^[1] and it opened in 1833.^[2][3] The railroad was partially sponsored by the Commonwealth of Virginia. Against the wishes of the Railroad's principal owner, Francis E. Rives, the State also sponsored the additional Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad. While the railroads competed, a wheat farmer could get twice the price per bushel for his wheat, by getting to market to meet advertised demands more quickly. Previously, flour had to be moved by bateaux through the Dismal Swamp Canal or through transshipment to carriage taking longer and paying tolls to get from the Roanoke River to Portsmouth and Norfolk.^[4]

An 1848 map showed stations at Stony Creek, Jarrat's, Hicksford, Pleasant Hill, Garysburg, and Weldon.

1850s successful operations

Competition in the 1850s from north–south rail routes through Lynchburg, to the west, did not cause a decline of revenue. Trade coming from an improved Upper Appomattox Canal Navigation System, improved methods of communication such as telegraphy, and population growth of Richmond and Petersburg contributed to growing profits. The company had enough money to replace the rails on an ongoing basis without taking on debt. In 1855–60, the chief products to ship were cotton, grain, tobacco and flour.

Cars were built with heart pine, ash, white oak, poplar, black walnut, and even mahogany. The cars were painted red, white and French Zinc. Iron was finished with Japan Black. Sperm oil from sperm whales was used as a lubricant for the machinery.

The Petersburg Railroad hired enslaved Africans from plantation owners, listed in the annual reports as hired bonds. In some cases they paid a dollar or two for medical attention to slaves.^[5]

In 1857, stations were located at Stony Creek, Jarratt's, Belfield, Hicksborough, Pleasant Hill, Garysburg, and Weldon.^[6]

The Petersburg Railroad took 3 hours and fifteen minutes to travel between Petersburg and Weldon.^[7]

Civil War

The Petersburg Railroad saw much action and destruction during at the end of the American Civil War. During the Civil War, the Petersburg Railroad carried food and equipment to General (CSA) Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia^[8] The Petersburg Railroad carried supplies south and sometimes carried U.S. prisoners of war. The railroad requisitioned supplies from Tredegar Iron Works during the war.^[7] Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant severed these rails as part of the effort to cut supply lines to Petersburg for the Siege of Petersburg.The rails were damaged in the Battle of Globe Tavern, the Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road and Second Battle of Ream's Station. Since the Petersburg Railroad was the road to Weldon, North Carolina the first two are sometimes referred to as the Battles for the Weldon Railroad.

Reconstruction

Late 1884 advertisement for the railroad

The Petersburg Railroad Company resumed operations of the railroad after the War in 1866. Ten miles of track and bridges needed to be rebuilt because of damage from the War. The company needed $65,000 for the rails and that much also for the bridges. The railroad company had no funds and could not get a loan. Bonds sold to Northern cities raised only a few thousand dollars. The Adams Express Company and Southern Express Company was willing to give them an advance of $70,000 for an exclusive freight contract for four years. The Federal government of the United States sold them the iron to replace the ten miles of track for $65,000.^[9] The bridge over the Roanoke River was rebuilt by a private company owning the Raleigh and Gaston Railroad, which rented the bridge to the Petersburg Railroad.^[10]

The train was running by April 11 of 1866 and company began to consolidate and pay debts. There was a small debt to North Carolina and England of $12,000 and $6,600. The Confederate States of America owed money in Confederate States dollars but that did not help as the dollars could not buy anything. A few cars rented by the Seaboard and Roanoke were destroyed and the Seaboard had to pay back the value of the cars. These and other debts were consolidated for $45,000, which was paid over time.

A ferry ran over the Roanoke River until the bridge was rebuilt. Temporary bridges were built over smaller rivers, such as the Meherrin River, with wood from a sawmill that had been moved south to avoid the war. The bridges would be rebuilt permanently with heartwood. Stations had been burned and warehouses were being used instead. Stations would be rebuilt with minimal expenditures. Cotton purchased by the railroad and had not been destroyed could be sold to pay much of the debt.^[11]

Before the war, railroads had been built by cities to bring trade into cities. Railroads did not connect through cities. Passengers had to port luggage and stay over night, spending money in cities. Cities could get financially involved in the transporting of goods through cities.^[7] During Reconstruction, southern railroads had distant owners who wanted good to pass efficiently through cities. Union stations were created to connect rail lines. In 1866, The Virginia General Assembly allowed the City of Petersburg to open books on the Petersburg Connection Company that connected by rail, the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad to the Petersburg Railroad (to Weldon) and to let these two railroad companies also own parts of the connection company.^[12] Twenty years later, in 1886, the railroads in the south were changed to standard gauge on one day in May, allowing point-to-point transportation across the entire east coast.^[13]

Readjuster Party

In 1878, in Petersburg, the Readjuster Party was gaining control of the Virginia General Assembly led by General (CSA) William Mahone and Parson John E. Massey. The readjusters wanted to protect public schools from cuts due to state debt and promised better representation for workers of all races. These efforts included state ownership of railroads.^[14] In this climate, in 1878, the Virginia General Assembly gave the City of Petersburg the right to form a board and take over ownership of the Petersburg Railroad.^[15]

Merger into the Atlantic Coast Line

Map by G.W. & C.B. Colton & Co. of the Norfolk, Wilmington, and Charleston Railroad in 1891, cropped to show the Petersburg Railroad

The Petersburg Charter from the 1830s had only been granted until 1891. Wilmington and Weldon Railroad leased the Petersburg railroad, in 1891, and claimed tax exempt status for both railroads. Due to non-taxable nature of Petersburg Railroad, the State legislature only renewed the lease for two years from 1891 to 1893.^[1]

William T. Walters of Baltimore, Maryland formed a holding company, in 1889, later called the Atlantic Coast Line of five consecutive railroads starting with the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad and connecting all the way to Charleston, South Carolina. The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad bought the Petersburg Railroad in 1893.^[8] In March 1898, the Petersburg Railroad was merged into the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad, which was renamed to the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad of Virginia. In 1900, all five railroads were merged to form the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad from Richmond all the way to Augusta, Georgia. This track is still used today by Amtrak and CSX.^[16]

Employees

While slaves and hired workers were used before the civil war, paid employees were hired after the war. The Petersburg Railroad hired general officers and their clerks; station agents and other station men; enginemen, firemen, conductors and other trainmen to operate the trains; machinists, carpenters and other shopmen to repair the trains; section foremen, switchmen, flagmen, watchmen and other trackmen to run the tracks; telegraph operators and telegraph dispatchers to send and receive telegraphs; and over a hundred other laborers.^[1]

Cars

The Petersburg Railroad owned 14 locomotives in 1893. They had two first class passenger cars, two second class passenger cars, and three cars for baggage, express and mail. For freight they had 116 box cars, 77 flat cars for oversized freight such as timber, four stock cars, and seven other freight cars. They had four caboose cars, ten for shoveling gravel, and one other car. They owned another 88 cars for their fast freight line service.

The company provided Janney couplers and Westinghouse automatic brakes on the locomotives, the passenger cars, and some of the freight cars, and hand brakes and automatic links on the other cars. The fast freight service had Janney couplers and plain air brakes.^[1]

Stations

State	Milepost[17]	City/Location	Station[18][19]	Connections and notes
VA	A 22.0	Petersburg	Petersburg	replaced by Petersburg Union Station in 1910, which was replaced by the current station in 1955 (which is located on a bypass track around Petersburg built in the 1930s)[19] junction with: Richmond and Petersburg Railroad (ACL) Southside Railroad (N&W)
	A 27.1		Collier
	A 31.4		Reams
	A 36.0		Carson
	A 43.2	Stony Creek	Stony Creek
	A 46.9		Huske
	A 53.2	Jarratt	Jarratt	junction with Virginian Railway
	A 59.1	Emporia	Bellfield
	A 62.8		Emporia	originally Hicksford junction with Atlantic and Danville Railway
	A 68.1		Skippers	also known as Trego
NC	A 74.4	Pleasant Hill	Pleasant Hill
	A 80.1	Garysburg	Garysburg	junction with Seaboard and Roanoke Railroad (SAL)
	A 82.6	Weldon	Weldon	junction with: Wilmington and Weldon Railroad (ACL) Raleigh and Gaston Railroad (SAL)

References

1. 
   

North Carolina. Board of Railroad Commissioners (1894). Annual Report of the Board of Railroad Commissioners of North Carolina, for the Year Ending June 1893. J. Daniels, State printer and binder. p. 87.

Schafer, Mike (2003). Classic American Railroads, Volume III. Saint Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing. pp. 9–17. ISBN 978-0-7603-1649-8.

Nuckles, Douglas B. (1995). Seaboard Coast Line Railroad. TLC Publishing. pp. 1–3. ISBN 1-883089-13-1.

Calvin Schermerhorn (9 May 2011). Money Over Mastery, Family Over Freedom: Slavery in the Antebellum Upper South. JHU Press. pp. 170–171. ISBN 978-1-4214-0036-5.

Annual report to the stockholders of the Petersburg Rail Road Company [serial] (Report). Petersburg, Va.: O. Ellyson. c. 1859. pp. 5–30. Retrieved December 8, 2017.

Samuel Augustus Mitchell (1857). Mitchell's New Traveller's Guide: Through the United States and the Canadas, Containing the Principal Cities and Towns ... Together with Rail Road, Steamboat, Stage, and Canal Routes, with Tables of Places, and Distances from Place to Place. C. Desilver. p. 77.

Bright, David L. (2015). "Petersburg". Confederate Railroads. Retrieved 2018-01-04.

Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Emporia Railroad History (Virginia Historical Highway Markers). Halifax St, Emporia, VA: Virginia Department of Transportation. Retrieved January 3, 2018.

James C. Burke (29 October 2013). The Wilmington & Weldon Railroad in the Civil War. McFarland. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-7864-9306-7.

Lewis, J. D. (c. 2017). "North Carolina Railroads - Raleigh & Gaston Railroad". North Carolina - Railroads. Retrieved December 28, 2017.

Annual report to the stockholders of the Petersburg Rail Road Company [serial] (Report). Petersburg : O. Ellyson, printer. 1866. pp. 1–7. Retrieved December 28, 2017.

Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Virginia: Passed in 1865–66, in the Eighty-ninth Year of the Commonwealth. Allegre & Goode, printers. 1866. pp. 328–329.

Southern Railfan, The Days They Changed the Gauge

Pearson, C. C. (1916). "The Readjuster Movement in Virginia". The American Historical Review. 21 (4): 734. doi:10.2307/1835892. hdl:2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t08w3zv24. ISSN 0002-8762.

Virginia (1878). Acts Passed at a General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia. pp. 104–108.

William D. Middleton; RICK MORGAN; Roberta L. Diehl (6 April 2007). Encyclopedia of North American Railroads. Indiana University Press. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-0-253-02799-3.

Seaboard Coast Line Railroad Rocky Mount & Raleigh Division Timetable (1975)

"North Carolina Railroads: Passenger Stations & Stops" (PDF). Jim Fergusson's Railway and Tramway Station Lists (North Carolina). Retrieved 4 November 2020.

19. "Virginia Railroads: Passenger Stations & Stops" (PDF). Jim Fergusson's Railway and Tramway Station Lists (Virginia). Retrieved 4 November 2020.

Categories:

• Defunct Virginia railroads
• Virginia in the American Civil War
• Predecessors of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
• Railway companies established in 1833
• Railway companies disestablished in 1898
• Defunct North Carolina railroads
• 1833 establishments in Virginia
• 5 ft gauge railways in the United States
• American companies established in 1830
• 1898 disestablishments in Virginia

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petersburg_Railroad

 

The St. Petersburg paradox or St. Petersburg lottery^[1] is a paradox involving the game of flipping a coin where the expected payoff of the theoretical lottery game approaches infinity but nevertheless seems to be worth only a very small amount to the participants. The St. Petersburg paradox is a situation where a naive decision criterion that takes only the expected value into account predicts a course of action that presumably no actual person would be willing to take. Several resolutions to the paradox have been proposed.

The problem was invented by Nicolas Bernoulli,^[2] who stated it in a letter to Pierre Raymond de Montmort on September 9, 1713.^[3][4] However, the paradox takes its name from its analysis by Nicolas' cousin Daniel Bernoulli, one-time resident of the eponymous Russian city, who in 1738 published his thoughts about the problem in the Commentaries of the Imperial Academy of Science of Saint Petersburg.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburg_paradox

See also

• Ellsberg paradox
• Exponential growth
• Gambler's ruin
• Kelly criterion
• Martingale (betting system)
• Pascal's mugging
• Two envelopes problem
• Zeno's paradoxes

 

 

Variants

Many variants of the St Petersburg game are proposed to counter proposed solutions to the game.^[13]

For example, the "Pasadena game":^[31] let ${\displaystyle n}$ be the number of coin-flips; if ${\displaystyle n}$ is odd, the player gains units of ${\displaystyle \frac{2^n}{n}}$; else the player loses ${\displaystyle \frac{2^n}{n}}$ units of utility. The expected utility from the game is then ${\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}\frac{(-1{)}^n}{n}=\ln 2}$. However, since the sum is not absolutely convergent, it may be rearranged to sum to any number, including positive or negative infinity. This suggests that the expected utility of the Pasadena game depends on the summation order, but standard decision theory does not provide a principled way to choose a summation order. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburg_paradox

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Paradoxes_of_infinity

 

St. Peter Port Saint-Pierre-Port
Parish
Saint Peter Port, Town Church, Elizabeth College entrance, Castle Pier Lighthouse, Castle Cornet, Victoria Tower, Elizabeth College building, Hauteville House, QE2 Marina
Flag
Location of Saint Peter Port in Guernsey
Coordinates: 49.4555°N 2.5368°W
Crown Dependency	Guernsey, Channel Islands
Government
• Electoral district	Divided into St Peter Port North and St Peter Port South
Area
• Total	6.5 km2 (2.5 sq mi)
Elevation	0 m (0 ft)
Population  (2019)
• Total	18,958
• Density	2,900/km2 (7,600/sq mi)
Time zone	GMT
• Summer (DST)	UTC+01
Postal code	GY1
Website	www.stppcons.com

St. Peter Port (French: Saint-Pierre Port) is a town and one of the ten parishes on the island of Guernsey in the Channel Islands. It is the capital of the Bailiwick of Guernsey as well as the main port. The population in 2019 was 18,958.

St. Peter Port is a small town (commonly referred to by locals as just "town")^[1] consisting mostly of steep narrow streets and steps on the overlooking slopes. It is known that a trading post/town existed here before Roman times with a pre-Christian name which has not survived.

The parish covers an area of 6.5 km². The postal code for addresses in the parish starts with GY1.

People from St. Peter Port were nicknamed "les Villais" (the townspeople) or "cllichards" in Guernésiais. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peter_Port

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shakespierre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othello

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Mairanovsky

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27The_Harp_of_Erin%27,_oil_on_canvas_painting_by_Thomas_Buchanan_Read.JPG

Statue of Italia turrita in Reggio Calabria.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italia_turrita

 

 

Italia turrita sitting on a globe statue in the Giardini Pubblici Indro Montanelli, Milan

 

 

Italia turrita e stellata (1861) in Naples.

 

Italia turrita in Brescia.

 

Cenotaph of Dante Alighieri (Italia turrita on the left) in Florence.

 

Italia turrita places the Iron Crown on Napoleon's head. Originally intended for the Arco della Pace in Milan, this high relief is preserved in the entrance hall of the secondary entrance of Palazzo di Brera.

 

Caricature of the Post-Risorgimento: Italia turrita at the centre points out to Enrico Cialdini (on the right) all her enemies around Napoleon III (turned into a tree): from the left, Pope Pius IX, Bourbons, clergy, and brigands. In the background, Giuseppe Garibaldi plows up his land in Caprera.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italia_turrita

Epic of Manas
Statue of Manas in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Original title	Манас дастаны
Written	18th century
Language	Kyrgyz
Subject(s)	A series of events that coincide with the history of the region in the 9th century, primarily the interaction of the Kyrgyz people with other Turkic people and Chinese
Genre(s)	Epic poem
Lines	Approximately 553 500

The Epic of Manas (Kyrgyz: Манас дастаны, romanized: Manas dastanı, ماناس دستانی), is a traditional epic poem dating to the 18th century but claimed by Kyrgyz tradition to be much older. Manas is said to be based on Bars Bek who was the first khagan of the Kyrgyz Khaganate. The plot of Manas revolves around a series of events that coincide with the history of the region in the 9th century, primarily the interaction of the Kyrgyz people with other Turkic and Chinese people.

The government of Kyrgyzstan celebrated the 1,000th anniversary of Manas in 1995. The eponymous hero of Manas and his Oirat enemy Joloy were first found written in a Persian manuscript dated to 1792–93.^[1] In one of its dozens of iterations, the epic poem consists of approximately 500,000 lines. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Manas

The Fallen Soldiers’ Memorial in Palmerston depicting Zealandia pointing heavenward, was unveiled in 1903.^[1]

Zealandia (left) on a £5 1929 stamp.

 

The Bronze Zealandia statue in Auckland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealandia_(personification)#/media/File:Zealandia_Symonds_Street_Auckland_5.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_patron_saint

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_god

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_saints_of_places#Countries

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetalia:_Axis_Powers

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealandia_(personification)}