A Brief History of: The Lucens Reactor Meltdown (Short Documentary)
A Brief History of: The Centralia Mine Fire (Short Documentary)
0.2mm and 1.6mm stainless steel weld together using ATOM COLD WELDING MACHINE
How to Make / DIY, GRAPHENE / GRAPHITE PLASTIC
Super Expanded Graphite.
Making Graphene Foam From Table Sugar
MaverickCNC Plasma Tables - What Metals can I Cut with Air Plasma? - Tips and Tricks with Jim Colt
Diatomaceous Earth under the microscope
Diatoms: Tiny Factories You Can See From Space
Non-Carbon Based Life
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1754 - The current through a normally nonconductive medium such as air produces a plasma; the plasma may produce visible light.
The current through a normally nonconductive medium such as air produces a plasma; the plasma may produce visible light.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1750 - Impermeable plasma & Filamentation
Filamentation
Striations or string-like structures,[73] also known as Birkeland currents, are seen in many plasmas, like the plasma ball, the aurora,[74] lightning,[75] electric arcs, solar flares,[76] and supernova remnants.[77] They are sometimes associated with larger current densities, and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a magnetic rope structure.[78] High power microwave breakdown at atmospheric pressure also leads to the formation of filamentary structures.[79] (See also Plasma pinch)
Filamentation also refers to the self-focusing of a high power laser pulse. At high powers, the nonlinear part of the index of refraction becomes important and causes a higher index of refraction in the center of the laser beam, where the laser is brighter than at the edges, causing a feedback that focuses the laser even more. The tighter focused laser has a higher peak brightness (irradiance) that forms a plasma. The plasma has an index of refraction lower than one, and causes a defocusing of the laser beam. The interplay of the focusing index of refraction, and the defocusing plasma makes the formation of a long filament of plasma that can be micrometers to kilometers in length.[80] One interesting aspect of the filamentation generated plasma is the relatively low ion density due to defocusing effects of the ionized electrons.[81] (See also Filament propagation)
Impermeable plasma
Impermeable plasma is a type of thermal plasma which acts like an impermeable solid with respect to gas or cold plasma and can be physically pushed. Interaction of cold gas and thermal plasma was briefly studied by a group led by Hannes Alfvén in 1960s and 1970s for its possible applications in insulation of fusion plasma from the reactor walls.[82] However, later it was found that the external magnetic fields in this configuration could induce kink instabilities in the plasma and subsequently lead to an unexpectedly high heat loss to the walls.[83] In 2013, a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no magnetic confinement using only an ultrahigh-pressure blanket of cold gas. While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure, the passive effect of plasma on synthesis of different nanostructuresclearly suggested the effective confinement. They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds, screening of ions at the plasma-gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating (known as viscous heating) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex nanomaterials.[84]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)#Filamentation
incompressible or elevation state change etc.
Electromagnetic[edit]
Attenuation decreases the intensity of electromagnetic radiation due to absorption or scattering of photons. Attenuation does not include the decrease in intensity due to inverse-square law geometric spreading. Therefore, calculation of the total change in intensity involves both the inverse-square law and an estimation of attenuation over the path.
The primary causes of attenuation in matter are the photoelectric effect, compton scattering, and, for photon energies of above 1.022 MeV, pair production.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation
Tech for Luddites - This Reactor EATS Nuclear WASTE
ICCF-21 - Philippe Hatt - Cold Nuclear Transmutations Light Atomic Nuclei Binding Energy
The truth about nuclear fusion power - new breakthroughs
Nuclear Fusion and Cold Fusion: Chapter 21 – Part 6
'Hey Bill Nye, Do You Think about Your Mortality?' #TuesdaysWithBill | Big Think
HBO -
Chernobyl (2019) | Official Trailer | HBO
A Brief History of: Chernobyl the Mother of all Nuclear Reactor Disasters (Documentary)
Microwave Exfoliation of Intercalated Graphite
Jonathan Fosdick - The Microwave Production of Expanded Graphite
The microwave plasma mystery
What's Inside the Worlds' Fastest Heat Conductor?
How To Make an Aluminum Graphite Salt Water Battery
screen grid oscillator
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1734 - Phonon Scattering Scatter
Phonons can scatter through several mechanisms as they travel through the material. These scattering mechanisms are: Umklapp phonon-phonon scattering, phonon-impurity scattering, phonon-electron scattering, and phonon-boundary scattering. Each scattering mechanism can be characterised by a relaxation rate 1/ which is the inverse of the corresponding relaxation time.
All scattering processes can be taken into account using Matthiessen's rule. Then the combined relaxation time can be written as:
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1437 - triode tetrode (3/4) grid space-charge grid tube space charge bi grid valve screen grid oscillator
Thursday, September 23, 2021
09-22-2021-2035 - Sonoluminescence Cavitation
Spectral measurements have given bubble temperatures in the range from 2300 K to 5100 K, the exact temperatures depending on experimental conditions including the composition of the liquid and gas.[7] Detection of very high bubble temperatures by spectral methods is limited due to the opacity of liquids to short wavelength light characteristic of very high temperatures.
A study describes a method of determining temperatures based on the formation of plasmas. Using argon bubbles in sulfuric acid, the data shows the presence of ionized molecular oxygen O2+, sulfur monoxide, and atomic argon populating high-energy excited states, which confirms a hypothesis that the bubbles have a hot plasma core.[8] The ionization and excitation energy of dioxygenyl cations, which they observed, is 18 electronvolts. From this they conclude the core temperatures reach at least 20,000 kelvins[6]—hotter than the surface of the sun.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoluminescence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavitation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_mechanics
Hydraulic shock (colloquial: water hammer; fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid in motion, usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas, is forced to stop or change direction suddenly; a momentumchange. This phenomenon commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe.
This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe rupture or collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses with accumulators, expansion tanks, surge tanks, blowoff valves, and other features. The effects can be avoided by ensuring that no valves will close too quickly with significant flow, but there are many situations that can cause the effect.
Rough calculations can be made using the Zhukovsky (Joukowsky) equation,[1] or more accurate ones using the method of characteristics.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_hammer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tunnel_(hydrodynamic)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercavitating_propeller
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller#Marine_propeller_cavitation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercavitation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_friction_drag
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction_torque
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient_friction_loading
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frictionless_plane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stick-slip_phenomenon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesion_railway#Factor_of_adhesion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_force_microscopy#Frictional_force_mapping
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_tunnel
In fluid dynamics, stagnation pressure (or pitot pressure) is the static pressure at a stagnation point in a fluid flow.[1] At a stagnation point the fluid velocity is zero. In an incompressible flow, stagnation pressure is equal to the sum of the free-stream static pressure and the free-stream dynamic pressure.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stagnation_pressure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_pressure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_reluctance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Magnetic_alloys
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Magnetic_ordering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_correction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbed_angular_correlation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_and_magnetic_fields_in_matter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Astrochemistry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trihydrogen_cation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hydroelectricity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hydroelectric_power
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thermodynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/statics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/linear
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/launch_loop
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/linear_induction_motor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/maglev
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/magnetosphere
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gravity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/atmosphere
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dark_matter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/microwave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nucleon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/neutrino
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mirror
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/neutron
particle collision, collision, compression, shear, thermodynamics
pressure, oscillation
plasma, gas, state of matter, starting material, ending material
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_principle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_(physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/symmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/supersymmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoupling_(cosmology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscilloscope
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp#Cold-cathode_fluorescent_lamps
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixie_tube
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube#Indirectly_heated_cathodes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_pressure
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_filament
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product_space
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_(mathematics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_space
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendecomposition_of_a_matrix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_matrix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalues_and_eigenvectors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_ensemble_(mathematical_physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/potential_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kinetic_energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-ideal_gas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conservation_of_momentum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chemical_property
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/physical_property
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear_transmutation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plasma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_process
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressuron
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooke
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyugens
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapestry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filament
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transform
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_filament
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_disk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysical_jet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/compression
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/matrix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collapse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/implosion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cascade
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/expansion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/refraction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mirror
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_statistics
https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/1988-18958-001.html
https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/MANOVA
ANOVA - Psychology Stai
Wednesday, September 22, 2021
09-22-2021-1450 - Sound is,... the vibration of matter, so it requires a physical medium for transmission, as do other kinds of mechanical waves and heat energy.
Sound is, by definition, the vibration of matter, so it requires a physical medium for transmission, as do other kinds of mechanical waves and heat energy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_medium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_elevator#Elevator_explosions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_thread_breakup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Fluid_dynamic_instability
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Plasma_instabilities
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Fluid_dynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_operator
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_angle
Wednesday, September 22, 2021
09-22-2021-0855 - Hypokeimenon greek
Hypokeimenon (Greek: ὑποκείμενον), later often material substratum, is a term in metaphysics which literally means the "underlying thing" (Latin: subiectum).
To search for the hypokeimenon is to search for that substance that persists in a thing going through change—its basic essence.
According to Aristotle's definition,[1] hypokeimenon is something which can be predicated by other things, but cannot be a predicate of others.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypokeimenon
Wednesday, September 22, 2021
09-21-2021-1811 - magnetic mirror pyrotron
A magnetic mirror, known as a magnetic trap (магнитный захват) in Russia and briefly as a pyrotron in the US, is a type of magnetic confinement device used in fusion power to trap high temperature plasma using magnetic fields. The mirror was one of the earliest major approaches to fusion power, along with the stellarator and z-pinch machines.
In a classic magnetic mirror, a configuration of electromagnets is used to create an area with an increasing density of magnetic field lines at either end of the confinement area. Particles approaching the ends experience an increasing force that eventually causes them to reverse direction and return to the confinement area.[1] This mirror effect will only occur for particles within a limited range of velocities and angles of approach, those outside the limits will escape, making mirrors inherently "leaky".
An analysis of early fusion devices by Edward Teller pointed out that the basic mirror concept is inherently unstable. In 1960, Soviet researchers introduced a new "minimum-B" configuration to address this, which was then modified by UK researchers into the "baseball coil" and by the US to "yin-yang magnet" layout. Each of these introductions led to further increases in performance, damping out various instabilities, but requiring ever-larger magnet systems. The tandem mirror concept, developed in the US and Russia at about the same time, offered a way to make energy-positive machines without requiring enormous magnets and power input.
By the late 1970s, many of the design problems were considered solved, and Lawrence Livermore Laboratory began the design of the Mirror Fusion Test Facility(MFTF) based on these concepts. The machine was completed in 1986, but by this time, experiments on the smaller Tandem Mirror Experiment revealed new problems. In a round of budget cuts, MFTF was mothballed, and eventually scrapped. A fusion reactor concept called the Bumpy torus made use of a series of magnetic mirrors joined in a ring. It was investigated at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory until 1986.[2] The mirror approach has since seen less development, in favor of the tokamak, but mirror research continues today in countries like Japan and Russia.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_mirror
ednesday, September 22, 2021
09-21-2021-1810 - Hollow Atom 1990 French
Hollow Atoms (discovered in 1990 by a French team of researchers around Jean-Pierre Briand) are short-lived multiply excited neutral atoms which carry a large part of their Z electrons (Z ... projectile nuclear charge) in high-n levels while inner shells remain (transiently) empty. This population inversion arises for typically 100 femtoseconds during the interaction of a slow highly charged ion (HCI) with a solid surface.
Despite this limited lifetime, the formation and decay of a hollow atom can be conveniently studied from ejected electrons and soft X-rays, and the trajectories, energy loss and final charge state distribution of surface-scattered projectiles. For impact on insulator surfaces the potential energy contained by hollow atom may also cause the release of target atoms and -ions via potential sputtering and the formation of nanostructures on a surface.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillator
In electronics/spintronics, a tunnel junction is a barrier, such as a thin insulating layer or electric potential, between two electrically conducting materials. Electrons (or quasiparticles) pass through the barrier by the process of quantum tunnelling. Classically, the electron has zero probability of passing through the barrier. However, according to quantum mechanics, the electron has a non-zero wave amplitude in the barrier, and hence it has some probability of passing through the barrier. Tunnel junctions serve a variety of different purposes.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_junction
Distillation, or classical distillation, is the process of separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation. Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or solids). Dry distillation may involve chemical changes such as destructive distillation or cracking and is not discussed under this article. Distillation may result in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components), or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components in the mixture. In either case, the process exploits differences in the relative volatility of the mixture's components. In industrial applications, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process, not a chemical reaction.
Distillation has many applications. For example:
- The distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates other fermentation products of commercial value.
- Distillation is an effective and traditional method of desalination.
- In the petroleum industry, oil stabilization is a form of partial distillation that reduces the vapor pressure of crude oil, thereby making it safe for storage and transport as well as reducing the atmospheric emissions of volatile hydrocarbons. In midstream operations at oil refineries, fractional distillation is a major class of operation for transforming crude oil into fuels and chemical feed stocks.[2][3][4]
- Cryogenic distillation leads to the separation of air into its components – notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon – for industrial use.
- In the chemical industry, large amounts of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products, from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials.
An installation used for distillation, especially of distilled beverages, is a distillery. The distillation equipment itself is a still.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_conoid
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1435 - Negative transconductance oscillators dynatron oscillator
In electronics, the dynatron oscillator, invented in 1918 by Albert Hull[1][2] at General Electric, is an obsolete vacuum tube electronic oscillator circuit which uses a negative resistance characteristic in early tetrode vacuum tubes, caused by a process called secondary emission.[3][4][5][6] It was the first negative resistance vacuum tube oscillator.[7] The dynatron oscillator circuit was used to a limited extent as beat frequency oscillators (BFOs), and local oscillators in vacuum tube radio receivers as well as in scientific and test equipment from the 1920s to the 1940s but became obsolete around World War 2 due to the variability of secondary emission in tubes.[8][9][10][11]
Negative transconductance oscillators,[8] such as the transitron oscillator invented by Cleto Brunetti in 1939,[12][13] are similar negative resistance vacuum tube oscillator circuits which are based on negative transconductance (a fall in current through one grid electrode caused by an increase in voltage on a second grid) in a pentode or other multigrid vacuum tube.[5][14] These replaced the dynatron circuit[14] and were employed in vacuum tube electronic equipment through the 1970s.[8][10][11]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynatron_oscillator
Qubit in ion-trap quantum computing[edit]
The hyperfine states of a trapped ion are commonly used for storing qubits in ion-trap quantum computing. They have the advantage of having very long lifetimes, experimentally exceeding ~10 minutes (compared to ~1 s for metastable electronic levels).
The frequency associated with the states' energy separation is in the microwave region, making it possible to drive hyperfine transitions using microwave radiation. However, at present no emitter is available that can be focused to address a particular ion from a sequence. Instead, a pair of laser pulses can be used to drive the transition, by having their frequency difference (detuning) equal to the required transition's frequency. This is essentially a stimulated Raman transition. In addition, near-field gradients have been exploited to individually address two ions separated by approximately 4.3 micrometers directly with microwave radiation.[16]
See also[edit]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfine_structure
Saturday, September 18, 2021
Saturday, September 18, 2021
Sunday, September 19, 2021
09-19-2021-0918 - Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the United States) and oxy-fuel cutting
In a single-sided version, the magnetic field can create repulsion forces that push the conductor away from the stator, levitating it and carrying it along the direction of the moving magnetic field. Laithwaite called the later versions a magnetic river. These versions of the linear induction motor use a principle called transverse flux where two opposite poles are placed side by side. This permits very long poles to be used, and thus permits high speed and efficiency.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_induction_motor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_angle#In_stereochemistry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysical_jet#Relativistic_jet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser-heated_pedestal_growth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percolation_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-pulling-down
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehrenfest_equations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_label
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/air_drag
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/medium_viscosity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-ideal_gas
In polymer physics, the coil–globule transition is the collapse of a macromolecule from an expanded coil state through an ideal coil state to a collapsed globule state, or vice versa. The coil–globule transition is of importance in biology due to the presence of coil-globule transitions in biological macromolecules such as proteins[1] and DNA.[2] It is also analogous with the swelling behavior of a crosslinked polymer gel and is thus of interest in biomedical engineering for controlled drug delivery. A particularly prominent example of a polymer possessing a coil-globule transition of interest in this area is that of Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)(PNIPAAm).[3]
Description[edit]
In its coil state, the radius of gyration of the macromolecule scales as its chain length to the three-fifths power. As it passes through the coil–globule transition, it shifts to scaling as chain length to the half power (at the transition) and finally to the one third power in the collapsed state.[4] The direction of the transition is often specified by the constructions 'coil-to-globule' or 'globule-to-coil' transition.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coil–globule_transition
In chemistry and biology a cross-link is a bond or a short sequence of bonds that links one polymer chain to another. These links may take the form of covalent bonds or ionic bonds and the polymers can be either synthetic polymers or natural polymers (such as proteins).
In polymer chemistry "cross-linking" usually refers to the use of cross-links to promote a change in the polymers' physical properties.
When "crosslinking" is used in the biological field, it refers to the use of a probe to link proteins together to check for protein–protein interactions, as well as other creative cross-linking methodologies.[not verified in body]
Although the term is used to refer to the "linking of polymer chains" for both sciences, the extent of crosslinking and specificities of the crosslinking agents vary greatly. As with all science, there are overlaps, and the following delineations are a starting point to understanding the subtleties.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-link
States of matter are distinguished by changes in the properties of matter associated with external factors like pressure and temperature. States are usually distinguished by a discontinuity in one of those properties—for example, raising the temperature of ice produces a discontinuity at 0°C (32°F) as energy goes into a phase transition, rather than an increase in temperature. The four classical states of matter are usually summarized as solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. In the 20th century however, increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal conditions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter
A hydrogen turboexpander-generator or generator loaded expander for hydrogen gas is an axial flow turbine or radial expander for energy recoverythrough which a high pressure hydrogen gas is expanded to produce work that is used to drive an electrical generator. It replaces the control valve or regulator where the pressure drops to the appropriate pressure for the low pressure network. A turboexpander-generator can help recover energy losses and offset electrical requirements and CO2 emissions.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_turboexpander-generator
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetic_resonance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_representation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_matrix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrupole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbed_angular_correlation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronecker_delta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunn_diode
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulator
Angle Correction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_correction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prism_correction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_angle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_correction_factor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_in_60_rule
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripline
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicap
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistance#Reflection_amplifier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolator_(microwave)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_resistance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_diode
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_mass
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattering_parameters
Saturday, September 18, 2021
09-18-2021-1708 - alternating current oscillating particle or wave perturbed γ-γ angular correlation heterodyne gyroscope
Tuesday, September 7, 2021
09-07-2021-1555 - ion exchange resin polymer ion traps Linear quadrupole ion trap (particle activation, alignment/arrangement/organizing/etc., etc.; ionization/activation, ion alignment, charging, gradient, circle, etc.; EMR, EMF electomagnetic fielding field work matricing particle/ion/field assimilation-synchrony-desynchrony/etc., etc.)
Tuesday, September 14, 2021
09-14-2021-0345 - Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron spin resonance (ESR)
Friday, September 17, 2021
09-17-2021-0220 - irreducible representation
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1405 - superradiant phase transition
In quantum optics, a superradiant phase transition is a phase transition that occurs in a collection of fluorescent emitters (such as atoms), between a state containing few electromagnetic excitations (as in the electromagnetic vacuum) and a superradiant state with many electromagnetic excitations trapped inside the emitters. The superradiant state is made thermodynamically favorable by having strong, coherent interactions between the emitters.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superradiant_phase_transition
se) start growing instantly. Furthermore, in spinodal decomposition fluctuations start growing everywhere, uniformly throughout the volume, whereas a nucleated phase form at a discrete number of points.
Spinodal decomposition occurs when a homogenous phase becomes thermodynamically unstable. An unstable phase lies at a maximum in free energy. In contrast, nucleation and growth occurs when a homogenous phase becomes metastable. That is, another new phase becomes lower in free energy but the homogenous phase remains at a local minimum in free energy, and so is resistant to small fluctuations. J. Willard Gibbs described two criteria for a metastable phase: that it must remain stable against a small change over a large area, and that it must remain stable against a large change over a small area.[3]
Order parameters[edit]
An order parameter is a measure of the degree of order across the boundaries in a phase transition system; it normally ranges between zero in one phase (usually above the critical point) and nonzero in the other.[22] At the critical point, the order parameter susceptibility will usually diverge.
An example of an order parameter is the net magnetization in a ferromagnetic system undergoing a phase transition. For liquid/gas transitions, the order parameter is the difference of the densities.
From a theoretical perspective, order parameters arise from symmetry breaking. When this happens, one needs to introduce one or more extra variables to describe the state of the system. For example, in the ferromagnetic phase, one must provide the net magnetization, whose direction was spontaneously chosen when the system cooled below the Curie point. However, note that order parameters can also be defined for non-symmetry-breaking transitions.
Some phase transitions, such as superconducting and ferromagnetic, can have order parameters for more than one degree of freedom. In such phases, the order parameter may take the form of a complex number, a vector, or even a tensor, the magnitude of which goes to zero at the phase transition.[23]
There also exist dual descriptions of phase transitions in terms of disorder parameters. These indicate the presence of line-like excitations such as vortex- or defect lines.
Relevance in cosmology[edit]
Symmetry-breaking phase transitions play an important role in cosmology. As the universe expanded and cooled, the vacuum underwent a series of symmetry-breaking phase transitions. For example, the electroweak transition broke the SU(2)×U(1) symmetry of the electroweak field into the U(1) symmetry of the present-day electromagnetic field. This transition is important to explain the asymmetry between the amount of matter and antimatter in the present-day universe, according to electroweak baryogenesis theory.
Progressive phase transitions in an expanding universe are implicated in the development of order in the universe, as is illustrated by the work of Eric Chaisson[24] and David Layzer.[25]
See also relational order theories and order and disorder.
Critical exponents and universality classes[edit]
Continuous phase transitions are easier to study than first-order transitions due to the absence of latent heat, and they have been discovered to have many interesting properties. The phenomena associated with continuous phase transitions are called critical phenomena, due to their association with critical points.
It turns out that continuous phase transitions can be characterized by parameters known as critical exponents. The most important one is perhaps the exponent describing the divergence of the thermal correlation length by approaching the transition. For instance, let us examine the behavior of the heat capacity near such a transition. We vary the temperature T of the system while keeping all the other thermodynamic variables fixed and find that the transition occurs at some critical temperature Tc. When T is near Tc, the heat capacity C typically has a power law behavior:
The heat capacity of amorphous materials has such a behaviour near the glass transition temperature where the universal critical exponent α = 0.59[26] A similar behavior, but with the exponent ν instead of α, applies for the correlation length.
The exponent ν is positive. This is different with α. Its actual value depends on the type of phase transition we are considering.
It is widely believed that the critical exponents are the same above and below the critical temperature. It has now been shown that this is not necessarily true: When a continuous symmetry is explicitly broken down to a discrete symmetry by irrelevant (in the renormalization group sense) anisotropies, then some exponents (such as , the exponent of the susceptibility) are not identical.[27]
For −1 < α < 0, the heat capacity has a "kink" at the transition temperature. This is the behavior of liquid helium at the lambda transition from a normal state to the superfluid state, for which experiments have found α = −0.013 ± 0.003. At least one experiment was performed in the zero-gravity conditions of an orbiting satellite to minimize pressure differences in the sample.[28] This experimental value of α agrees with theoretical predictions based on variational perturbation theory.[29]
For 0 < α < 1, the heat capacity diverges at the transition temperature (though, since α < 1, the enthalpy stays finite). An example of such behavior is the 3D ferromagnetic phase transition. In the three-dimensional Ising model for uniaxial magnets, detailed theoretical studies have yielded the exponent α ≈ +0.110.
Some model systems do not obey a power-law behavior. For example, mean field theory predicts a finite discontinuity of the heat capacity at the transition temperature, and the two-dimensional Ising model has a logarithmic divergence. However, these systems are limiting cases and an exception to the rule. Real phase transitions exhibit power-law behavior.
Several other critical exponents, β, γ, δ, ν, and η, are defined, examining the power law behavior of a measurable physical quantity near the phase transition. Exponents are related by scaling relations, such as
It can be shown that there are only two independent exponents, e.g. ν and η.
It is a remarkable fact that phase transitions arising in different systems often possess the same set of critical exponents. This phenomenon is known as universality. For example, the critical exponents at the liquid–gas critical point have been found to be independent of the chemical composition of the fluid.
More impressively, but understandably from above, they are an exact match for the critical exponents of the ferromagnetic phase transition in uniaxial magnets. Such systems are said to be in the same universality class. Universality is a prediction of the renormalization group theory of phase transitions, which states that the thermodynamic properties of a system near a phase transition depend only on a small number of features, such as dimensionality and symmetry, and are insensitive to the underlying microscopic properties of the system. Again, the divergence of the correlation length is the essential point.
Critical slowing down and other phenomena[edit]
There are also other critical phenomena; e.g., besides static functions there is also critical dynamics. As a consequence, at a phase transition one may observe critical slowing down or speeding up. The large static universality classes of a continuous phase transition split into smaller dynamic universality classes. In addition to the critical exponents, there are also universal relations for certain static or dynamic functions of the magnetic fields and temperature differences from the critical value.
Percolation theory[edit]
Another phenomenon which shows phase transitions and critical exponents is percolation. The simplest example is perhaps percolation in a two dimensional square lattice. Sites are randomly occupied with probability p. For small values of p the occupied sites form only small clusters. At a certain threshold pc a giant cluster is formed, and we have a second-order phase transition.[30] The behavior of P∞ near pc is P∞ ~ (p − pc)β, where β is a critical exponent. Using percolation theory one can define all critical exponents that appear in phase transitions.[31][30] External fields can be also defined for second order percolation systems[32] as well as for first order percolation[33] systems. Percolation has been found useful to study urban traffic and for identifying repetitive bottlenecks.[34][35]
Phase transitions in biological systems[edit]
Phase transitions play many important roles in biological systems. Examples include the lipid bilayer formation, the coil-globule transition in the process of protein folding and DNA melting, liquid crystal-like transitions in the process of DNA condensation, and cooperative ligand binding to DNA and proteins with the character of phase transition.[36]
In biological membranes, gel to liquid crystalline phase transitions play a critical role in physiological functioning of biomembranes. In gel phase, due to low fluidity of membrane lipid fatty-acyl chains, membrane proteins have restricted movement and thus are restrained in exercise of their physiological role. Plants depend critically on photosynthesis by chloroplast thylakoid membranes which are exposed cold environmental temperatures. Thylakoid membranes retain innate fluidity even at relatively low temperatures because of high degree of fatty-acyl disorder allowed by their high content of linolenic acid, 18-carbon chain with 3-double bonds.[37] Gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature of biological membranes can be determined by many techniques including calorimetry, fluorescence, spin label electron paramagnetic resonance and NMR by recording measurements of the concerned parameter by at series of sample temperatures. A simple method for its determination from 13-C NMR line intensities has also been proposed.[38]
It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points. Examples include neural networks in the salamander retina,[39] bird flocks[40]gene expression networks in Drosophila,[41] and protein folding.[42] However, it is not clear whether or not alternative reasons could explain some of the phenomena supporting arguments for criticality.[43] It has also been suggested that biological organisms share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a system at a critical point.[44]
The characteristic feature of second order phase transitions is the appearance of fractals in some scale-free properties. It has long been known that protein globules are shaped by interactions with water. There are 20 amino acids that form side groups on protein peptide chains range from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, causing the former to lie near the globular surface, while the latter lie closer to the globular center. Twenty fractals were discovered in solvent associated surface areas of > 5000 protein segments.[45] The existence of these fractals proves that proteins function near critical points of second-order phase transitions.
In groups of organisms in stress (when approaching critical transitions), correlations tend to increase, while at the same time, fluctuations also increase. This effect is supported by many experiments and observations of groups of people, mice, trees, and grassy plants.[46]
Experimental[edit]
A variety of methods are applied for studying the various effects. Selected examples are:
- Thermogravimetry (very common)
- X-ray diffraction
- Neutron diffraction
- Raman Spectroscopy
- SQUID (measurement of magnetic transitions)
- Hall effect (measurement of magnetic transitions)
- Mössbauer spectroscopy (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic transitions. Limited up to about 800–1000 °C)
- Perturbed angular correlation (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic transitions. No temperature limits. Over 2000 °C already performed, theoretical possible up to the highest crystal material, such as tantalum hafnium carbide 4215 °C.)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinodal_decomposition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocatalysis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusionless_transformation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_scanning_calorimetry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamming_(physics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid_film
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-Δ_transform
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetrical_components
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-wye_transformer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-leg_delta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_soft_starter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_oil
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounding_transformer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigzag_transformer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_and_neutral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stray_voltage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_potential_rise
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Series_circuits
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-wire_transmission_line
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_circuit
Leakage from single-wire earth return[edit]
The term "stray voltage" is used for the gradient (rate of change with respect to distance) of electrical potential in the surface of the soil, associated with single-wire earth return electricity distribution systems used in some rural locations. This gradient is low at points far away from the earth return connections, but increases near the ground rods where the metallic circuit enters the earth.
Neutral return currents through the ground[edit]
In three phase four-wire ("wye") electrical power systems, when the load on the phases is not exactly equal, there is some current in the neutral conductor. Because both the primary and secondary of the distribution transformer are grounded, and the primary ground is grounded at more than one point, the earth forms a parallel return path for the neutral current, allowing part of the neutral current to continuously flow through the earth. This arrangement is partially responsible for stray voltage. [10]
Stray voltage is a result of the design of a 4 wire distribution system and as such has existed as long as such systems have been used. Stray voltage became a problem for the dairy industry some time after electric milking machines were introduced, and large numbers of animals were simultaneously in contact with metal objects grounded to the electric distribution system and the earth. Numerous studies document the causes,[11] physiological effects,[12]and prevention,[13][14] of stray voltage in the farm environment. Today, stray voltage on farms is regulated by state governments and controlled by the design of equipotential planes in areas where livestock eat, drink or give milk. Commercially available neutral isolators also prevent elevated potentials on the utility system neutral from raising the voltage of farm neutral or ground wires.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stray_voltage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeating_coil
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott-T_transformer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphase_system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle_wave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_wave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_signal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_velocity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_wave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_relation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scleronomous
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effect
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_loop_(electricity)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroidal_inductors_and_transformers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_inverter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_inductance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_drop
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_fault
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetrical_components
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superposition_theorem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha–beta_transformation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-quadrature-zero_transformation
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/egression
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1747 - A typical mode of operation is as a Lorentz-type actuator, in which the applied force is linearly proportional to the currentand the magnetic field ({\vec F}=I{\vec L}\times {\vec B}).
A typical mode of operation is as a Lorentz-type actuator, in which the applied force is linearly proportional to the current and the magnetic field .
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_motor
Tuesday, September 21, 2021
09-21-2021-1500 - Coulomb barrier
The Coulomb barrier, named after Coulomb's law, which is in turn named after physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is the energy barrier due to electrostaticinteraction that two nuclei need to overcome so they can get close enough to undergo a nuclear reaction.
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