05-14-2023-1940 - remote work

The term remote work became popular during the COVID-19 pandemic that forced the majority of office and knowledge workers to work from home. Prior to that, the practice of working full days from home or somewhere nearer to home than the office, was largely known as telecommuting.^[1]

The term telework has been commonly used as a synonym for telecommuting, but the 1973 originator of both words, Jack Nilles, intended the latter to mean any substitution of technology for travel to and from the office. Thus, he described telecommuting as one form of telework.

Many terms, have been similarly confused over the years. These include remote work, distributed work, work-from-home (WFH), mobile work, agile work, home working (primarily used in the U.K.), smart working (primarily used in the U.K.), flexible work, work from anywhere, hybrid work, and others.

The confusion in terminology is not simply a matter of semantics. Many have very real labor law and tax implications.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_work

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_diamond

Social responsibility is an ethical framework in which an individual is obligated to work and cooperate with other individuals and organizations for the benefit of the community that will inherit the world that individual leaves behind.^[1]

Social responsibility is a duty every individual has to maintain; a balance between the economy and the ecosystem one lives within. A trade-off might perhaps exist between economic development, in the material sense,^{[clarification needed]} and the welfare of the society and environment.^[2] Social responsibility pertains not only to business organizations but also to everyone whose actions impact the environment.^[3] It aims to ensure secure healthcare for people living in rural areas and eliminate barriers like distance, financial condition, etc.^{[citation needed]} Another example is keeping the outdoors free of trash and litter by using the ethical framework combining the resources of land managers, municipalities, nonprofits, educational institutions, businesses, manufacturers, and individual volunteers, which will be required to solve the ocean microplastics crisis.^{[clarification needed][4]} One can be socially responsible passively, by avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or actively, by performing activities that advance social goals. Social responsibility must be intergenerational, since the actions of one generation have consequences on those following.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_responsibility

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_ethics

Social Reserves refer to the intangible ties that bind a country together. As a resource, they may be contrasted to a country's financial reserves.^[1] The term bears some similarity to the Bhutanese concept of Gross national happiness, in that it attempts to value quality of life in a way that goes beyond traditional economic indicators.^[2]

The term was coined in November 2013 by Singapore President Dr Tony Tan at an event organised by St. Joseph's Institution, Singapore. Speaking in a lecture series on leadership, President Tan said:

”The social reserves of a nation are the intangible ties that bind us to one another, and make a nation greater than the sum of individual citizens. [They] are the goodwill that makes us look out for one another even during difficult times, the resilience to overcome challenges and constraints, and the tenacity to progress as individuals and as a nation.”^[3]

Singapore maintains large financial reserves, primarily through two sovereign wealth funds. The Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) manages Singapore's foreign reserves; Temasek Holdings is an investment company owned by the Government of Singapore. Prior to running for Singapore's elected presidency, President Tony Tan was executive director of GIC.^[4]

An example of an effort to build up social reserves, he said, was the way that he had expanded Singapore's President's Challenge charity event to go beyond fund-raising to promote volunteerism and social entrepreneurship.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_reserves

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Index_numbers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:National_accounts

 

A socialite is a person from a wealthy and (possibly) aristocratic background, who is prominent in high society. A socialite generally spends a significant amount of time attending various fashionable social gatherings, instead of having traditional employment.^[1][2][3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialite}

A social class is a grouping of people into a set of hierarchical social categories,^[1] the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes. Membership in a social class can for example be dependent on education, wealth, occupation, income, and belonging to a particular subculture or social network.^[2]

"Class" is a subject of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists and social historians. The term has a wide range of sometimes conflicting meanings, and there is no broad consensus on a definition of "class". Some people argue that due to social mobility, class boundaries do not exist. In common parlance, the term "social class" is usually synonymous with "socio-economic class", defined as "people having the same social, economic, cultural, political or educational status", e.g., "the working class"; "an emerging professional class".^[3] However, academics distinguish social class from socioeconomic status, using the former to refer to one's relatively stable sociocultural background and the latter to refer to one's current social and economic situation which is consequently more changeable over time.^[4]

The precise measurements of what determines social class in society have varied over time. Karl Marx thought "class" was defined by one's relationship to the means of production (their relations of production). His understanding of classes in modern capitalist society is that the proletariat work but do not own the means of production, and the bourgeoisie, those who invest and live off the surplus generated by the proletariat's operation of the means of production, do not work at all. This contrasts with the view of the sociologist Max Weber, who argued that "class" is determined by economic position, in contrast to "social status" or "Stand" which is determined by social prestige rather than simply just relations of production.^[5] The term "class" is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth in order to determine military service obligations.^[6]

In the late 18th century, the term "class" began to replace classifications such as estates, rank and orders as the primary means of organizing society into hierarchical divisions.^{[fact or opinion?]} This corresponded to a general decrease in significance ascribed to hereditary characteristics and increase in the significance of wealth and income as indicators of position in the social hierarchy.^[7][8] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class

 

A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord.^[1][2] In Europe, three classes of peasants existed: non-free slaves, semi-free serfs, and free tenants. Peasants might hold title to land outright (fee simple), or by any of several forms of land tenure, among them socage, quit-rent, leasehold, and copyhold.^[3]

In some contexts, "peasant" has a pejorative meaning, even when referring to farm laborers.^[4] As early as in 13th-century Germany, the concept of "peasant" could imply "rustic" as well as "robber", as the English term villain^[5]/villein.^[6][7] In 21st-century English, the word "peasant" can mean "an ignorant, rude, or unsophisticated person".^[8] The word rose to renewed popularity in the 1940s–1960s^[9] as a collective term, often referring to rural populations of developing countries in general, as the "semantic successor to 'native', incorporating all its condescending and racial overtones".^[4]

The word peasantry is commonly used in a non-pejorative sense as a collective noun for the rural population in the poor and developing countries of the world.^{[citation needed]} Via Campesina, an organization claiming to represent the rights of about 200 million farm-workers around the world, self-defines as an "International Peasant's Movement" as of 2019.^[10] The United Nations and its Human Rights Council prominently uses the term "peasant" in a non-pejorative sense, as in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas adopted in 2018. In general English-language literature, the use of the word "peasant" has steadily declined since about 1970.^[11]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant

 

Pre-industrial society refers to social attributes and forums of political and cultural organization that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, which occurred from 1750 to 1850. Pre-industrial refers to a time before there were machines and tools to help perform tasks en masse. Pre-industrial civilization dates back to centuries ago, but the main era known as the pre-industrial society occurred right before the industrial society. Pre-Industrial societies vary from region to region depending on the culture of a given area or history of social and political life. Europe was known for its feudal system and the Italian Renaissance.

The term "pre-industrial" is also used as a benchmark for environmental conditions before the development of industrial society: for example, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, adopted in Paris on 12 December, 2015 and in force from 4 November, 2016, "aims to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels."^[1] The date for the end of the "pre-industrial era" is not defined.^[2]

Common attributes

• Limited production
• Extreme agricultural economy
• Limited division of labor. In pre-industrial societies, production was relatively simple and the number of specialized crafts was limited.
• Limited variation of social classes
• Parochialism—Communications were limited between communities in pre-industrial societies. Few had the opportunity to see or hear beyond their own village. Industrial societies grew with the help of faster means of communication, having more information at hand about the world, allowing knowledge transfer and cultural diffusion between them.
• Populations grew at substantial rates ^[3]
• Social classes: peasants and lords^[4]
• Subsistence level of living^[4]
• Population dependent on peasants for food^[4]
• People were located in villages rather than in cities

Economic systems

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2016)

• Hunter gather society^[4]
• Commodity market
• Mercantilism
• Subsistence agriculture
• Subsistence
• Primitive communism

Labor conditions

Social structure and working conditions

Harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static – child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were not equally as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.^[5]

See also

• Agrarian society
• Industrialisation
• Modernization theory
• Traditional society
• Dependency Theory
• Imperialism
• Hunter gatherers
• Transhumance
• Nomads
• Pastoral nomads
• Nomadic
• Post-industrial society
• Proto-industrialization

References

1. 
   

UNFCCC, The Paris Agreement, accessed 30 December 2020

Hawkins, E. (2017), Defining 'pre-industrial', published 25 January 2017, accessed 30 December 2020

Cipolla, Carlo M. Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000-1700. New York: Norton, 1976

Persson, Karl Gunnar. Pre-industrial Economic Growth: Social Organization, and Technological Progress in Europe. Oxford: Blackwell, 1988.

5. R.M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth, Methuen and Co., 1971, pp. 339–41 ISBN 0-416-19500-8

Bibliography

• Grinin, L. 2007. Periodization of History: A theoretic-mathematical analysis. In: History & Mathematics. Ed. by Leonid Grinin, Victor de Munck, and Andrey Korotayev. Moscow: KomKniga/URSS. P.10-38. ISBN 978-5-484-01001-1.

v t e Types of societies
Pre-industrial Hunter-gatherer Montane Nomadic Pastoral Horticultural Agricultural/Agrarian Feudal Industrial Post-industrial

Categories:

• Sociological terminology
• Industrial Revolution

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-industrial_society

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Industrial_Revolution

 

The Industrial Revolution was a period of global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes that succeeded the Agricultural Revolution, starting from Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to about 1820–1840.^[1] This transition included going from hand production methods to machines; new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes; the increasing use of water power and steam power; the development of machine tools; and the rise of the mechanized factory system. Output greatly increased, and a result was an unprecedented rise in population and in the rate of population growth. The textile industry was the first to use modern production methods,^[2]: 40 and textiles became the dominant industry in terms of employment, value of output, and capital invested.

On a structural level the industrial revolution asked society the so-called social question, demanding new ideas for managing large groups of individuals. Growing poverty on one hand and growing population and materialistic wealth on the other caused tensions between the very rich and the poorest people within society.^[3] These tensions were sometimes violently released^[4] and led to philosophical ideas such as socialism, communism and anarchism.

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of British origin.^[5][6] By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading commercial nation,^[7] controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean. Britain had major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent; particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company.^{[8][9][10][11]} The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.^[2]: 15

The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history. Comparable only to humanity's adoption of agriculture with respect to material advancement,^[12] the Industrial Revolution influenced in some way almost every aspect of daily life. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the Western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to improve meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries.^[13][14][15] GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy,^[16] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.^[17] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in human history since the domestication of animals and plants.^[18]

The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.^{[19][20][21][22]} Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,^[19] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.^[20] Rapid industrialisation first began in Britain, starting with mechanized textiles spinning in the 1780s,^[23] with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.^[2]

An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, and hot blast iron smelting. New technologies such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel-making processes, mass production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.^{[2][24][25][26]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution

 

A guild (/ɡɪld/ GILD) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They sometimes depended on grants of letters patent from a monarch or other ruler to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials, but most were regulated by the local government. Guild members found guilty of cheating the public would be fined or banned from the guild. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as guild meeting-places.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild

A merchant is a person who trades in commodities produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Historically, a merchant is anyone who is involved in business or trade. Merchants have operated for as long as industry, commerce, and trade have existed. In 16th-century Europe, two different terms for merchants emerged: meerseniers referred to local traders (such as bakers and grocers) and koopman (Dutch: koopman) referred to merchants who operated on a global stage, importing and exporting goods over vast distances and offering added-value services such as credit and finance. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchant

Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions which directly and indirectly contributes to the transfer of goods and services on a large scale and at the right time, place, quantity and price from the original producers to the final consumers within local, regional, national or international economies ^[1] More specifically, commerce is not business (i.e. an organization or activity whose goal is to sell manufactured goods and/or services for profit), but rather the part of business which is related to the movement and distribution of finished or intermediate (but valuable) goods and services from the primary manufacturers to the end customers on a large scale, as opposed to the sourcing of raw materials and manufacturing of those goods.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce

A domestic market, also referred to as an internal market or domestic trading, is the supply and demand of goods, services, and securities within a single country. In domestic trading, a firm faces only one set of competitive, economic, and market issues and essentially must deal with only one set of customers, although the company may have several segments in a market.

The term is also used to refer to the customers of a single business who live in the country where the business operates.

There are certain limitations when competing in a domestic market, many of which encourage firms to expand abroad. The main reasons why a business would decide to expand abroad are limited market size and limited growth within the domestic market. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_market

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_material

 

Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market.

An early form of trade, barter, saw the direct exchange of goods and services for other goods and services,^[1] i.e. trading things without the use of money.^[1] Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and letter of credit, paper money, and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade involving more than two traders is called multilateral trade. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade

A financial market is a market in which people trade financial securities and derivatives at low transaction costs. Some of the securities include stocks and bonds, raw materials and precious metals, which are known in the financial markets as commodities.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market

 

Social commerce^[1] is a subset of electronic commerce that involves social media and online media that supports social interaction, and user contributions to assist online buying and selling of products and services.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_commerce 

A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a variety of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures.^[1] The study of these structures uses social network analysis to identify local and global patterns, locate influential entities, and examine network dynamics.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network

In public health, social distancing, also called physical distancing,^[2][3][4] is a set of non-pharmaceutical interventions or measures intended to prevent the spread of a contagious disease by maintaining a physical distance between people and reducing the number of times people come into close contact with each other.^[2][5] It usually involves keeping a certain distance from others (the distance specified differs from country to country and can change with time) and avoiding gathering together in large groups.^[6][7]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing}

 

A stay-at-home order, safer-at-home order, movement control order (more common in Southeast Asia), or lockdown restrictions (in the United Kingdom) – also referred to by loose use of the terms (self-) quarantine, (self-) isolation, or lockdown – is an order from a government authority that restricts movements of a population as a mass quarantine strategy for suppressing or mitigating an epidemic or pandemic by ordering residents to stay home except for essential tasks or for work in essential businesses. The medical distinction between such an order and a quarantine is that a quarantine is usually understood to involve isolating only selected people who are considered to be possibly infectious rather than the entire population of an area (though many colloquially refer to stay-at-home orders as quarantines.) In many cases, outdoor activities are allowed. Non-essential businesses are either closed or adapted to remote work.^[1] In some regions, it has been implemented as a round-the-clock curfew^[2] or called a shelter-in-place order,^[3] but it is not to be confused with a shelter-in-place situation.^[4]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stay-at-home_order}

 

A cordon sanitaire (French pronunciation: ​[kɔʁdɔ̃ sanitɛʁ], French for "sanitary cordon") is the restriction of movement of people into or out of a defined geographic area, such as a community, region, or country.^[1] The term originally denoted a barrier used to stop the spread of infectious diseases. The term is also often used metaphorically, in English, to refer to attempts to prevent the spread of an ideology deemed unwanted or dangerous,^[2] such as the containment policy adopted by George F. Kennan against the Soviet Union (see cordon sanitaire (politics)). 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)}

 

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_group}

 

Social inhibition is a conscious or subconscious avoidance of a situation or social interaction. With a high level of social inhibition, situations are avoided because of the possibility of others disapproving of their feelings or expressions. Social inhibition is related to behavior, appearance, social interactions, or a subject matter for discussion. Related processes that deal with social inhibition are social evaluation concerns, anxiety in social interaction, social avoidance, and withdrawal. Also related are components such as cognitive brain patterns, anxious apprehension during social interactions, and internalizing problems. It also describes those who suppress anger, restrict social behavior, withdraw in the face of novelty, and have a long latency to interact with strangers.^[1] Individuals can also have a low level of social inhibition, but certain situations may generally cause people to be more or less inhibited. Social inhibition can sometimes be reduced by the short-term use of drugs including alcohol or benzodiazepines. Major signs of social inhibition in children are cessation of play, long latencies to approaching the unfamiliar person, signs of fear and negative affect, and security seeking.^[2] Also in high level cases of social inhibition, other social disorders can emerge through development, such as social anxiety disorder and social phobia.^[3][4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_inhibition

 

In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.^[1]

Social contract arguments typically are that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority (of the ruler, or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order.^[2][3] The relation between natural and legal rights is often a topic of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract (French: Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept. Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy.

The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent of any political order (termed the "state of nature" by Thomas Hobbes).^[4] In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience. From this shared starting point, social contract theorists seek to demonstrate why rational individuals would voluntarily consent to give up their natural freedom to obtain the benefits of political order.

Prominent 17th- and 18th-century theorists of the social contract and natural rights included Hugo de Groot (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) and Immanuel Kant (1797), each approaching the concept of political authority differently. Grotius posited that individual humans had natural rights. Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a "state of nature", human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". In the absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape and murder; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community (civil society) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. Though the sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary).

Alternatively, Locke and Rousseau argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so.

The central assertion that social contract theory approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of the agreement. Hobbes argued that government is not a party to the original contract and citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest.

Social contract theories were eclipsed in the 19th century in favor of utilitarianism, Hegelianism and Marxism; they were revived in the 20th century, notably in the form of a thought experiment by John Rawls.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract

 

The Social War (from Latin bellum sociale, ie a 'war of the allies'), also called the Italian War or the Marsic War,^[3] was fought largely from 91 to 87 BC between the Roman Republic and several of its autonomous allies (socii) in Italy. Some of the allies held out until 87 BC.

The war started in late 91 BC, with the rebellion of Asculum. Other Italian towns quickly declared for the rebels and the Roman response was initially confused. By the new year, the Romans had levied huge armies to crush the rebels but found initial headway difficult; by the end of the year, however, they were able to cut the Italian rebels into two, isolating them into northern and southern sectors. The Romans then brought the lex Julia, allowing Italian towns to elect Roman citizenship if they had not revolted or would otherwise put down arms. As support drained from the Italians, they attempted to invade Etruria and Umbria at the start of 89 BC but were defeated. In the south, they were defeated by Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who for his victories would win a consulship the next year. The Romans retained the initiative and by 88 BC, the conflict was largely over and Roman attention had been captured by the on-going First Mithridatic War. The few Italians on the field by 87 BC eventually reached a negotiated settlement during a short civil war that year.

Views differ as to the causes of the war. The main ancient source for the period is the relatively late Appian, who wrote in the imperial period during the 2nd century AD. His narrative is largely one based on demands of the allies for Roman citizenship, a coveted status in his day. Other historians, most especially Henrik Mouritsen, have focused instead on a perceived alternate tradition which has the Italian allies rebelling against Roman hegemony and designs on their lands.

The massive expansion of the citizenship that followed the Social war remained a politically-charged topic, especially in terms of how they would allocated into voting blocks. Disputes over enfranchisement played a role in Sulla's march on Rome in 88 BC to depose plebeian tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus. Fears of Sulla rolling back hard-won Italian rights contributed to resistance during Sulla's civil war. The conflict also blurred the distinction between Romans and their enemies; the presence of large armies in Italy during the war also provided opportunities for generals to seize power extralegally. For these reasons and others, some historians believe the conflict played an important role in setting up the collapse of the republic. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)

 

 

A moral injury is an injury to an individual's moral conscience and values resulting from an act of perceived moral transgression on the part of themselves or others,^[1] which produces profound feelings of guilt or shame^[1]—and in some cases a profound sense of betrayal and anger toward colleagues, commanders, the organization, politics, or society at large^[2][3]—moral disorientation, and societal alienation.^[2]

Moral injury is most often studied in the context of military personnel. The term has also been applied to frontline health workers during the COVID-19 pandemic who have had to deal with extremely stressful situations in which they were unable to provide care at a level that they considered appropriate, to people involved in accidents, and to people who have been raped or abused.^[4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_injury

 

A reform movement or reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements which reject those old ideals, in that the ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may be rooted in socialist (specifically, social democratic) or religious concepts. Some rely on personal transformation; others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhi's spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which can arise against any of these, attempt to put things back the way they were before any successes the new reform movement(s) enjoyed, or to prevent any such successes. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_movement

The House of Lords,^[a] also known as the House of Peers,^[3] is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.^[4] Membership is by appointment, heredity or official function. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England.^[5][6]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_Party_(Sweden)}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_College_social_clubs}

 

In Marxist philosophy, a character mask (German: Charaktermaske) is a prescribed social role which conceals the contradictions of a social relation or order. The term was used by Karl Marx in published writings from the 1840s to the 1860s, and also by Friedrich Engels. It is related to the classical Greek concepts of mimesis (imitative representation using analogies) and prosopopoeia (impersonation or personification), and the Roman concept of persona,^[1] but also differs from them.^[2] Neo-Marxist and non-Marxist sociologists,^[3] philosophers^[4] and anthropologists^[5] have used character masks to interpret how people relate in societies with a complex division of labour, where people depend on trade to meet many of their needs. Marx's own notion of the character mask was not a fixed idea with a singular definition.

Versus social masks

As a psychological term, "character" is more common in continental Europe, while in Britain and North America the term "personality" is used in approximately the same contexts.^[6] Marx however uses the term "character mask" analogously to a theatrical role, where the actor (or the characteristics of a prop) represents a certain interest or function, and intends by character both "the characteristics of somebody" and "the characteristics of something". Marx's metaphorical use of the term "character masks" refers to carnival masks and the masks used in classical Greek theatre. The issue is the social form in which a practice is acted out.

Sophisticated academic language about the sociology of roles did not exist in the mid-19th century. Thus, Marx borrowed from theatre and literature to express his idea.^[7] György Lukács pioneered a sociology of drama in 1909,^[8] a sociology of roles began only in the 1930s, and a specific sociology of theatre (e.g. by Jean Duvignaud) first emerged in the 1960s.^[9] Marx's concept is both that an identity appears differently from its true identity (it is masked or disguised), and that this difference has practical consequences. The mask is not a decoration, but performs a function and has effects, even independently of the mask bearer.

The closest equivalent term in modern English is social masks. However, this translation is inappropriate:

• A "social mask" is a mask of an individual, while Marx's concept of character masks is applied to cases other than individuals, when matters present themselves differently from their true nature.^[10] Marxists and non-Marxists have applied it to persons and politicians,^[11] groups and social classes, mass media, social movements and political parties, social institutions, organizations and functions, governments, symbolic expressions, historical eras, and dramatic, literary or theatrical contexts.
• The category of "social masks" is much more general and inclusive, and Marx's character masks are a subtype of social mask. They are masks of people and things which represent a social, political, intellectual or economic function, within given social relationships among groups of people.
• Marx's character masks are bound up with a specific type of society at a specific historical time, and with a specific theory of how the social relations in that society function. However, the concept of "social masks" assumes no specific theory, society or historical time. Social masks can be assumed to have existed forever, and are treated as a permanent part of human existence.

"False awareness"

There is a link between character masks and deliberate misrepresentation or hypocrisy.^[12] But character masks are not always hypocritical, as the motive for their use is genuine, principled or naive – or a product of self-delusion. People can mask their behavior, or mask a situation, without being aware that they are doing so.^[13] Paul Ricœur explains:

What distinguishes false-consciousness from error or falsehood, and what motivates a particular kind of critique, of denunciation, is the possibility of signifying another thing than one believes was signified, that is, the possibility of the masked consciousness. These two words, "false consciousness," pertain usually to Marx... Consciousness, far from being transparent in itself, is at the same time what reveals and what conceals; it is this relation of conceal/reveal which calls for a specific reading, a hermeneutics. The task of hermeneutics... has always been to read a text and to distinguish the true sense from the apparent sense, to search for the sense under the sense.^[14]

"False awareness" ('falsches Bewusstsein'), as used by Friedrich Engels, does not refer to errors in the content of awareness. It refers to an absence of awareness of what is behind the ideas being worked with, how they originated, or what the real role or effect of the ideas is. The first result of this is that the ideologists believe they are performing certain intellectual operations with regard to an issue, which, in reality, have a different significance than they expect. The second result is that their intellectual creations can then function as a mask for what is really at stake, as they portray the issue in a one-sided or distorted way – without them being aware of how that works. The ideologists are aware and unaware at the same time. The problem, says Engels, is that they exaggerate the power of ideas, to the point where ideas appear to cause everything that happens. This occurs more often if the intellectual productions are quite distant from the practical context, or if they concern specialized, highly abstract ideas which are difficult to verify.^[15]

Levels of masking

Historical

According to Marx and Engels, character masks of an era are the main symbolic expressions of self-justification or apologia, which disguises, embellishes or obscures social contradictions ("the bits that do not fit"). A mystical truth in this context is a cultural idea which cannot be verified, because it is abstract rather than logical. Mystical truths cannot be tested scientifically, only subjectively experienced.

A dominant power may [legitimize] itself by promoting beliefs and values congenial to it; naturalizing and universalizing such beliefs so as to render them self-evident and apparently inevitable; denigrating ideas which might challenge it; excluding rival forms of thought, perhaps by some unspoken but systematic logic; and obscuring social reality in ways convenient to itself. Such 'mystification', as it is commonly known, frequently takes the form of masking

— Terry Eagleton, Ideology: An Introduction, pp. 5-6^[16]

Economic

Marx argues that, as capitalist class society is intrinsically a contradictory system – it contains many conflicting and competing forces – masking of its true characteristics is an integral feature of how it operates. Buyers and sellers compete with other buyers and sellers. Businesses cannot practically do so without confidentiality and secrecy. Workers compete for job opportunities and access to resources. Capitalists and workers compete for their share of the new wealth that is produced, and nations compete with other nations. The masks are therefore necessary, and the more a person knows about others, the more subtle and sophisticated the masks become.

A centerpiece of Marx's critique of political economy is that the labour contract between a worker and their employer obscures the true economic relationship. Marx argues that workers do not sell their labor, but their labor power, creating a profitable difference between what they are paid and the value they create for the employer (a form of economic exploitation). Thus, the foundation of capitalist wealth creation involves a mask.^[17] More generally, Marx argues that transactions in the capitalist economy are rarely transparent – they appear different from what they really are. This is discovered only when the total context in which they occur is examined. Hence Marx writes:

Vulgar economics actually does nothing more than to interpret, to systematize and turn into apologetics – in a doctrinaire way – the ideas of the agents who are trapped within bourgeois relations of production. So it should not surprise us that, precisely within the estranged form of appearance of economic relations in which these prima facie absurd and complete contradictions occur – and all science would be superfluous if the form of appearance of things directly coincided with their essence – that precisely here vulgar economics feels completely at home, and that these relationships appear all the more self-evident to it, the more their inner interconnection remains hidden to it, even though these relationships are comprehensible to the popular mind^[18]

This implies another level of masking, because the economic character masks are then equated with authentic behaviour. The effect in this case is, that the theories of economics masks how the economy actually works, by describing its surface appearance as its real nature. The general principles of economics may appear to explain it, but in reality they do not. The theory is therefore ultimately arbitrary. Either aspects of the economy are studied in isolation from the context in which they occur, or generalizations are formed which leave essential parts out. These distortions are ideologically useful to justify an economic system, position or policy as reasonable, but it is a hindrance to true understanding.^[19]

Significance

Masks as mediators of social contradictions

Abstractly, the masking processes specific to capitalist society mediate and reconcile social contradictions, which arise from three main sources:

• relations of production (ownership relations governing the factors of production, defined by property rights, and work roles), which create and maintain a class-divided society, in which citizens are formally equal under the law but unequal in reality; class interests are represented as the general interest and vice versa.^[20] The state formally serves "the general interest" of society, but in reality it mainly serves the general interest of the ruling class, and more specifically what the elite, the polity or the political class considers to be the general interest of society.
• relations of exchange in the marketplace,^[21] where buyers and sellers bargain with each other, and with other buyers and sellers, to get the "best deal" for themselves, although they have to cooperate to get it (they must give something to receive something). Supposedly this is a "level playing field" but in reality it is not, simply because some command vastly greater resources than others. The attempt is made to "personalize" otherwise impersonal or anonymous market relationships expressed by transactions.
• the combination of relations of production and exchange, in which competitors have an interest in hiding certain information, while presenting themselves outwardly in the most advantageous way. Specifically, people are placed in the position where they both have to compete and to cooperate with each other at the same time, at a very advanced (or at least civilized) level, and to reconcile this predicament involves them in masking.^[22] This requirement exists in all kinds of types of society, but in bourgeois society it takes specific forms, reflecting the element of financial gain which is involved in the way people are relating or are related.

"Naked self-interest"

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx & Engels had stated that:

The bourgeoisie...has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his "natural superiors", and has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous "cash payment".^[23]

This "naked self-interest" seems to contradict the idea of "masking" in bourgeois society. Supposedly market trade creates transparency and an "open society" of free citizens. In reality, Marx and Engels claim, it does not.^[24] The "nakedness" may not reveal very much other than the requirements of trade; it is just that the cultural patterns of what is hidden and what is revealed differ from feudal and ancient society. According to Marx, the labour market appears as the "very Eden of the innate rights of man",^[25] insofar workers can choose to sell their labour-power freely, but in reality, workers are forced to do so, often on terms unfavourable to them, to survive. As soon as they are inside the factory or office, they have to follow orders and submit to the authority of the employer.

Even in "naked commerce", the possible methods of "masking" what one is, what one represents or what one does, are extremely diverse. Human languages and numerical systems, for example, offer very subtle distinctions of meaning that can "cover up" something, or present it as different from what it really is. Anthropologists, sociologists and linguists have sometimes studied "linguistic masking".^[26]

The "masking" of quantitative relationships takes three main forms:

• masking plain computational error;
• masking through a categorization of counting units which hides the real situation, or presents it in a certain light;
• masking through the ("meta-theoretical") interpretation of the overall significance of a quantitative result.

Data may be accepted as a valid result, but dismissed as irrelevant or unimportant in a given context, and therefore not worth paying attention to; or conversely, the importance of specific data may be highlighted as being more important than other related facts.

Sources of the concept

Marx's studies of Greek philosophy

The theatrical mask, expressing an acting role, was supposedly first invented in the West by the Greek actor Thespis of Attica (6th century BC)^[27] and the Greek Aristotelian philosopher Theophrastus (circa 371–287 BC) is credited with being the first in the West to define human character in terms of a typology of personal strengths and weaknesses.^[28] Indeed, Marx's idea of character masks appears to have originated in his doctoral studies of Greek philosophy in 1837–39. At that time, the theatre was one of the few places in Germany where opinions about public affairs could be fairly freely aired, if only in fictionalized form.^[29]

Independently from Marx, the romantic novelist Jean Paul also used the concept, in portraying the human problems of individuation.^[30] In Jean Paul's aesthetics, the Charaktermaske is the observable face or appearance-form of a hidden self.^[31] It is Jean Paul's definition which is cited in the Deutsches Wörterbuch compiled by Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm from 1838 onward.^[32]

Other early literary uses of the German term charaktermaske are found in Joseph von Eichendorff's 1815 novel Ahnung und Gegenwart,^[33] a veiled attack against Napoleon, and some years later, in writings by Heinrich Heine. Heine was among the first to use the theatrical term "Charaktermaske" to describe a social setting.^[34] Perhaps the concept was also inspired by Hegel's discussion of masks in his The Phenomenology of Spirit.^[35] In his Aesthetics, Hegel contrasts the fixed, abstract and universal character masks of the Commedia dell'arte with the romantic depiction of "character" as a living, subjective individuality embodied in the whole person.^[36]

In 1841, the German theatre critic Heinrich Theodor Rötscher explicitly defined a "character mask" as a theatrical role, acted out in such a way that it expresses all aspects of the assumed personality, his/her social station and background; successfully done, the audience would be able to recognize this personality on first impression.^[37]

Theatre and drama

The shift in Marx's use of the concept, from dramaturgy and philosophy to political and economic actors, was probably influenced by his well-known appreciation of drama and literature.^[38] Certainly, European writers and thinkers in the 17th and 18th centuries (the era of the Enlightenment) were very preoccupied with human character and characterology, many different typologies being proposed; human character was increasingly being defined in a secular way, independent of virtues and vices defined by religion.^[39]

Polemics

The first known reference by Marx to character masks in a publication appears in an 1846 circular which Marx drafted as an exile in Brussels.^[40] It occurs again in his polemic against Karl Heinzen in 1847, called Moralizing criticism and critical morality^[41] and in part 5 of a satirical piece written in 1852 called Heroes of the Exile.^[42]

The 18th Brumaire

In chapter 4 of The 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1852), a story about the sovereign's dissolution of the French legislative assembly in 1851 in order to reign as imperial dictator, Marx describes how Napoleon abandoned one character mask for another, after dismissing the Barrot-Falloux Ministry in 1849.^[43] In this story, character masks figure very prominently. Contrary to Hegel's belief that states, nations, and individuals are all the time the unconscious tools of the world spirit at work within them,^[44] Marx insists that:

The tradition of all dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brains of the living. And just as they seem to be occupied with revolutionizing themselves and things, creating something that did not exist before, precisely in such epochs of revolutionary crisis they anxiously conjure up the spirits of the past to their service, borrowing from them names, battle slogans, and costumes in order to present this new scene in world history in time-honored disguise and borrowed language. Thus Luther put on the mask of the Apostle Paul, the Revolution of 1789–1814 draped itself alternately in the guise of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and the Revolution of 1848 knew nothing better to do than to parody, now 1789, now the revolutionary tradition of 1793–95.^[45]

Alfred Meissner

In 1861–63, the Austrian writer Alfred Meissner, the "king of the poets" criticized by Engels in his 1847 essay The True Socialists,^[46] published three volumes of novels under the title Charaktermasken.^[47] It is unclear whether Marx was aware of this, but according to Jochen Hörisch it gave the term "character mask" a certain popularity among German speakers.^[48]

Abandoning the concept

Character masks are mentioned five times in Capital, Volume I, and once in Capital, Volume II. Here, the reference is specifically to economic character masks, not political character masks. However, both the official Moscow translation of Capital, Volume I into English, as well as the revised 1976 Penguin translation of Capital, Volume I into English by Ben Fowkes, deleted all reference to character masks, substituting a non-literal translation.^[49] English translators of other writings by Marx & Engels, or of classical Marxist texts, quite often deleted Charaktermaske as well, and often substituted other words such as "mask", "role", "appearance", "puppet", "guise" and "persona".

Marx's concept of character masks has therefore been little known in the English-speaking world, except through the translated writings of the Frankfurt School and other (mainly German or Austrian) Marxists using the term. Tom Bottomore's sociological dictionary of Marxist thought has no entry for the important concept of character masks.^[50] The Penguin Dictionary of Critical Theory likewise does not refer to it.^[51] David Harvey, the world-famous New Left popularizer of Marx's writings, does not mention the concept at all in works such as his The Limits to Capital. Likewise Fredric Jameson, the famous commentator on post modernity, offers no analysis of the concept. There is no entry for the concept in James Russell's Marx-Engels Dictionary,^[52] in Terrell Carver's A Marx Dictionary^[53] or in the Historical Dictionary of Marxism.^[54]

Jochen Hörisch claims that "despite its systematic importance, the concept of character masks was conspicuously taboo in the dogmatic interpretation of Marx".^[55]

However, Dieter Claessens mentions the concept in his 1992 Lexikon,^[56] there is another mention in Lexikon zur Soziologie^[57] and the more recent German-language Historical-Critical Dictionary of Marxism has a substantive entry for character masks by Wolfgang Fritz Haug.^[58] Haug suggests that the conjunction of "character" and "mask" is "specifically German", since in the French, English, Spanish, and Italian editions of Capital, Volume I, the term "mask", "bearer" or "role" is used, but not "character mask".^[59] But since "character mask" is a technical term in theatre and costume hire – referring both to physical masks expressing specific characters (for example, Halloween masks), and to theatrical roles – it is not "specifically German", and most existing translations are simply inaccurate. However, Haug is correct insofar as "character mask" as a sociological or psychological term is rarely used by non-German speakers.^[60]

Marx's argument in Das Kapital

Marx's argument about character masks in capitalism can be summarized^[61] in six steps.

Roles

The first step in his argument is that when people engage in trade, run a business or work in a job, they adopt and personify (personally represent) a certain function, role or behaviour pattern which is required of them to serve their obligations; their consent to the applicable rules is assumed, as a necessity to succeed in the activities. They have to act this way, because of the co-operative relationships they necessarily have to work with in the division of labour.^[62] People have to conform to them, whether they like it or not. If they take on a role, they have to fulfill the packet of tasks which is part of the job.

People are initially born into a world in which these social relationships already exist, and "socialized" into them in the process of becoming "well-adjusted adults" – to the point where they internalize their meaning, and accept them as a natural reality.^[63] Consequently, they can learn to act spontaneously and automatically in a way consistent with these social relations, even if that is sometimes a problematic process.

Interests

The second step in his argument is that, in acting according to an economic function, employees serve the impersonal (business, legal or political) interests of an abstract authority, which may have little or nothing to do with their own personal interests.^[64] They have to keep the two kinds of interests separated, and "manage them" appropriately in a "mature, professional" way.^[65] In this way, they "personify" or "represent" interests, and who they personally are, may be completely irrelevant to that – it is relevant only to the extent that their true personality fits with the role.

People are slotted into functions where they have characteristics which are at least compatible with the functions. They always have a choice in how they perform their role and how they act it out, but they have no choice about taking it on. If they succeed in their role, they can advance their position or career, but if they fail to live up to it, they are demoted or fired. Human individuality is then conceptualized in terms of the relationship between buyer and seller.^[66]

Masking

The third step in his argument is, that the practices just described necessarily lead to the "masking" of behaviors and personalities, and to a transformation of personality and consciousness.^[67] It is not just that people can rarely be "all of themselves" while performing a specialized function in the division of labour, and must also express something new and different. There are also many competing, conflicting and contradictory interests at stake – and these must somehow be dealt with and reconciled by the living person.^[68]

Different interests have to be constantly mediated and defended in everyday behaviour, with the aid of character masks; these masks exist to mediate conflict. It means that people are obliged or forced to express certain qualities and repress other qualities in themselves. In doing this, however, their own consciousness and personality is altered.^[69] To be part of an organization, or "rise to the top" of an organization, they have to be able to "act out" everything that it requires in a convincing way, and that can only happen if they either have, or acquire, real characteristics which are at least compatible with it. That requires not just an "acculturation" process, but also sufficient behavioral flexibility, intelligence, acumen and creativity – so that a person does not inappropriately "fall out of the role". Discord between identity and function is tolerated only in contexts where it does not matter.

Inversion

The fourth step in his argument concerns an inversion of subject and object. It is not just that the commercial relationships between things being traded begins to dominate and reshape human behaviour, and remake social relations. In addition, human relations become the property of things. Inanimate things, and the relationships between them, are endowed with human characteristics. They become "actors" relating in their own right to which people much adjust their behaviour, and they are also theorized in that way.^[70] This is a special case of anthropomorphism because it occurs within human relations, not in relation to an object external to them.

A symbolic language and way of communicating emerges, in which inanimate "things" are personified. A market (or a price, or a stock, or a state etc.) gains an independent power to act. Marx calls this commodity fetishism (or more generally, "fetishism"), and he regards it as a necessary reification of the symbolizations required to traverse life's situations in bourgeois society, because the relationships between people are constantly being mediated by the relationships between things. It means that people are eventually unable to take their mask off, because the masks are controlled by the business relationships between things being traded, and by broader legal, class, or political interests. If they are actually unable to take the mask off, they have effectively submitted fully to the power of abstract, impersonal market forces and legal rules.^[71] As many philosophical texts suggest, by being habituated to a role, the role is internalized by individuals, and becomes part of their personality: they become the thing that they acted out.

Alienation

The fifth step in the argument is that on the world's stage, the "dance of masked people, and of the things they have endowed with an independent power to act and relate" leads to pervasive human alienation (the estrangement of people from themselves, and from others in contacts which have become impersonal and functional).^[72] It durably distorts human consciousness at the very least, and at worst it completely deforms human consciousness. It mystifies the real nature, and the real relationships, among people and things – even to the point where they can hardly be conceived anymore as they really are.

The masks influence the very way in which realities are categorized. People's theorizing about the world also becomes detached from the relevant contexts, and the interpretation of reality then involves multiple "layers" of meanings, in which "part of the story" hides the "whole story". What the whole story is, may itself become an almost impenetrable mystery, about which it may indeed be argued that it cannot be solved.^[73] The real truth about a person may be considered unknowable, but as long as the person can function normally, it may not matter; one is judged simply according to the function performed.

In what Marx calls "ideological consciousness", interests and realities are presented other than they really are, in justifying and defining the meaning of what happens. People may believe they can no longer solve problems, simply because they lack the categories to "think" them, and it requires a great deal of critical and self-critical thought, as well as optimism, to get beyond the surface of things to the root of the problems.

Development

The last step is that effectively capitalist market society develops human beings in an inverted way. The capitalist economy is not primarily organized for the people, but people are organized for the capitalist economy, to serve others who already have plenty of wealth. In an increasingly complex division of labour offering little job security, there is more and more external pressure forcing people to act in all kinds of different roles, masking themselves in the process; by this act, they also acquire more and more behavioural and semiotic flexibility, and develop more and more relational skills and connections. The necessity to work and relate in order to survive thus accomplishes the "economic formation of society" at the same time, even if in this society people lack much control over the social relations in which they must participate. It is just that the whole development occurs in an imbalanced, unequal and uncoordinated way, in which the development of some becomes conditional on the lack of development by others.^[74]

Commercial interests and political class interests ultimately prevail over the expressed interests of individuals. In the periodic economic crises, masses of people are condemned to the unemployment scrapheap, no matter what skills they may have; they are incompatible with the functioning of the bourgeois system, "collateral rubbish" that is swept aside. Even highly developed people can find that society regards them as worthless – which quite often tends to radicalize their opinions (see extremism and radicalization).

Revolution

A seventh step could in principle be added, namely a big crisis in society which sparks off a revolution and overturns the existing capitalist system. In that case, it could be argued, the false masks are torn off, and people have to stand up for what they really are, and what they really believe in.^[75] But that is a possibility which Marx did not comprehensively theorize in Das Kapital.

Engels

The mask metaphor appears in the early writings of Friedrich Engels, and his influence on Marx is often underestimated.^[76]

In 1894, Engels referred to character masks in his Preface to Capital, Volume III – when rebutting a criticism of Marx's theory by Achille Loria. Engels's substantive sociological suggestion seems to be that:

• in a society's progressive, constructive era, its best characters come to the fore, and no character masks are necessary for them.
• when society degenerates and submits to intolerable conditions, it not only gives rise to all sorts of dubious, talentless characters who cannot lead the way forward, but also society's dignity can only be sustained by masking the social contradictions.
• based on comprehensive knowledge of a country and its national psychology, it is possible to specify the types of personalities who exemplify the nature of the era.

The problem with this kind of argument is just that, in defining the meaning of what is happening in society, it is very difficult to provide definite scientific proof that this meaning is the objective truth. It remains an interpretation, which may make sense of things at a certain level, without providing the whole truth. Engels's comment illustrates that the concept of character masks is not infrequently used in a polemical way to describe a false or inauthentic representation.^[77]

Engels, like Marx, also used the notion of a "mask" in the more general sense of a political "guise" or "disguise", for example in several of his historical analyses about religious movements.^[78]

Marxist theories

Early Marxism

• In his biography of Marx, Franz Mehring refers to character masks, but more in the sense of Weberian ideal types or stereotypical characters.^[79]
• The Marx-Studien published by Rudolf Hilferding and Max Adler referred to character masks as a theoretical category.^[80]
• The communist dramatist Bertolt Brecht made extensive use of neutral and character masks. In plays such as The Caucasian Chalk Circle and The Good Person of Szechwan, the masks support what Brecht called "the alienation effect" (see distancing effect).^[81]

Lukács

György Lukács referred to the "very important category of economic character masks", but he never provided a substantive analysis of its meaning.^[82] He only referred candidly to his own "Socratic mask" in a 1909 love letter to a friend.^[83] In a 1909 essay, Lukács opined that "the bourgeois way of life" is "only a mask", which "like all masks" negates something, i.e. the bourgeois mask denies vital parts of human life, in the interests of money-making.^[84]

Lukács restricted the application of the idea to capitalists only, claiming that Marx had considered capitalists as "mere character masks"^[85] – meaning that capitalists, as the personifications ("agents") of capital, did not do anything "without making a business out of it", given that their activity consisted of the correct management and calculation of the objective effects of economic laws. Marx himself never simply equated capitalists with their character masks; they were human beings entangled in a certain life predicament, like anybody else.^[86] Capitalists became the "personification" of their capital, because they had money which was permanently invested somewhere, and which necessarily had to obtain a certain yield. At most one could say that capitalists had more to hide, and that some had personal qualities enabling them to succeed in their function, while others lacked the personal prerequisites. According to Lukács, the character masks of the bourgeoisie express a "necessary false consciousness" about the class consciousness of the proletariat.^[87]

Post-war Western Marxism

In the post-war tradition of Western Marxism, the concept of character masks was theorized about especially by scholars of the Frankfurt School,^[88] and other Marxists influenced by this school. Most of the Frankfurt theorists believed in Freud's basic model of human nature. Erich Fromm expanded it by developing the social-psychological concept of "social character".^[89]

• It also appears in Marxist-existentialist thought, such as in the writings of Jean-Paul Sartre.^[90] In his famous book Being and Time, Heidegger distinguished between the "they-self", i.e. the self that is just "being there", in common view, and the authentic self, the "self-aware" self who explicitly grasps his own identity.^[91]
• In a radical synthesis of Marx and Freud, Wilhelm Reich created the concept of "character armor". It refers to the total "harness" of physiological defences which mask off the pain of repressing feelings – feelings which the individual is not permitted to express in civil life, or is unable to express adequately.^[92] Masking is nowadays acknowledged by behavioural scientists to be also a purely biological or psychophysical process in sentient organisms: neurologically, the subjective experience of some perceived stimuli by the organism is modified or distorted by the intervention of other perceived stimuli. It can have a critically important effect on the ability of the organism to make choices, orient itself, or display sensitivity. Reich's idea was developed further by Arthur Janov, where the primal scream breaks through the masks of the body and its behaviour.
• In the philosophy of the Marxist semiotician Roland Barthes, the mask features primarily as a "sign" with fixed meanings.^[93]
• The concept of character masks was used by Anglo-Saxon Western Marxist or post-Marxist thinkers like Perry Anderson, Werner Bonefeld, Paul Connerton, Michael Eldred, Russell Jacoby, Lawrence Krader, and Michael Perelman. János Kornai also refers to it. In Germany and Austria, the concept has been used in the Marxian tradition by Elmar Altvater, Ingo Elbe, Wolfgang Fritz Haug, Michael Heinrich, Robert Kurz, Ernst Lohoff, Klaus Ottomeyer, and Franz Schandl (as cited in the notes).

Theodor Adorno

Adorno argues that Marx explained convincingly why the appearance-form and the real nature of human relations often does not directly coincide, not on the strength of a metaphysical philosophy such as transcendental realism,^[94] but by inferring the social meaning of human relations from the way they observably appear in practical life – using systematic critical and logical thought as a tool of discovery. Every step in the analysis can be logically and empirically tested.^[95] The hermeneutic assumption is that these relations require shared meanings in order to be able to function and communicate at all. These shared presuppositions have an intrinsic rationality, because human behaviour – ultimately driven by the need to survive – is to a large extent purposive (teleological), and not arbitrary or random (though some of it may be). If the "essential relationships" never became visible or manifest in any way, no science would be possible at all, only speculative metaphysics. It is merely that sense data require correct interpretation – they do not have a meaning independently of their socially mediated interpretation. In that sense, the mask presupposes the existence of something which for the time being remains invisible, but which can be revealed when one discovers what is behind the mask. It may be that the essence suddenly reveals itself on the stage of history, or more simply that the understandings which one already has, are altered so that the essence of the thing is finally grasped.

Frankfurt School analysis

Inspired by Marx's concept of character masks, the founder of the Frankfurt School, Max Horkheimer, began to work out a critical, social-psychological understanding of human character in the so-called Dämmerung period (in 1931/34).^[96] Horkheimer stated the Frankfurt School perspective clearly:

The equality of free individuals, which renews itself through the exchange, the labor of each as the basis of their possessions and power, in short, the principle of the bourgeoisie upon which rests its ideology, its justice, and its morality... reveals itself as a mere façade that masks the true relations.^[97]

The Frankfurt School, and especially Herbert Marcuse, was also concerned with how people might rebel against or liberate themselves from the character-masks of life in bourgeois society, through asserting themselves authentically as social, political and sexual beings. The Frankfurt School theorists intended to show, that if in bourgeois society things appear other than they really are, this masking is not simply attributable to the disguises of competitive business relationships in the marketplace. It is rooted in the very psychological make-up, formation and behaviour of individual people. In their adaptation to bourgeois society, they argued, people internalize specific ways of concealing and revealing what they do, repressing some of their impulses and expressing others. If people are dominated, they are not dominated only by forces external to themselves, but by ideas and habits which they have internalized, and accept as being completely "natural". Max Horkheimer puts it as follows: "The principle of domination, based originally on brute force, acquired in the course of time a more spiritual character. The inner voice took the place of the master in issuing commands."^[98]

Contradictory masks

The "masking" of an alienated life, and the attempts to counteract it, are thought of in these Marxist theories as co-existing but contradictory processes,^[99] involving constant conflicts between what people really are, how they present themselves, and what they should be according to some external requirement imposed on them – a conflict which involves a perpetual struggle from which people can rarely totally withdraw, because they still depend for their existence on others, and have to face them, masked or unmasked.^[100]

The struggle for identity

To the extent that the commercial and public roles impose heavy personal burdens, and little space exists anymore "to be oneself", people can experience personal stress, mental suffering and personal estrangement (alienation), sometimes to the point where they "lose themselves", and no longer "know who they are" (identity crisis).^[101]

• People may continue to function routinely ("the silent compulsion of economic relations"^[102]), sublimating, suppressing or masking the contradictions, perhaps in a schizoid way, as a zombie, as a psychopath, or by becoming withdrawn. In that case, Erich Fromm argues, human beings can become wholly conformist "automatons" ("the automation of the individual") in which a "pseudo self" replaces the "original self" – "The pseudo self is only an agent who actually represents the role a person is supposed to play, but who does so under the name of the self."^[103]

Ultimately, there exists no individual solution to such identity problems, because to solve them requires the positive recognition, acceptance and affirmation of an identity by others – and this can only happen, if the individual can "join in" and receive social acknowledgement of his identity. Marx himself tackled this problem – rather controversially – in his 1843/44 essay "On the Jewish Question".

Recent controversies

Dialectical difficulties

Much of the scientific controversy about Marx's concept of character masks centres on his unique dialectical approach to analyzing the forms and structure of social relations in the capitalist system: in Das Kapital, he had dealt with persons (or "economic characters") only insofar as they personified or symbolized – often in a reified way – economic categories, roles, functions and interests (see above). According to Marx, the capitalist system functioned as a "system", precisely because the bourgeois relations of production and trade, including property rights, were imposed on people whether they liked it or not. They had to act and conform in a specific way to survive and prosper. As the mass of capital produced grew larger, and markets expanded, these bourgeois relations spontaneously reproduced themselves on a larger and larger scale, be it with the assistance of state aid, regulation or repression.^[104] However, many authors have argued that this approach leaves many facets of capitalist social relations unexplained.^[105] In particular, it is not so easy to understand the interactions between individuals and the society of which they are part, in such a way, that each is both self-determining and determined by the other.

Marx's concept of character masks has been interrogated by scholars primarily in the German-language literature. Werner Sombart stated in 1896 (two years after Capital, Volume III was published) that "We want a psychological foundation of social events and Marx did not bother about it".^[106]

Soviet Union

The historian Sheila Fitzpatrick has recorded how, in the Soviet Union, "The theatrical metaphor of masks was ubiquitous in the 1920s and '30s, and the same period saw a flowering of that peculiar form of political theater: the show trial."^[107] Those who supported the revolution and its communist leadership were politically defined as "proletarian" and those who opposed it were defined as "bourgeois". The enemies of the revolution had to be hunted down, unmasked, and forced to confess their counter-revolutionary (i.e. subversive) behaviour, whether real or imagined. It led to considerable political paranoia. Abandoning bourgeois and primitive norms, and becoming a cultured, socialist citizen, was "akin to learning a role".^[108] In the 1920s, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) adopted the slogan "tear off each and every mask from reality". This was based on a quotation from Lenin, who wrote in his 1908 essay on Leo Tolstoy as mirror of the Russian revolution that the "realism of Tolstoy was the tearing off of each and every mask"(sryvanie vsekh i vsiacheskikh masok).^[109] The communist authorities kept detailed files on the class and political credentials of citizens, leading to what historians call "file-selves".^[110]

Much later, in 1973 (16 years before Slavoj Žižek entered the intellectual scene) the German New Left critic Michael Schneider claimed that:

The animosity towards psychology that marked the Stalinist era and determines the communist reception of Freud to this day is based primarily on the Marxist concept of the "character mask". The Leftist 'anti-psychologism' of neo-Stalinist and Maoist groups in Germany and elsewhere also seeks to condemn psychoanalysis time and again with the argument that Marx's concept of the "character mask" has superseded psychology once and for all. Such a vulgar anti-psychologism, however, mistakes the polemical nature of the concept. Marx used it primarily to attack bourgeois psychologism which sublimated the principle of homo homini lupus est [i.e. 'man is a wolf to man'] into an eternal verity of human nature.^[111]

According to this interpretation, there was a "blind spot" in Marx's explanation of bourgeois society, because he had disregarded psychological factors. Moreover, Marxists had interpreted Marx's theory of the "personification of economic functions" as an alternative to psychology as such. Thus, equipped with a simplistic "reflection theory of consciousness" and an "objectivist concept of class consciousness", the Russian revolutionaries (naively) assumed that once the bourgeois had been liberated from his property, and the institutions of capitalism were destroyed, then there was no more need for masking anything – society would be open, obvious and transparent, and resolving psychological problems would become a purely practical matter (the "re-engineering of the human soul"). Very simply put, the idea was that "the solution of psychological problems is communism". However, Raymond A. Bauer suggests that the communist suspicion of psychological research had nothing directly to do with the idea of "character masks" as such, but more with a general rejection of all approaches which were deemed "subjectivist" and "unscientific" in a positivist sense (see positivism).^[112]

The USSR became increasingly interested in conceptions of human nature which facilitated social control by the communist party, and from this point of view, too, the concept of the unconscious was problematic and a nuisance: by definition, the unconscious is something which cannot easily be controlled consciously. However, psychoanalysis was considered bourgeois; this situation began to change only gradually Nikita Khrushchev had made his famous secret speech, in which he condemned the "personality cult" around Stalin (see "On the Personality Cult and Its Consequences"). The obligatory official broadsides against Freud and the neo-Freudians in the Soviet Union ceased only from 1972, after which psychoanalysis was to a large extent rehabilitated.^[113]

The New Left and the Red Army Faction

The New Left was a radical trend which began in 1956/57, a time when large numbers of intellectuals around the world resigned from the "Old Left" Communist parties in protest against the Soviet invasion of Hungary during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. These New Left intellectuals broke with the official Marxism–Leninism ideology, and they founded new magazines, clubs and groups, which in turn strongly influenced a new generation of students. They began to study Marx afresh, to find out what he had really meant.

In Germany, the term Charaktermaske was popularized in the late 1960s and in the 1970s especially by "red" Rudi Dutschke, one of the leaders of the student radicals.^[114][115] By "character masks", Dutschke meant essentially that the official political personalities and business leaders were merely the interchangeable "human faces", the representatives or puppets masking an oppressive system; one could not expect anything else from them, than what the system required them to do. Focusing on individual personalities was a distraction from fighting the system they represented.

According to the German educationist Ute Grabowski,

The '68 student movement transformed the concept of character masks into a concept of struggle [Kampbegriff] – even although, originally, it was nothing more than a straightforward description of the inevitability of being driven into social roles together with other particular people, without being able to hold each of them individually responsible for that.^[116]

The positive utopian longing emerging in the 1960s was that of reaching a life situation in which people would be able to meet each other naturally, spontaneously and authentically, freed from any constraints of rank or status, archaic rituals, arbitrary conventions and old traditions.^[117] In their social criticism, the youth began to rebel against the roles which were formally assigned to them, and together with that, began to question the social theory of roles,^[118] which presented those roles as natural, necessary and inevitable.^[119] In particular, the women's liberation movement began to challenge gender roles as sexist and patriarchal. There seemed to be a big gap between the façade of roles, and the true nature of social relationships, getting in the way of personal authenticity (being "for real"). Official politics was increasingly regarded as the "masquerade" of those in power. To illustrate the spirit of the times, Anne-Marie Rocheblave-Spenlé who had previously authored a classic French text on role theory, in 1974 published a book titled, significantly, Le Pouvoir Demasque (Power unmasked).^[120]

The concept of "character masks" was by no means an unimportant political concept in Germany, since it was being used explicitly by terrorists in their justifications for assassinating people.^[121]

Ten points of controversy

Questions subsequently arose in New Left circles about ten issues:

• whether behaviour is in truth an "act" or whether it is "for real", and how one could know or prove that (the problem of authenticity).^[122]
• whether character exists at all, if "masks mask other masks" in an endless series^[123]
• how people make other people believe what their real character is (see also charisma).^[124]
• the extent to which masks "of some sort" are normal, natural, necessary and inevitable in civilized society (or given a certain population density).^[125]
• whether there can be objective tests of character masks as a scientific concept, or whether they are a polemical, partisan characterization.
• the extent to which the device of "character masks" is only an abstraction or a metaphor,^[126] or whether it is a valid empirical description of aspects of real human behaviour in capitalist society.^[127]
• what is specific about the character masks of capitalist society, and how this should be explained.
• whether the "masks" of a social system are in any way the same as the masks of individuals.^[128]
• to what extent people are telling a story about the world, or whether they are really telling a story about themselves, given that the mask may not be adequate and other people can "see through it" anyway.^[129]
• whether Marx's idea of character masks contains an ethnocentric^[130] or gender bias.^[131]

German sociologist Uri Rapp theorized that Charaktermaske was not the same as "role"; rather Charaktermaske was a role forced on people, in a way that they could not really escape from it, i.e. all their vital relationships depended on it. People were compelled by the relations of production. Thus, he said, "every class membership is a Charaktermaske and even the ideological penetration of masquerades (the 'class consciousness of the proletariat') could not change or cast off character masks, only transcend them in thought." In addition, Charaktermaske was "present in the issue of the human being alienated from his own personality."^[132]

Jean L. Cohen complained that:

the concept of the character mask collapses the rationality of the system with the rationality of social action, deriving the latter from the former... only action according to interests (imputed from the systemic logic of contradiction even if this logic is constituted by class relations) is rational action. Accordingly, the very power of "class" to act as a critical concept vis-a-vis the logic of capitalist production relations is lost.^[133]

As the post-war economic boom collapsed in the 1970s, and big changes in social roles occurred, these kinds of controversies stimulated a focus by social theorists on the "social construction of personal identity". A very large academic literature was subsequently published on this topic, exploring identity-formation from many different angles.^[134] The discourse of identity resonated well with the concerns of adolescents and young adults who are finding their identity, and it has been a popular subject ever since. Another reason for the popularity of the topic, noted by Richard Sennett in his book The corrosion of character, is the sheer number of different jobs people nowadays end up doing during their lifetime.^[135] People then experience multiple changes of identity in their lifetime – their identity is no longer fixed once and for all.

Humanism and anti-humanism

Marx's "big picture" of capitalism often remained supremely abstract,^[136] although he claimed ordinary folks could understand his book.^[137] It seemed to many scholars that in Marx's Capital people become "passive subjects" trapped in a system which is beyond their control, and which forces them into functions and roles. Thus, it is argued that Marx's portrayal of the capitalist system in its totality is too "deterministic", because it downplays the ability of individuals as "active human subjects" to make free choices, and determine their own fate (see also economic determinism).^[138] The theoretical point is stated by Peter Sloterdijk as follows:

As a theory of masks, [Marx's theory] distinguishes a priori between persons as individuals and as bearers of class functions. In doing so, it remains a little unclear which side is respectively the mask of the other – the individual the mask of the function, or the function the mask of individuality. The majority of critics have for good reasons, chosen the antihumanist version, the conception that individuality is the mask of the function.^[139]

In the antihumanist version, the individual is viewed as "a creation of the system" or "a product of society" who personifies a social function. In this case, a person selected to represent and express a function is no more than a functionary (or a "tool"): the person himself is the character mask adopted by the system or the organization of which he is part. Hidden behind the human face is the (inhuman) system which it operates. In the humanist version, the process is not one of personification, but rather of impersonation, in which case the function is merely a role acted out by the individual. Since the role acted out may in this case not have much to do with the individual's true personality, the mask-bearer and the mask he bears are, in this case, two different things – creating the possibility of a conflict between the bearer and the role he plays. Such a conflict is generally not possible in the antihumanist interpretation ("if you work for so-and-so, you are one of them"), since any "dysfunctional" character mask would simply be replaced by another.

Louis Althusser's anti-humanism

In the antihumanist philosophy of the French Marxist Louis Althusser, individuals as active subjects who have needs and make their own choices, and as people who "make their own history", are completely eradicated in the name of "science".^[140] In fact, Althusser recommended the psychological theory of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan in the French Communist Party journal La Nouvelle Critique specifically as a "science of the (human) unconscious".^[141] In the glossary of his famous book Reading Capital (co-written with Étienne Balibar), Althusser announces:

The biological men are only the supports or bearers of the guises ("Charaktermasken") assigned to them by the structure of relations in the social formation.^[142]

Critics of this idea argue people are not merely the "bearers" of social relations, they are also the "conscious operators" of social relations – social relations which would not exist at all, unless people consciously interacted and cooperated with each other. The real analytical difficulty in social science is, that people both make their social relations, but also participate in social relations which they did not make or consciously choose themselves. Some roles in society are consciously and voluntarily chosen by individuals, other roles are conferred on people simply by being and participating in society with a given status. Some roles are also a mixture of both: once people have chosen a role, they may have that role, whether they like it or not; or, once habituated to role, people continue to perform the role even although they could in principle choose to abandon it. That is why both the humanist and the antihumanist interpretations of character masks can have some validity in different situations.

According to some critics, Althusser's "totalizing perspective"^[143] – which, by destroying the dialectics of experience, cannot reconcile the ways in which people "make history" and are "made by history", and therefore falls from one contradiction into another and destroys belief in the power of human action (because "the system" dominates everything).

The sociological imagination

C. Wright Mills developed a concept known as the sociological imagination, the idea being that understanding the link between "private troubles" and "public issues" requires creative insight by the researchers, who are personally involved in what they try to study. The analytical question for social scientists then is, how much the concept of "character masks" can really explain, or whether its application is overextended or overworked.

For example, Jon Elster argued that:

Capitalist entrepreneurs are agents in the genuinely active sense. They cannot be reduced to mere placeholders in the capitalist system of production. This view goes against a widespread interpretation of Marx. It is often said that he attached little importance to intentional explanation in economics, since the basic units of his theory are "character masks" rather than individuals. The capitalist, in particular, is only the "conscious support" of the capitalist process, and only enacts the laws regulating it. Even capitalist consumption can be seen as "capital's expense of reproduction". This is well in line with the view that the worker is the passive embodiment of his consumption bundle, rather than an active human being capable, among other things, of waging a struggle for a larger bundle. The conclusion often drawn from this argument is that the capitalist does not "choose" his actions, but is "forced" by his need to survive in the competitive market. I believe this way of stating the issue is misleading. "Choosing" only means comparing alternatives and picking the best of them. The choice may well be said to be forced if all alternatives but one are unacceptable, but it is no less of a choice for that. Rather, the relevant distinction is that between forced and unforced choice, for example between being forced to optimize and not being forced to do so. This distinction might for instance serve to distinguish between capitalists at different stages of capitalist development, as suggested by Weber.^[144]

Jürgen Ritsert, a Frankfurt sociologist, queried the utility of the concept of character masks:

are there special concepts in Marx's Critique of Political Economy which could mediate an application of the general concept of a specific historical totality to singular acts and particular act-meanings? Usually "Charaktermaske" (character mask) is mentioned as such a concept.... I do not think that "Charaktermaske" is one of the sought after decisive mediating terms.^[145]

Sociobiology

Faced with the problem of understanding human character masks – which refers to how human beings have to deal with the relationship between the "macro-world" (the big world) and the "micro-world" (the small world)^[146] – scholarship has often flip-flopped rather uneasily between structuralism and subjectivism, inventing dualisms between structure and agency.^[147] The academic popularity of structural-functionalism has declined, "role definitions" have become more and more changeable and vague, and the Althusserian argument has been inverted: human behaviour is explained in terms of sociobiology.^[148] Here, "the person" is identified with "the physical body". This is closer to Marx's idea of "the economic formation of society as a process of natural history", but often at the cost of "naturalizing" (eternalizing) social phenomena which belong to a specific historical time – by replacing their real, man-made social causes with alleged biological factors. On this view, humans (except ourselves) are essentially, and mainly, animals. The treatment of humans as if they are animals is itself a strategy of domination.^[149]

Postmodernism

The more recent postmodern criticism of Marx's portrayal of character masks concerns mainly the two issues of personal identity and privacy.

It is argued that modern capitalism has moved far beyond the type of capitalism that Marx knew.^[150] Capitalist development has changed the nature of people themselves, and how one's life will go is more and more unpredictable.^[151] There is no longer any clear and consensual view of how "personal identity" or "human character" should be defined (other than by identity cards).^[152] It is also no longer clear what it means to "mask" them, or what interests that can serve.^[153] Roles are constantly being redefined to manipulate power relationships, and shunt people up or down the hierarchy.

The postmodern concept of human identity maximizes the flexibility, variability and plasticity of human behaviour, so that the individual can "be and do many different things, in many different situations", without any necessary requirement of continuity between different "acts" in space and time. The effect as a lack of coherence; becomes more difficult to know or define what the identity of someone truly is. As soon as the self is viewed as a performance, masking becomes an intrinsic aspect of the self, since there still exists an "I" which directs the performance and which therefore simultaneously "reveals and conceals" itself. The corollary is, that it becomes much more difficult to generalize about human beings. The most basic level the categories or units used to make comparisons remain vague. At most, one can objectively measure the incidence and frequency of different types of observable behaviour.

Aggregate human behaviour is then often explained either as a biological effect or as a statistical effect, estimated by probability theory. Some Marxists regard this perspective as a form of dehumanization, which signifies a deepening of human alienation, and leads to a return to religion to define humanity. Modern information technology and the sexual revolution, it is nowadays argued, have radically altered the whole idea of what is "public" and what is "private".^[154] Increasingly, information technology becomes a tool for social control. Some Marxists even refer to the spectre of totalitarian capitalism.^[155] Human individuals then appear to be caught up in a stressful battle to defend their own definition of themselves against the definitions imposed or attributed by others, in which they can become trapped.

Kurz and Lohoff

In their famous 1989 article "The class struggle fetish", the German neo-Marxists Robert Kurz and Ernst Lohoff reached the conclusion that the working class is ultimately just "the character mask of variable capital", a logical "real category" of Capital. The identities of all members of capitalist society, they argued, are ultimately formed as bourgeois character masks of self-valorizing value.^[156] In that case, people are valued according to the extent that they can make money for themselves, or for others.

Žižek

Slavoj Žižek attempts to create a new theory of masks, by mixing together the philosophies of Hegel, Karl Marx and Jacques Lacan with his understanding of fictional literature and political events.^[157] In Žižek's theory, oppressive social reality cannot exist and persist without ideological mystification, "The mask is not simply hiding the real state of things; the ideological distortion is written into [the] very essence [of the real state of things]."^[158] Thus, the mask is a necessary and integral component of an oppressive reality, and it is not possible to tear away the mask to reveal the oppressive reality underneath.

In The sublime object of ideology, Žižek summarizes Peter Sloterdijk's concept of cynical reason:

The cynical subject is quite aware of the distance between the ideological mask and the social reality, but he none the less still insists upon the mask. The formula, as proposed by Sloterdijk, would then be: "they know very well what they are doing, but still, they are doing it". Cynical reason is no longer naïve, but is a paradox of an enlightened false consciousness: one knows the falsehood very well, one is well aware of a particular interest hidden behind an ideological universality, but still one does not renounce it.^[159]

Often the pretense is kept up, because of a belief (or anxiety) that the alternative – i.e. dropping the pretense – would result in a negative effect, and compromise cherished values or beliefs. To maintain and build a team morale, results are dependent on shared beliefs, regardless of the integrity and awareness of those belief's within reality. The result, Žižek claims, is a "symbolic order" of "fetishist disavowal" in which people act morally "as if" they are related in certain ways – to the point where "the symbolic mask matters more than the direct reality of the individual who wears this mask."^[160] Using a Freudian theory, Žižek aims to explain the psychological processes by which people are reconciled with the symbolic order, or at least make it "liveable" for themselves (see also Freudo-Marxism).

Frank Furedi suggests that the concept of denial, central to Žižek's understanding of masks, has a stark contrast from contemporary post-Freudian society: "In today's therapy culture, people who express views that contradict our own are often told that they are 'in denial'. It has become a way of discrediting their viewpoint, or shutting them up."^[161] If people disagree, or will not cooperate, they are not taken seriously in a dialogue, but accused of having a psychological problem which stands in need of professional treatment. Thus, a dissident is neutralized by being turned into a patient who is "unhealthy", and people are managed according to psychotherapeutic concepts designed to invalidate their own meanings.^[162] Furedi implies that yesterday's leftist concepts can be recycled as today's tools for psychological manipulation: an idea which originally had a progressive intention can evolve until, in reality, it plays the very opposite role – even although (and precisely because) people continue to sentimentally cherish the old idea. The point is not simply to interpret the processes by which oppressed people are reconciled with, or reproduce their own oppression (Althusser's and Bourdieu's structuralist theory of "ideological reproduction"); the challenge is to create new ideas which can free the oppressed out of their oppression. For this purpose, ideas have to be situated according to how they are actually being used in the real world, and the oppressed have to be regarded as active subjects who can change their own fate.

Philip Rieff summarizes the main problem, and the main achievement of psychoanalysis, from the point of view of freeing people from the masks that may oppress them:

Freud carried the scientific suspicion of nature into ethics. It was as if, after all the pronouncements of theology and philosophy, after all the indications of experience, we had scarcely begun to understand ourselves... [According to Freud] our inner nature – the ultimate subject studied by all the moral sciences – lies hidden. Against the conventional assumption that each knows himself best in his own heart, Freud supports the Nietzschean assumption that each is farthest from his own self, and must journey through experience in search of it. He surpasses even the Romantics in his deprecation of mere intellect.... To "know thyself" is to be known by another [i.e. by the psychoanalyst].^[163]

If it is true that "we do not even know who we are", then it becomes difficult to understand how people could free themselves from deceptive masks, and change the world for the better, unless they all get a massive dose of psychotherapy to "find themselves".

Unmasking

If one successfully unmasks something, one understands it for what it really is, and can handle it; inversely, if one understands something and can handle it, it is unmasked.^[164] Yet, as Marx notes, "in the analysis of economic forms neither microscopes nor chemical reagents are of assistance. The power of abstraction must replace both."^[165]

Economic analysis not only studies the total social effect of human actions, which is usually not directly observable to an individual, other than in the form of statistics or television.^{[clarification needed]} The "economic actors" are also human beings who create interactions and relationships which have human meanings. Those meanings cannot be observed directly, they are in people's heads, actively created in their social relationships, and expressed symbolically.

Collapse

Capitalism unmasks itself in the course of development, when its internal contradictions become so great, that they cause collapse – impelling the revolutionary transformation of capitalism by human action into a new social order, amidst all the political conflicts and class struggles.^[166] In trying to get on top of the relations they have created, human beings are themselves transformed. Scientific inquiry, Marx felt, should be an aid in the cause of human progress, to ensure that the new social order emerging will be a real open society. Human progress is achieved, to the degree that people abolish the oppressions of people by other people, and oppressions by the blind forces of nature.^[167]

See also

• Art and morality
• Crystallized self
• Honne and tatemae
• Identity management
• Moral character
• Theatre of the Oppressed

Notes

1. 
   

A famous anthropological essay on the idea of the "persona" is Marcel Mauss, "A category of the human mind: the notion of person, the notion of 'self'." in: Mauss, Sociology and psychology: essays. Translated by Ben Brewster. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979. See, for a recent discussion of the concept of persona: Marta Cecilia Betancur García (Universidad de Caldas), "Persona y máscara", Praxis Filosófica, Nueva serie, no. 30, January–June 2010: pp. 7–16. Praxi.univalle.edu.co Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine

The Greek concept of prosopon, meaning "the face", literally is "that which is set before the eyes", and thus also refers to "a mask" (John Mack (ed.), Masks: the art of expression. London: British Museum, 1994, p. 151). In Greek theatre, the function of the mask was impersonate a character. In post-Freudian psychology, by contrast, the mask is a metaphor for the external self, concealing the reality within (ibid., p. 151-152, 157).

The neo-Marxists referring to character masks were especially those of the Frankfurt School, such as Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer. For a non-Marxist approach to character masks, see Anthony Giddens, The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.

See: Alasdair Macintyre, After Virtue. University of Notre Dame Press, 2007, pp. 27–35, 109–110; Peter Sloterdijk, Critique of Cynical Reason. Verso, 1988, p. 37.

E.g. Lawrence Krader, David Graeber

Gordon W. Allport, "My encounters with personality theory". Recorded and edited reminiscence at the Boston University School of Theology, October 12, 1962, transcribed by W. Douglas, p. 1. As cited by Christopher F. Monte and Robert N. Sollod, Beneath the mask. An introduction to theories of personality, 7th edition. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2003, p. 2. A Marxist interpretation of character is provided by Kit R. Christensen, The Politics of Character Development: A Marxist Reappraisal of the Moral Life. Praeger, 1994.

Edith Hall, The theatrical cast of Athens; interactions between ancient Greek drama & society. Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 31.

George Lukács, "The Sociology of Modern Drama" (transl. Lee Baxandall), The Tulane Drama Review, 1965, Vol.9(4), pp.146–170.

Elizabeth and Tom Burns, Sociology of Literature and Drama. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.

See e.g. Ingo Elbe, "Thesen zum Begriff der Charaktermaske" Rote Ruhr Uni site.

See for example Ronald W. Clark, Lenin: the man behind the mask. New York: St Martins Press, 1989; Gary Allen, Richard Nixon: The Man Behind The Mask. Boston: Western Islands, 1971 (see also Richard Nixon mask; Adam Robinson, Bin Laden: behind the mask of the terrorist. Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2001. Nick Henck, Subcommander Marcos: The Man and the Mask. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007.

Anne Duncan, Performance and identity in the classical world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Donald Rumsfeld: "Reports that say that something has not happened are always interesting to me, because as we know, there are known knowns; there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns – the ones we do not know we do not know." – Department of Defense news briefing, February 12, 2002. Rumsfeld leaves out "the things we do not know that we know", perhaps "do not want to know about ourselves" and therefore mask to ourselves – giving rise to the possibility of being "unconsciously conscious" or "consciously unconscious", a theme explored by Sigmund Freud and his school. See further: John Keegan, The mask of command. New York : Viking, 1987. Engels's German expression "falsch Bewusstsein" is correctly translated as "false awareness", not as "false consciousness".

Paul Ricœur, "The critique of religion", in The philosophy of Paul Ricoeur. An Anthology of his Work. Boston: Beacon Press, 1978, p. 215. Cited in Richard Kearney, On Paul Ricoeur: the owl of Minerva. London: Ashgate, 2004, p. 27.

Letter of Friedrich Engels to Franz Mehring, 14 July 1893

Terry Eagleton, Ideology: An Introduction. London: Verso, 1991, pp.5–6.

Karl Marx, Value, Price and Profit, part 9.Marxists.org; Karl Marx, Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875), part 2 (emphases added). Marxists.org Cf. the Resultate manuscript in Capital, Volume I, Penguin edition, p. 1064, where Marx uses the word "vertuscht" ("covered up").

Marx, Capital, Volume III, Penguin edition, p. 956 (translation corrected according to the German edition).

For a commentary by a Marxian economist, see: Duncan K. Foley, The strange history of the economic agent Archived March 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.

Franz Leopold Neumann, The democratic and the authoritarian state: Essays in political and legal theory. Free Press, 1957, pp. 61–62.

Marx analyzes the social meaning of exchange relations in the Grundrisse, Penguin ed., pp. 242–245. Evgeny Pashukanis argues that "The egoistic subject, the subject of a right and the moral personality are the three basic masks under which man appears in commodity production." – Pashukanis, Law and Marxism: a general theory. Ink Links, 1978, chapter 6. Marxists.org

Leo Löwenthal, Literature and the Image of Man. Sociological Studies of the European Drama and Novel, 1600–1900. Boston: Beacon Press, 1957, p. 170.

Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, part 1, in: Marx/Engels Selected Works, Vol. 1. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1969.

For a commentary, see: Elmar Altvater & Birgit Mahnkopf, "The world market unbound." In: Review of International Political Economy, Volume 4, Issue 3, September 1997, pp. 448–471.

Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, Penguin ed., p. 280.

See for example Franklin C. Southworth, "Linguistic masks for power: some relationships between semantic and social change", Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 16, 1974, pp. 177–19 and R.D.V. Glasgow, Madness, Masks and Laughter: An Essay on Comedy. Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Press, 1994.

"Western Theatre", article in Encyclopædia Britannica.

Wolfgang Fritz Haug, "Charaktermaske", in: Wolfgang Fritz Haug (ed.), Historisch-kritisches Wörterbuch des Marxismus, Vol. 2. Hamburg: Das Argument, 1995, p. 438. Haug cites P. Steinmetz, "Afterword", in: Theophrast, Charactere. Stuttgart, 1970, and G. Wilpert, Sachwortenbuch der Literatur, Stuttgart 1989. An English text is available online.Eudaemonist.com

Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader. Norton 2nd ed., 1978) Marxists.org. See Wolfgang Fritz Haug, "Charaktermaske", p. 442. See also: Christoph Henning, "Charaktermaske und Individualität bei Marx""Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2011-10-02., in: Marx-Engels Jahrbuch 2009. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010, which discusses various interpretations. The general intellectual milieu in which Marx developed his ideas is covered in: Warren Breckman, Marx, the young Hegelians and the origins of radical social theory: Dethroning the Self . Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Commentary in: Jochen Hörisch, "Charaktermasken. Subjektivität und Trauma bei Jean Paul und Marx." In: Jahrbuch der Jean-Paul-Gesellschaft, Nr. 14, 1979, republished in Jochen Hörisch, Die andere Goethezeit: Poetische Mobilmachung des Subjekts um 1800. München: Fink, 1998.

See Jean Paul, Vorschule der Ästhetik, in Jean Paul, Werke (ed. Nortbert Miller), Volume 5. München: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1963, para. 56, p. 208.

Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch.Woerterbuchnetz.de Woefterbuchnetz.de.

Joseph von Eichendorff, Sämtliche Erzählungen, Vol. 1: Ahnung und Gegenwart. Berlin: Deutscher Klassikerverlag, 2007, chapter 11. Cluberzengel.de

Roger F. Cook, A companion to the works of Heinrich Heine. Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2002, p.63. See e.g. Heinrich Heine, "Zweiter Brief" aus Berlin (1822), in: Werke und Briefe in zehn Bänden. Berlin und Weimar, 1972, Vol. 3, pp. 510-536 Zeno.org; Heinrich Heine, Sämtliche Schriften (ed. Klaus Briegleb), München: Hanser Verlag, 1963, Vol. 1, p. 68.

In the section of the Phenomenology on "the spiritual work of art", paragraphs 742–744.Marxists.org In a complex 1844 argument where Marx criticizes Hegel's Phenomenology, the suggestion is that contradictions of object and subject arise because philosophical thought masks important aspects of the issue to itself (see Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, Third Manuscript: "Private Property and Labour" Marxists.org. For a commentary on Hegels' masks in the Phenomenology, see e.g. Robert Bernasconi, "Persons and masks: The phenomenology of the spirit and its laws", in: Drucilla Cornell et al. (eds.), Hegel and Legal Theory. New York: Routledge, 1991, pp 78–94.

G.W.F. Hegel, Aesthetics. Lectures on Fine Art (transl. T.M. Knox), Vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), part 2, chapter 3 "the romantic form of art", p. 576-577.

Heinrich Theodor Rötscher, Die Kunst der Dramatischen Darstellung. In ihrem organische Zusammenhang entwickelt. Berlin: Verlag von W. Thome, 1841, p. 355. Cf. Münz, op. cit., p. 21.

See further Rudolf Münz, "Charaktermaske und Theatergleichnis bei Marx". In: R. Münz (ed.), Das 'andere' Theater. Studien über ein deutschsprachiges teatro dell'arte der Lessingzeit. Berlin: Henschelverlag Kunst und gesellschaft, 1979, pp. 19–48. On Marx's literary interests, see: Siegbert Salomon Prawer, Marx and World Literature. Oxford University Press, 1978 and Paul Lafargue, "Reminiscences of Marx", September 1890. Marxists.org

See e.g. Mary Alice Budge, The rhetoric of operation: character masks in the fiction of Daniel Defoe. Phd dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1970, 226 pp.

"Circular against Kriege", Part 4, April–May 1846, in: Marx/Engels Collected Works, Vol. 6, p. 35. Marxists.org

October 31, 1847, in: Marx/Engels Collected Works, Vol. 6, p. 312. Marxists.org

Marx/Engels Collected Works, Vol. 11, p. 657, note 155.

The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, first published in Die Revolution (New York), 1852, chapter 4. Marxists.org.

G.W.F. Hegel, The philosophy of right, § 344.

The 18th Brumaire, Part 1. Marxists.org For a commentary, see: Michel Chaouli, "Masking and Unmasking: The Ideological Fantasies of the Eighteenth Brumaire". In: Qui Parle, Vol. 3, No. 1, Spring 1989, pp. 53–71; Bob Jessop, "The Political Scene and the Politics of Representation: Periodizing Class Struggle and the State in The Eighteenth Brumaire." Working Paper, Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, 2003. Lancs.ac.uk

Friedrich Engels, "The true socialists", Marx/Engels Collected Works, Vol. 5, p. 540.Marxists.org

Alfred Meissner, Charaktermasken (3 vols.). Leipzig: Grunow Verlag, 1861–63 (Republished in 2011 by Nabu Press, a publisher without an address).

Jochen Hörisch, "Schlemihls Schatten – Schatten Nietzsches. Eine romantische Apologie des Sekundären", Athenäum 5: Jahrbuch für Romantik 1995, pp. 11–41 at p. 40., revised version in Jochen Hörisch, Kopf oder Zahl – Die Poesie des Geldes. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1998. Edoc.hu-berlin.de.

The academic interpretation of Marx's text in the English-speaking world was for many years influenced by the anti-humanist Marxist Louis Althusser, who believed human beings are only the bearers (receptacles) of a structured totality of social relations. The translator Ben Fowkes states that "The concept of an object (or person) as the receptacle, repository, bearer of some thing or tendency quite different from it appears repeatedly in Capital, and I have tried to translate it uniformly as 'bearer'." (Capital, Volume I, 1976 Penguin edition, p. 179). See also Perelman, Marx's crises theory: scarcity, labor and finance. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1987, p. 95)

Tom Bottomore et al. (ed.), A dictionary of Marxist Thought, Basil Blackwell 1983 (rev. edition 1991).

See David Macey, The Penguin Dictionary of Critical Theory. Penguin Books, 2000. The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory does refer in passing to character masks, with reference to Dialectic of Enlightenment. See Fred Rush (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 255.

James Russell, Marx-Engels Dictionary. Brighton: Harvester 1980.

Terrell Carver, A Marx Dictionary. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987.

David Walker & Daniel Gray, Historical Dictionary of Marxism. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, 2007.

Jochen Hörisch, "Larven und Charaktermaske – zum elften Kapitel von Ahnung und Gegenwart", in: Jochen Hörisch,Die andere Goethezeit: Poetische Mobilmachung des Subjekts um 1800. München: Fink, 1998, p. 215.

Dieter Claessens/Karin Claessens, Gesellschaft. Lexikon der Grundbegriffe. Reinbek: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH, 1992, p. 44. Compare also Wissenschaftslexikon Wirtschaftslexikon24.net.

Christoph Rülcker & Otthein Rammstedt, "Charaktermaske". In: Werner Fuchs-Heinritz, Daniela Klimke, Rüdiger Lautmann, Otthein Rammstedt, Urs Stäheli & Christoph Weischer, Lexikon zur Soziologie (4th edition). Wiesbaden: Vs Verlag, 2007, p. 111.

Haug, "Charaktermaske". See also Wolfgang Fritz Haug, "Charaktermaske". In: Martin Papenbrock, Kunst und Sozialgeschichte: Festchrift für Jutta Held. Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus, 1995.

Wolfgang Fritz Haug, "Charaktermaske", p. 436-437.

There is no entry for the term "character mask" in the Oxford English Dictionary. However, it is a specialist term in acting theory: see Ozdemir Nutku, "Style in acting" (Ankara: Teyatro Keyfi, 2002) "Ti̇yatro Keyfi̇". Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2010-07-21..

Michael Heinrich, "Replik auf Martin Birkner 'Der schmale Grat'", in: grundrisse. Zeitschrift fur linke theorie und debatte, no. 1, 2002. Grundrisse.net. Eduard Urbánek, "Roles, Masks and Characters: a Contribution to Marx's Idea of the Social Role", Social Research, Vol. 34, No. 3, 1967, pp. 529–563. Reprinted in Peter L. Berger (ed.), Marxism and Sociology: Views from Eastern Europe. New York: Meredith Corporation/Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969. As cited in the latter, p. 170.

See Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, chapter 24, part 4. Compare Ilja Srubar, Phänomenologie und soziologische Theorie: Aufsätze zur pragmatischen Lebenswelttheorie. Wiesbaden: Vs Verlag, 2007, p. 301.

Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, Penguin edition, p. 899. See further on this topic, in an American context, e.g. Samuel Bowles (economist) and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America. Routledge, 1976 and research by Melvin Kohn. For an English study, see the classic work by Paul Willis, Learning to Labour: how working class kids get working class jobs. Aldershot: Gower, 1977. Icce.rug.nl

Marx/Engels Werke, Band 18. Berlin: Dietz, 1962, p. 274.

See Ottomeyer, Ökonomische Zwänge und menschliche Beziehungen: Soziales Verhalten im Kapitalismus. Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 1977, p. 83.

Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, chapter 2 Marxists.org. Compare János Kornai, The socialist system: the political economy of communism. Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 251. The character masks of buyers and sellers are analyzed in Wolfgang Fritz Haug, Kritik der Warenästhetik: Gefolgt von Warenästhetik im High-Tech-Kapitalismus. Suhrkamp Verlag, neuausgabe 2009, pp. 89–98. English edition: Wolfgang Fritz Haug, Critique of commodity aesthetics. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986, pp. 49f.Wolfgangfritzhaug.inkrit.de Wolfgangfritzhaug.inkrit.de See also Wolfgang Fritz Haug, "Das Verkaufsgespräch. Charaktermaske von Käufer und Verkäufer". In: Joachim Dyck (ed.), Rhetorik in der Schule. Kronberg: Scriptor Verlag, 1974, pp. 196–203.

For a commentary, see e.g. Lawrence Krader, "Dialectic of Anthropology" in: Lawrence Krader, Dialectic of Civil Society. Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, Assen, 1976.

See further Michael Eldred, Critique of Competitive Freedom and the Bourgeois-Democratic State: Outline of a Form-analytic Extension of Marx's Uncompleted System. With an Appendix 'Value-form Analytic Reconstruction of the Capital-Analysis' by Michael Eldred, Marnie Hanlon, Lucia Kleiber and Mike Roth, Kurasje, Copenhagen, 1984. Amended, digitized edition 2010 with a new Preface, lxxiii + 466 pp.

Marx/Engels Werke (Berlin), Vol. 15, p. 464. As cited by Urbanek, p. 200. Russell Jacoby, Social amnesia (1975). Transaction publishers, 1997, p. 70.

See e.g. Karl Marx, Capital, Volume III, chapter 48: "The Trinity Formula" (Penguin, 1981, p. 953).

Lawrence Krader, "Marxist anthropology: principles and contradictions." International Review of Social History, Volume XX 1975, pp. 255–256.

Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, first manuscript, section "Estranged Labour" Marxists.org. For a commentary, see e.g. Bertell Ollman, Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society. Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1976

See further e.g. Ernest Mandel, Delightful Murder: A social history of the crime story. Pluto Press, 1984; Linden Peach, Masquerade, crime and fiction. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006; Ernst Bloch, "A philosophical view of the detective novel (1965)", in: Bloch, The utopian function of art and literature: selected essays. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988, pp. 252–253.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology, ed. C.J. Arthur, 1970, p. 116.

Sheila Fitzpatrick, Tear Off the Masks!: Identity and Imposture in Twentieth-Century Russia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.

Engels, "Modern literary life", Mitternachtzeitung für Leser, No. 51-54, March 1840, and No. 83-87, May 1840. Marxists.org. Also "Marginalia to Texts of our Time", in: Rheinische Zeitung No. 145, May 25, 1842. Marx/Engels Collected Works, Volume 2. Marxists.org

For a polemical use of the concept of character masks, see: Daniel Cohn-Bendit. Sponti als Charaktermaske. Marxistische Streit- und Zeitschrift, issue 1, 1982.

Engels, Revolution and Counterrevolution in Germany (1851), chapter 3, translation corrected according to the German original.Marxists.org; Engels, On the history of early Christianity (1894–95)

Franz Mehring, Karl Marx: The Story of his Life. London: Routledge 1936, p. 243.

Josef Karner [=pseud. of Karl Renner ], "Die Soziale Funktion der Rechts-Institute", in: Rudolf Hilferding and Max Adler (eds.), Marx-Studien: Blätter zur Theorie und Politik des wissenschaftlichen Sozialismus, Band 1. Vienna: Brand/Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1904, pp. 95, 98, 109, 119, 181 etc.

The modalities of distancing are explored in: Helmut Lethen, Cool Conduct: The Culture of Distance in Weimar Germany. Robert Boyers, The Legacy of the German refugee intellectuals. Schocken Books, 1972, p. 251.

György Lukács, History and class consciousness. London: Merlin, 1971, p. 81, note 11; Patrick Eiden-Offe, "Typing Class: Classification and redemption in Lukács's political and literary theory." In: Timothy Bewes and Timothy Hall, Georg Lukács: the fundamental dissonance of existence: aesthetics, politics, literature. London: Continuum, 2011, p. 71.

György Lukács, "My Socratic Mask. Letter to Charlotte Fereczi, January 1909". In: Arpad Kadarkay, The Lukács Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. pp. 57–62.

György Lukács, Soul and form. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974, p. 56.

Lukács, "Reification and the consciousness of the proletariat", section II, in History and class consciousness.

See also: Barbara Roos and J.P. Roos, "The upper-class way of life: an alternative for what?". United Nations University Working Paper HSDRGPID-68/UNUP-452, 1983."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2010-10-20. Cf. Helmut Dahmer, Libido und Gesellschaft, 2nd edition. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1982, p. 319.

Haug, "Charaktermaske", p. 446-447. Haug borrows this insight about Lukács from Matzner. See: Jutta Matzner, "Der Begriff der Charaktermaske bei Karl Marx". In: Soziale Welt. Zeitschrift für sozialwissenschaftliche Forschung und Praxis, Vol. 15, issue 2, 1964, p. 134. See: Christoph Henning, "Charaktermaske und Individualität bei Marx", in: Marx-Engels Jahrbuch 2009. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010.

See e.g. Paul Connerton, The tragedy of enlightenment: an essay on the Frankfurt School. Cambridge University Press, 1980, chapter 3.

Erich Fromm, Escape from freedom. New York: Avon books, 1965, p. 304-305.

Casimir R. Bukala, "Sartre's Phenomenology Of The Mask." In: Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, Vol. 7, October 1976, pp. 198–203. William Keith Tims, Masks and Sartre's Imaginary.

Martin Heidegger, Being and Time. New York: State University of New York Press, 1996, p. 121.

Wilhelm Reich, Character Analysis. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 1949. Cf. Helmut Dahmer, Libido und Gesellschaft, 2nd edition. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1982, p. 318.

David Wiles, Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy: From Ancient Festival to Modern Experimentation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 116–124.

On transcendental realism, see: Roy Bhaskar, A realist theory of science (2nd ed.). Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978.

Cf. Herbert Marcuse: "The transcendence leading from facts to essence is historical. Through it, given facts are understood as appearances whose essence can be comprehended only in the context of particular historical tendencies aiming at a different form of reality". Negations. Essays in Critical Theory. London: MayFlyBooks, 2009, p. 53.

Gunzelin Schmid Noerr, "Zwischen Sozialpsychologie und Ethik – Erich Fromm und die 'Frankfurt Schule'," in: Mitteilungen des Instituts für Sozialforschung, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität, Frankfurt, Heft 11. September 2000, pp. 7–40. Cited according to the version in the online Erich Fromm Archive, p. 5. Erich-fromm.de^{[permanent dead link]}

Max Horkheimer, "Montaigne and the Function of Skepticism" (1938). In: Horkheimer, Between Philosophy and Social Science : Selected Early Writings Studies in Contemporary German Social Thought. MIT Press, 1993, p. 295.

Max Horkheimer, "The revolt of nature" (1947). In: Max Horkheimer, Eclipse of reason. New York: Continuum, 2004, p. 72.

Theodor W. Adorno, Negative Dialektik. In: Gesammelte Schriften 6, Frankfurt: 1997.

See e.g. Ute Grabowski, Persönlichkeitsentwicklung im Beruf: das Problem des Kompromisses zwischen Persönlichkeit und Charaktermaske. Dissertation Berufspädagogik. Universität Flensburg, 2004; Chris Hartmann, Was ist Interaktion und wie "frei" interagieren wir? Über die Begriffe "Charaktermaske" und "Sozialcharakter". Seminararbeit Interaktion, Rolle und Persönlichkeit WS 2001/02, Universität Osnabrück, 2002, 51 pp. (available as e-book); Hans-Ernst Schiller, Das Individuum im Widerspruch. Zur Theoriegeschichte des modernen individualismus. Berlin: Frank & Timme GmbH, 2006; Franz Schandl, Maske und Charakter: Sprengversuche am bürgerlichen Subjekt Archived 2010-07-06 at the Wayback Machine. Krisis (Münster) No. 31, 2007, pp.124–172; Ernst Lohoff, "Die Anatomie der Charaktermaske: Kritische Anmerkungen zu Franz Schandls Aufsatz 'Maske und Charakter'", Krisis, No. 32, pp. 140–158; Martin Scheuringer, Ich und meine Charaktermaske. Es soll getrennt sein, was nicht in eins geht. Streifzüge (Vienna), No. 37, July 2006, pp.12–14; Volker Schürmann, "Das gespenstische Tun von Charaktermasken". In: Kurt Röttgers, & Monika Schmitz-Emans (eds.), Masken. Essen: Die Blaue Eule, 2009."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-01. Retrieved 2011-09-10.; Oskar Negt & Alexander Kluge, Public sphere and experience: toward an analysis of the bourgeois and proletarian public sphere. University of Minnesota Press, 1993; Klaus Ottomeyer, Soziales Verhalten und Ökonomie im Kapitalismus, Vorüberlegungen zur systematischen Vermittlung von Interaktionstheorie und Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie. 2nd ed. Giessen: Focus-Verlag, 1976; Klaus Ottomeyer, Ökonomische Zwänge und menschliche Beziehungen: Soziales Verhalten im Kapitalismus. Berlin: LIT Verlag, 2003; Rainer Paris, "Schwierigkeiten einer marxistischen Interaktionstheorie: Anmerkungen zu einem Programm der Vermittlung von Kritik der politischen Ökonomie und Interaktionstheorie", in: Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Marxschen Theorie, issue 7, 1976, pp. 11–44; Klaus Ottomeyer, "Antikritische bemerkungen zur Rainer Paris." In: Hans-Georg Backhaus et al., Gesellschaft. Beiträge zur Marxschen Theorie 8/9. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1976, pp. 335–349; Michael Schomers, "Interaktion und Handlungsziel. Kritik der theoretischen Grundkonzeption von Klaus Ottomeyer." In: Klaus Holzkamp (ed.), Forum Kritische Psychologie (Berlin) 6, AS 49, 1980 Berlin, pp. 101–155. Klaus Ottomeyer, "Marxistische Psychologie gegen Dogma und Eklektizismus. Antworten an Michael Schomers und die Kritische Psychologie." In: Klaus Holzkamp (ed.), Forum Kritische Psychologie (Berlin) 7, AS 59, 1980, pp. 170–207; Jürgen Ritsert, Schlüsselprobleme der Gesellschaftstheorie: Individuum und Gesellschaft – Soziale Ungleichheit – Modernisierung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2009. Classic sociological works in English which touch on this issue are: Hans Heinrich Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Character and social structure: the psychology of social institutions. New York: Harcourt, 1953 (reprint 2010); Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday, 1959; (Presentation of Self in Everyday Life); *Anselm L. Strauss, Mirrors and masks: the search for identity (orig. 1959). New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2002. See also: Bradbury, M., Heading, B. & Hollis, M. "The Man and the Mask: A Discussion of Role Theory", in: J. A. Jackson (ed.), Role. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, pp. 41–64.

See e.g. the writings of Erich Fromm. The concept of "identity crisis" was originally made popular by the post-Freudian psychologist Erik Erikson.

Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, chapter 28, Penguin edition, p. 899.

Erich Fromm, Escape from freedom, 2nd edition. New York: Avon Books, 1965, p. 229-230.

See Capital, Volume I, chapter 25 and 26.

See e.g. Michael Lebowitz, Beyond Capital: Marx's Political Economy of the Working Class, 2nd edition. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003 and Marcel van der Linden & Karl Heinz Roth (eds.), Über Marx hinaus: Arbeitsgeschichte und Arbeitsbegriff in der Konfrontation mit den globalen Arbeitsverhältnissen des 21. Jahrhunderts. Hamburg: Assoziation A, 2009.

Werner Sombart, Sozialismus und soziale Bewegung im 19. Jahrhundert. Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1896, p. 72. As cited by Reiner Grundmann and Nico Stehr, "Why Is Werner Sombart Not Part of the Core of Classical Sociology? Archived June 21, 2010, at the Wayback Machine", in: Journal of Classical Sociology, Vol. 1 no. 2 July 2001, p. 261.

Sheila Fitzpatrick, Tear Off the Masks!: Identity and Imposture in Twentieth-Century Russia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005, p. 13.

Fitzpatrick, p. 13.

Fitzpatrick, p. 65 note. See V.I. Lenin, "Leo Tolstoy as mirror of the Russian revolution" (Proletary, No. 35, September 11 (24), 1908), in: Collected Works, Vol. 15, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977, p. 205. Marx2mao.com

Fitzpatrick, p. 14.

Michael Schneider, Neurosis and civilization: a Marxist/Freudian synthesis. New York: The Seabury Press, 1975, p. 33. Schneider's theory was criticized by Klaus Ottomeyer in Anthropologieproblem und Marxistische Handlungstheorie. Giessen: Focus-Verlag, 1976, pp. 121–173.

Raymond A. Bauer, The new man in Soviet psychology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952, p. 67, p. 90 and p. 180.

Miller, op.cit., chapter 8, p. 146 et seq.

"'Charaktermaske' bei Marx Larven der Bürger entlarven." Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 July 1995, Nr. 165, p. N6. Also e.g. "Wir fordern die Enteignung Axel Springers. SPIEGEL-Gespräch mit dem Berliner FU-Studenten Rudi Dutschke (SDS)". In: Der Spiegel, issue 29, 10 July 1967. Spiegel.de

Germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org

Ute Grabowski, Berufliche Bildung und Persönlichkeitsentwicklung. Deutsche Universitatsverlag/GWV Fachverlage GmbH, 2007, p. 87. Similarly the German sociologist Hans Joas argued that "The expression character mask... is only an incidental metaphor, which has been over-worked by interpretations which attribute to it a systematic position in Marx's thought." – Hans Joas, Die gegenwärtige Lage der soziologischen Rollentheorie. Frankfurt: Athenäum, 1973, p. 98.

Fredric Jameson, "On Goffman's Frame Analysis," Theory and Society 3, no. 1 (Spring 1976), p. 122.

R.W. Connell, "The concept of role and what to do with it". In: R.W. Connell, Which way is up? Essays on sex, class and culture. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1983, pp. 189–207.

David Caute, The year of the barricades: a journey through 1968. Harper Collins, 1988.

Anne-Marie Rocheblave-Spenlé, Le Pouvoir Demasque. Paris: Editions Universitaires, 1974.

Ulrike Meinhof, "Armed Anti-Imperialist Struggle (and the Defensive Position of the Counterrevolution in its Psychologic Warfare Against the People)". Semiotext(e) magazine, ed. by Sylvère Lotringer, Schizo-culture issue 1978. Reprinted in Chris Kraus and Sylvère Lotringer, Hatred of Capitalism: A Reader. Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2001.

This and some of the other issues are referred to by Christoph Henning, "Charaktermaske und Individualität bei Marx", in: Marx-Engels Jahrbuch 2009. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010.

See e.g. Character Mapping (resource on Scribd). See also e.g. Richard D. Hodgson, Falsehood disguised: unmasking the truth in La Rochefoucauld. Purdue University Press, 1999.

Jan Willem Stutje (ed.), Charismatic Leadership and Social Movements: The Revolutionary Power of Ordinary Men and Women. Berghahn Books, 2012. A special conference on "Charisma and social movements" was held by leftists at Groningen University in the Netherlands on 6 & 7 November 2008. Rug.nl

Walter J. Ong, Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolution of Consciousness and Culture. Cornell University Press, 1982, p. 80.

The power of metaphors in human thinking is dealt with in various books by George Lakoff. One Dutch scientific article exploring among other things the persuasive effect of the metaphor of "unmasking" is: Jan Bosman and Louk Hagendoorn, "Effects of literal and metaphorical persuasive messages", in: Metaphor and symbolic activity, Vol. 6 No. 4, November 2009, pp. 271–292.

Jeremy Varon, Bringing the war home. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p. 239.

See e.g. Erich Fromm, "Die Determiniertheit der psychischen Struktur durch die Gesellschaft". In: Erich Fromm, Die Gesellschaft als Gegenstand der Psychoanalyse. Frühe Schriften zur Analytischen Sozialpsychologie. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1993, pp. 159–219.

See further: Mary Anne Mitchell, The development of the mask as a critical tool for an examination of character and performer action Archived August 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Phd dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1985.

See e.g. *Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks (transl. Charles Lam Markmann) New York, Grove Press, 1967 reprint; T. Owens Moore, "A Fanonian Perspective on Double Consciousness". Journal of Black Studies, 2005, Vol.35(6), pp. 751–762; Marc Black, Fanon and DuBoisian Double Consciousness. Human Architecture: Journal of the sociology of self-knowledge, Vol. 5, Summer 2007, pp. 393–404. Okcir.com; Hamid Dabashi, Brown Skin, White Masks. Pluto Press, 2011.

See e.g. Nina Lykke, Feminist Studies: A Guide to Intersectional Theory, Methodology and Writing. Routledge, 2010, p. 93. See also Claudia Benthien and Inge Stephan (eds.), Männlichkeit als Maskerade. Kulturelle Inszenierungen vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Böhlau Verlag, Köln 2003. Ruth Padel, I'm a Man: Sex, Gods and Rock and Roll. London: Faber and Faber, 2000, pp. 229, 239. See also Efrat Tseëlon (ed.), Masquerade and identities: essays on gender, sexuality and marginality. London: Routledge, 2001. The classic Freudian text is Joan Riviere, "Womanliness as a masquerade", in: Joan Riviere, The inner world and Joan Riviere, Collected Papers 1920–1958, ed. Athol Hughes. London: H. Karnac Books Ltd, 1991, pp. 90–101.

Uri Rapp, Handeln und Zuschauen. Untersuchungen über den theatersoziologischen Aspekt in der menschlichen Interaktion. Darmstadt: Luchterhand, 1973, p. 147. Referred to by Munz, op. cit., p. 26.

Jean L. Cohen, Class and civil society: the limits of Marxian critical theory. Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1982 p. 156.

See e.g. Donald Pollock, "Masks and the Semiotics of Identity." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. 1, no. 3, 1995, pp. 581–97.

Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character: the Personal Consequences Of Work In the New Capitalism. New York: Norton, 1998.

See e.g. Geert Reuten & Michael Williams, Value-form and the State. The Tendencies of Accumulation and the Determination of Economic Policy in Capitalist Society. London: Routledge, 1989.

Letter of Karl Marx to Ludwig Kugelmann, 11 July 1868. Marx/Engels Collected Works, Vol. 43, p. 67. Marxists.org

For a commentary see e.g. Paul Blackledge, Marxism and Ethics; Freedom, Desire, and Revolution. New York: SUNY Press, 2012.

Peter Sloterdijk, Critique of Cynical Reason, p. 37.

Miriam Glucksmann, Structuralist analysis in contemporary social thought. A comparison of Claude Levi-Strauss and Louis Althusser. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974, p. 112-113.

Louis Althusser, "Freud and Lacan" (1964), in: Althusser, Lenin and philosophy and other essays. London: NLB, 1971. Marx2mao.com

Louis Althusser and Étienne Balibar, Reading Capital. London: New Left Books, 1970. According to this view, in the capitalist system human beings are "forced to be its actors, caught by the constraints of a script and parts whose authors they cannot be, since it is in essence an authorless theatre." (p. 193). André Glucksmann mocked this idea in his article "A Ventriloquist Structuralism." (In: New Left Review, no. 72, March–April 1972, pp. 68–92). Anthony Giddens repeated the idea in his New Rules of Sociological Method (Hutchinson: London, 1976 p. 16), but as criticism of the structural functionalism of Talcott Parsons. Some of Althusser's British followers proclaimed that "Ultimately, all capitalists and all workers are ever-always identical, bearers of the same "character masks". How they function as bearers depends upon the conditions imposed by movements in the totality itself" (Anthony Cutler, Barry Hindess, Paul Hirst and Athar Hussain, Marx's Capital and Capitalism Today, Vol. II, p. 242). According to Michael Perelman, "the capitalist is, in Marx's wonderful expression, merely the character mask of capital". Perelman, "Articulation from feudalism to neoliberalism", in: Africanus: Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 34 No. 2, 2007, p. 36. Ukzn.ac.za^{[permanent dead link]}

Selbourne, "Two essays on method", Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 77–78. Althusserian theoreticism was ridiculed by the historian E. P. Thompson in The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays. London: Merlin Press, 1978, but defended by Perry Anderson in his 1980 book Arguments within English Marxism.

Jon Elster, Making sense of Marx. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, p. 13.

Jürgen Ritser, "Totality, theory and historical analysis, remarks on critical sociology and empirical research". In: Iring Fetscher et al., Social classes, action and historical materialism. Poznań studies in the philosophy of the sciences and the humanities, Vol. 6. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1982, p. 332. Ritsert-online.de

*Christian Fuchs, Wolfgang Hofkirchner and Bert Klauninger, Vienna University of Technology INTAS Project "Human Strategies in Complexity Archived March 10, 2012, at the Wayback Machine" Paper, No. 8, delivered at the Congress "Problems of Individual Emergence", Amsterdam, April, 16th–20th 2001.

Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello, The new spirit of Capitalism. London: Verso, 2005, p. x. See e.g. Perry Anderson, Arguments within English Marxism. Random House Inc., 1980. The sociological debate about structure and agency is reviewed by George Ritzer in Modern sociological theory. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003.

See: "A biological understanding of human nature: a talk with Steve Pinker", 9 September 2002. Edge.org

Staff reporter, "Foxconn chairman likens his workforce to animals", WantChinaTimes (Taipei), 19 January 2012."Foxconn chairman likens his workforce to animals｜Economy｜News｜WantChinaTimes.com". Archived from the original on 2012-01-21. Retrieved 2012-08-19.

Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity. The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture, Volume II. Second edition, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Theodor W. Adorno, Minima Moralia [1951]. London: Verso, 2005, p. 37.

Pauline Marie Rosenau, Post-modernism and the social sciences: insights, inroads, and intrusions. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.

Amalia Rosenblum, "Goodbye to privacy". Ha'aretz, 11 November 2010. Haaretz.com

See further e.g. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991 and Christian Fuchs, "Towards an alternative concept of privacy". Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, Vol. 9 No. 4, 2011, pp. 220–237. Fuchs.uti.at

See e.g. George Liodakis, Totalitarian Capitalism and Beyond. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2010.

Robert Kurz and Ernst Lohoff, "Der Klassenkampf-Fetisch. Thesen zur Entmythologisierung des Marxismus." in: Marxistischen Kritik Nr. 7, 1989. Exit-online.org

See e.g. Slavoj Žižek (ed.), Lacan: The Silent Partners. London: Verso, 2006.

Slavoj Žižek, The sublime object of ideology. London: Verso, 1989, pp. 25.

Slavoj Žižek, The sublime object of ideology. London: Verso, 1989, pp. 28–30.

Slavoj Žižek, Ideology III: to read too many books is harmful. Lacan.com, 1997. Lacan.com

Frank Furedi, "Denial", in: Spiked, 31 January 2007."Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-07-09. Retrieved 2012-02-07.

Frank Furedi, Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age. Taylor & Francis, 2003.

Philip Rieff, Freud: the mind of a moralist. London: Methuen, 1965, pp. 69–70, emphasis added.

Fritjof Bönold states: "Marx selber hatte den widersprüchlichen Begriff Charaktermaske verwendet. Er betont einerseits die Einprägung (Charakter) der gesellschaftlichen Verhältnisse in die Person, andererseits die Möglichkeit der Demaskierung."["Marx himself used the contradictory term character mask. He stressed on the one hand the imprinting (character) of social relations in the person, yet on the other hand the possibility of unmasking."] – Bönold, "Zur Kritik der Geschlechtsidentitätstheorie", p. 14 note 11."Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2010-09-25. See further his essay "Die (un)abgeschlossene Debatte um Gleichheit oder/ und Differenz in der pädagogischen Frauenforschung". In: Zeitschrift für Frauenforschung & Geschlechterstudien, Vol. 22, issue 1, 2004, pp. 18–30.

Capital, Volume I, Penguin, p. 90.

Marx, Capital, Volume I, Penguin, p. 929. Marxists.org The concept of collapse is denied by many Marxists, but in the history of capitalism undeniably many countries have experienced such a collapse. This, however, did not lead automatically to socialism, and it did not prevent business from reviving after a few years. Capitalism can collapse, but it can also recover.

167. Marx, Capital, Volume III, Penguin ed., pp. 958–959.

Categories:

• Marxist theory
• Identity (social science)
• Sociological terminology

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_mask#Character_masks_versus_social_masks}

A decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), sometimes called a decentralized autonomous corporation (DAC),^[a][1] is an organization managed in whole or in part by decentralized computer program, with voting and finances handled through a blockchain.^[2][3][4] In general terms, DAOs are member-owned communities without centralized leadership.^[5][6] The precise legal status of this type of business organization is unclear.^[7]

A well-known example, intended for venture capital funding, was The DAO, which amassed 3.6 million ether (ETH)—Ethereum's mining reward—then worth more than US$70 million in May 2016, and was hacked and drained of US$50 million in cryptocurrency weeks later.^[8] The hack was reversed in the following weeks, and the money restored, via a hard fork of the Ethereum blockchain. Most Ethereum miners and clients switched to the new fork while the original chain became Ethereum Classic. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized_autonomous_organization

Social stigma is the disapproval of, or discrimination against, an individual or group based on perceived characteristics that serve to distinguish them from other members of a society. Social stigmas are commonly related to culture, gender, race, socioeconomic class, age, sexual orientation, body image, physical disability, intelligence or lack thereof, and health. Some stigma may be obvious, while others are known as concealable stigmas that must be revealed through disclosure. Stigma can also be against oneself, stemming from negatively viewed personal attributes in a way that can result in a "spoiled identity" (i.e., self-stigma).^[1][2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmata

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Schism_of_1054

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment#Social_Learning_Theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerationism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization#Social_inequality

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concept

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizotypy

Asociality refers to the lack of motivation to engage in social interaction, or a preference for solitary activities. Asociality may be associated with avolition, but it can, moreover, be a manifestation of limited opportunities for social relations.^[1] Developmental psychologists use the synonyms nonsocial, unsocial, and social uninterest. Asociality is distinct from but not mutually exclusive to anti-social behavior. A degree of asociality is routinely observed in introverts, while extreme asociality is observed in people with a variety of clinical conditions.

Asociality is not necessarily perceived as a totally negative trait by society, since asociality has been used as a way to express dissent from prevailing ideas. It is seen as a desirable trait in several mystical and monastic traditions, notably in Hinduism, Jainism, Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Buddhism^{[2][3][4][5][6]} and Sufism.^[7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociality

Introversion

Introversion is a personality trait distinct from shyness and social anxiety disorder.^[12]

Introversion is the state of primarily obtaining gratification from one's own mental life.^[10] Introverts are typically perceived as more reserved or reflective.^[11] Some popular psychologists have characterized introverts as people whose energy tends to expand through reflection and dwindle during interaction. This is similar to Jung's view, although he focused on mental energy rather than physical energy. Few modern conceptions make this distinction. Introverts often take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, or meditating. An introvert is likely to enjoy time spent alone and find less reward in time spent with large groups of people. Introverts are easily overwhelmed by too much stimulation from social gatherings and engagement, introversion having even been defined by some in terms of a preference for a quiet, more minimally stimulating external environment.^[13] They prefer to concentrate on a single activity at a time and like to observe situations before they participate, especially observed in developing children and adolescents.^[14] They are more analytical before speaking.^[15]

Quiet: The Power of Introverts... author Susan Cain defines introversion and extraversion in terms of preferences for different levels of stimulation—distinguishing it from shyness (fear of social judgment and humiliation).^[16]

Mistaking introversion for shyness is a common error. Introversion is a preference, while shyness stems from distress. Introverts prefer solitary to social activities, but do not necessarily fear social encounters like shy people do.^[17] Susan Cain, author of the book Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking, argues that modern Western culture misjudges the capabilities of introverted people, leading to a waste of talent, energy, and happiness.^[18] Cain describes how society is biased against introverts, and that, with people being taught from childhood that to be sociable is to be happy, introversion is now considered "somewhere between a disappointment and pathology".^[19] In contrast, Cain says that introversion is not a "second-class" trait but that both introverts and extraverts enrich society, with examples including the introverts J. K. Rowling,^[20] Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Seuss, W. B. Yeats, Steven Spielberg, and Larry Page.^[19]

Ambiversion

Most contemporary trait theories measure levels of extraversion-introversion as part of a single, continuous dimension of personality, with some scores near one end, and others near the halfway mark.^[21] Ambiversion is falling more or less in the middle.^[10][22]

Relative prevalence

Cain further reports that studies indicate that 33 to 50% of the American population are introverts.^[23] Particular demographics have higher prevalence, with a 6,000-subject MBTI-based survey indicating that 60% of attorneys, and 90% of intellectual property attorneys, are introverts.^[24]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion#Introversion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)

Solitary confinement is a form of imprisonment in which the inmate lives in a single cell with little or no meaningful contact with other people. A prison may enforce stricter measures to control contraband on a solitary prisoner and use additional security equipment in comparison to the general population. Solitary confinement is a punitive tool within the prison system to discipline or separate disruptive prison inmates who are security risks to other inmates, the prison staff, or the prison itself.^[1][2] However, solitary confinement is also used to protect inmates whose safety is threatened by other inmates by separating them from the general population.^[3]

In a 2017 review, "a robust scientific literature has established the negative psychological effects of solitary confinement", leading to "an emerging consensus among correctional as well as professional, mental health, legal, and human rights organizations to drastically limit the use of solitary confinement."^[4] The United Nations General Assembly Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners were revised in 2015 to extend restrictions on solitary confinement exceeding 15 days.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitary_confinement

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison%E2%80%93industrial_complex

 

In hospitals and other medical facilities, an isolation ward is a separate ward used to isolate patients with infectious diseases. Several wards for individual patients are usually placed together in an isolation unit.^{[citation needed]}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_ward}

A hermit, also known as an eremite (adjectival form: hermitic or eremitic) or solitary, is a person who lives in seclusion.^[1][2][3] Eremitism plays a role in a variety of religions. 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit}

Seclusion is the act of secluding (i.e. isolating from society), the state of being secluded, or a place that facilitates it (a secluded place). A person, couple, or larger group may go to a secluded place for privacy or peace and quiet. The seclusion of an individual is called solitude.

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seclusion}

Solitude is a state of seclusion or isolation, meaning lack of socialisation. Effects can be either positive or negative, depending on the situation. Short-term solitude is often valued as a time when one may work, think, or rest without disturbance. It may be desired for the sake of privacy. Undesirable long-term solitude may stem from soured relationships, loss of loved ones, deliberate choice, infectious disease, mental disorders, neurological disorders such as circadian rhythm sleep disorder, or circumstances of employment or situation.

A distinction has been made between solitude and loneliness. In this sense, these two words refer, respectively, to the joy and the pain of being alone.^[1][2][3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitude

Privacy (UK: /ˈprɪvəsiː/, US: /ˈpraɪ-/)^[1][2] is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively.

Etymology of the word privacy: the word privacy is derived from the Latin word "privatus" which means set apart from what is public, personal and belonging to oneself, and not to the state.^[3]

The domain of privacy partially overlaps with security, which can include the concepts of appropriate use and protection of information. Privacy may also take the form of bodily integrity. The right not to be subjected to unsanctioned invasions of privacy by the government, corporations, or individuals is part of many countries' privacy laws, and in some cases, constitutions.

The concept of universal individual privacy is a modern concept primarily associated with Western culture, particularly British and North American, and remained virtually unknown in some cultures until recent times. Now, most cultures recognize the ability of individuals to withhold certain parts of personal information from wider society. With the rise of technology, the debate regarding privacy has shifted from a bodily sense to a digital sense. As the world has become digital, there have been conflicts regarding the legal right to privacy and where it is applicable. In most countries, the right to a reasonable expectation to digital privacy has been extended from the original right to privacy, and many countries, notably the US, under its agency, the Federal Trade Commission, and those within the European Union (EU), have passed acts that further protect digital privacy from public and private entities and grant additional rights to users of technology.

With the rise of the Internet, there has been an increase in the prevalence of social bots, causing political polarization and harassment. Online harassment has also spiked, particularly with teenagers, which has consequently resulted in multiple privacy breaches. Selfie culture, the prominence of networks like Facebook and Instagram, location technology, and the use of advertisements and their tracking methods also pose threats to digital privacy.

Through the rise of technology and immensity of the debate regarding privacy, there have been various conceptions of privacy, which include the right to be let alone as defined in "The Right to Privacy", the first U.S. publication discussing privacy as a legal right, to the theory of the privacy paradox, which describes the notion that users' online may say they are concerned about their privacy, but in reality, are not. Along with various understandings of privacy, there are actions that reduce privacy, the most recent classification includes processing of information, sharing information, and invading personal space to get private information, as defined by Daniel J. Solove. Conversely, in order to protect a user's privacy, multiple steps can be taken, specifically through practicing encryption, anonymity, and taking further measures to bolster the security of their data. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy

Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient".^[2][3][4] Censorship can be conducted by governments,^[5] private institutions and other controlling bodies.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship

Self-monitoring, a concept introduced in the 1970s by Mark Snyder, describes the extent to which people monitor their self-presentations, expressive behavior, and nonverbal affective displays.^[1] Snyder held that human beings generally differ in substantial ways in their abilities and desires to engage in expressive controls (see dramaturgy).^[2] Self-monitoring is defined as a personality trait that refers to an ability to regulate behavior to accommodate social situations. People concerned with their expressive self-presentation (see impression management) tend to closely monitor their audience in order to ensure appropriate or desired public appearances.^[3] Self-monitors try to understand how individuals and groups will perceive their actions. Some personality types commonly act spontaneously (low self-monitors) and others are more apt to purposely control and consciously adjust their behavior (high self-monitors).^[4] Recent studies suggest that a distinction should be made between acquisitive and protective self-monitoring due to their different interactions with metatraits.^[5] This differentiates the motive behind self-monitoring behaviours: for the purpose of acquiring appraisal from others (acquisitive) or protecting oneself from social disapproval (protective). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-monitoring

Political correctness (adjectivally politically correct; commonly abbreviated PC) is a term used to describe language,^[1][2][3] policies,^[4] or measures that are intended to avoid offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society.^[5][6][7] Since the late 1980s, the term has been used to describe a preference for inclusive language and avoidance of language or behavior that can be seen as excluding, marginalizing, or insulting to groups of people disadvantaged or discriminated against, particularly groups defined by ethnicity, sex, gender, or sexual orientation. In public discourse and the media,^[4][8][9] the term is generally used as a pejorative with an implication that these policies are excessive or unwarranted.^[10][11][12]

The phrase politically correct first appeared in the 1930s, when it was used to describe dogmatic adherence to ideology in authoritarian regimes, such as Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia.^[5] Early usage of the term politically correct by leftists in the 1970s and 1980s was as self-critical satire;^[8] usage was ironic, rather than a name for a serious political movement.^[13][14][15] It was considered an in-joke among leftists used to satirise those who were too rigid in their adherence to political orthodoxy.^[16] The modern pejorative usage of the term emerged from conservative criticism of the New Left in the late 20th century, with many describing it as a form of censorship.^[17] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctness

An ethnic stereotype, racial stereotype or cultural stereotype involves part of a system of beliefs about typical characteristics of members of a given ethnic group, their status, societal and cultural norms. A national stereotype, or national character, does the same for a given nationality. The stereotyping may be used for humor in jokes, and/or may be associated with racism.

National stereotypes may relate either to one's own ethnicity/nationality or to a foreign/differing one. Stereotypes about one's own nation may aid in maintaining a national identity due to a collective relatability to a trait or characteristic.^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype}

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch^[1] of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".^[2] The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value; these fields comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology.^[3]

Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.^[4] As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.

Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:^[2]

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined;
2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action;
3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action.^[2]
   
   
   

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics

 

Sensory deprivation or perceptual isolation^[1] is the deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli from one or more of the senses. Simple devices such as blindfolds or hoods and earmuffs can cut off sight and hearing, while more complex devices can also cut off the sense of smell, touch, taste, thermoception (heat-sense), and the ability to know which way is down. Sensory deprivation has been used in various alternative medicines and in psychological experiments (e.g. with an isolation tank). When deprived of sensation, the brain attempts to restore sensation in the form of hallucinations.^[2]

Short-term sessions of sensory deprivation are described as relaxing and conducive to meditation; however, extended or forced sensory deprivation can result in extreme anxiety, hallucinations,^[3] bizarre thoughts, and depression.^[4]

A related phenomenon is perceptual deprivation, also called the Ganzfeld effect. In this case a constant uniform stimulus is used instead of attempting to remove the stimuli; this leads to effects which have similarities to sensory deprivation.^[5]

Sensory deprivation techniques were developed by some of the armed forces within NATO, as a means of interrogating prisoners within international treaty obligations.^[6] The European Court of Human Rights ruled that the use of the five techniques by British security forces in Northern Ireland amounted to a practice of inhuman and degrading treatment. It was also used in prisons such as Guantanamo.^[7] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_deprivation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_human_rights_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combatant 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_asylum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repatriation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoctrination

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belligerent

In sociology, socialization or socialisation (see spelling differences) is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".^{[1]: 5 [2]}

Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology.^[3] Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.^[4]

Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.^[5][6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_development

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_permanence

 

A recluse is a person who lives in voluntary seclusion from the public and society. The word is from the Latin recludere, which means "shut up" or "sequester". Historically, the word referred to a Christian hermit's total isolation from the world, with examples including Symeon of Trier, who lived within the great Roman gate Porta Nigra with permission from the Archbishop of Trier, or Theophan the Recluse, the 19th-century Orthodox Christian monk who was later venerated as a saint. Many celebrated figures of human history have spent significant portions of their lives as recluses.

In the Russian Orthodox and Catholic Church tradition, a Poustinik is a temporary hermit who has been called to pray and fast alone in a cabin for at least 24 hours. In ancient Chinese culture, scholars are encouraged to be a public servant in a scrupulous and well-run government but expected to go into reclusion as a yinshi (隐士, 'gentleman-in-hiding') when the government is rife with corruption.^[1] Others, like Dongfang Shuo, became hermits to practice Taoism, or in later centuries, Chan Buddhism. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recluse

Seclusion is the act of secluding (i.e. isolating from society), the state of being secluded, or a place that facilitates it (a secluded place). A person, couple, or larger group may go to a secluded place for privacy or peace and quiet. The seclusion of an individual is called solitude.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seclusion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Asceticism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_abstinence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Solution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide

In the survivalist subculture or movement, a retreat is a place of refuge. Sometimes their retreats are called a bug-out location (BOL), a bunker, or a bolt hole.^[1] Survivalist retreats are intended to be self-sufficient and easily defended. Generally, they are located in sparsely populated rural areas. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat_(survivalism)

Societal collapse (also known as civilizational collapse) is the fall of a complex human society characterized by the loss of cultural identity and of social complexity as an adaptive system, the downfall of government, and the rise of violence.^[1] Possible causes of a societal collapse include natural catastrophe, war, pestilence, famine, economic collapse, population decline, mass migration, and sabotage or assimilation by rival civilizations. A collapsed society may revert to a more primitive state, be absorbed into a stronger society, or completely disappear.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_collapse

Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species.^[1][2][3] Social anthropology studies patterns of behavior, while cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values.^[1][2][3] A portmanteau term sociocultural anthropology is commonly used today.^[4] Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.^[1][2][3]

Archaeological anthropology, often termed as "anthropology of the past," studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence.^[5][6] It is considered a branch of anthropology in North America and Asia, while in Europe, archaeology is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history and palaeontology.^[7] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology

The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population. The murders were carried out primarily in mass shootings and in gas chambers and gas vans in extermination camps, chiefly Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, and Chełmno in occupied Poland.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust

In total, Nazi mass killing claimed the lives of around 13 million people, including Soviet prisoners of war, Soviet urban residents targeted for mass starvation, rural civilians killed as part of anti-partisan warfare, the mentally and physically disabled, and Romani people. Many Jewish survivors emigrated outside of Europe after the war. A few Holocaust perpetrators faced criminal trials. Billions of dollars in reparations have been paid, although falling short of the Jews' losses. The Holocaust has also been commemorated in museums, memorials, and culture. Although many are convinced that there are lessons or some kind of redemptive meaning to be drawn from the Holocaust, whether this is the case and what these lessons are is disputed. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust

A monk (/mʌŋk/, from Greek: μοναχός, monachos, "single, solitary" via Latin monachus)^[1][2] is a person who practices religious asceticism by living a monastic lifestyle, either alone or with any number of other monks.^[3] A monk may be a person who decides to dedicate their life to serving other people and serving God, or to be an ascetic who voluntarily chooses to leave mainstream society and live their life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in philosophy.

In the Greek language, the term can apply to women, but in modern English it is mainly in use for men. The word nun is typically used for female monastics.

Although the term monachos is of Christian origin, in the English language monk tends to be used loosely also for both male and female ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds. However, being generic, it is not interchangeable with terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such as cenobite, hermit, anchorite, hesychast, or solitary. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_monasticism

 

Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of Christians who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, including those in the Old Testament, but was not mandated as an institution in the scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e. g. the Rule of Saint Augustine, Anthony the Great, St Pachomius, the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict,) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns (women). The word monk originated from the Greek μοναχός (monachos, 'monk'), itself from μόνος (monos) meaning 'alone'.^[1][2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_monasticism

 

Monasticism (from Ancient Greek μοναχός, monakhos, from μόνος, monos, 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially in the Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican traditions as well as in other faiths such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.^[1] In other religions, monasticism is criticized and not practiced, as in Islam and Zoroastrianism, or plays a marginal role, as in modern Judaism. Many monastics live in abbeys, convents, monasteries or priories to separate themselves from the secular world, unless they are in mendicant or missionary orders.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticism

In its Latin form, holocaustum, the term was first used with specific reference to a massacre of Jewish people by the chroniclers Roger of Howden^[5] and Richard of Devizes in England in the 1190s.^[6]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust}

The word "holocaust" originally derived from the Koine Greek word holokauston, meaning "a completely (holos) burnt (kaustos) sacrificial offering," or "a burnt sacrifice offered to a god." In Hellenistic religion, gods of the earth and underworld received dark animals, which were offered by night and burnt in full.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust

 

Nazi Germany used six extermination camps (German: Vernichtungslager), also called death camps (Todeslager), or killing centers (Tötungszentren), in Central Europe during World War II to systematically murder over 2.7 million people – mostly Jews – in the Holocaust.^[1][2][3] The victims of death camps were primarily murdered by gassing, either in permanent installations constructed for this specific purpose, or by means of gas vans.^[4] The six extermination camps were Chełmno, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz-Birkenau. Extermination through labour was also used at the Auschwitz and Majdanek death camps.^[5][6][4] Millions were also murdered in concentration camps, in the Aktion T4 or murdered directly on side.^[7]

The idea of mass extermination with the use of stationary facilities, to which the victims were taken by train, was the result of earlier Nazi experimentation with chemically manufactured poison gas during the secretive Aktion T4 euthanasia programme against hospital patients with mental and physical disabilities.^[8] The technology was adapted, expanded, and applied in wartime to unsuspecting victims of many ethnic and national groups; the Jews were the primary target, accounting for over 90 percent of extermination camp victims.^[9] The genocide of the Jews of Europe was Nazi Germany's "Final Solution to the Jewish question".^[10][4][11] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp

From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany operated more than a thousand concentration camps (German: Konzentrationslager (abbreviated officially as KL (or commonly as KZ)), including subcamps^[a] on its own territory and in parts of German-occupied Europe.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps

During the Holocaust, death marches (Todesmärsche in German) were massive forced transfers of prisoners from one Nazi camp to other locations, which involved walking long distances resulting in numerous deaths of weakened people. Most death marches took place toward the end of World War II, mostly after the summer/autumn of 1944. Hundreds of thousands of prisoners, mostly Jews, from Nazi camps near the Eastern Front were moved to camps inside Germany away from the Allied forces.^[2] Their purpose was to continue the use of prisoners' slave labour, to remove evidence of crimes against humanity, and to keep the prisoners from bargaining with the Allies.^[3]

Prisoners were marched to train stations, often a long way; transported for days at a time without food in freight trains; then forced to march again to a new camp. Those who lagged behind or fell were shot. The largest death march took place in January 1945. Nine days before the Soviet Red Army arrived at the Auschwitz concentration camp, the Germans marched 56,000 prisoners toward a train station at Wodzisław, 35 miles (56 km) away, to be transported to other camps.^[4] Around 15,000 died on the way.^{[5][quantify]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstention

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_killing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_studies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_killing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly_fire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regicide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_extinction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licence_to_kill_(concept)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture_murder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrill_killing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spree_killer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_of_mercy_(criminology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocommando

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_killer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_murder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisoning

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%E2%80%93suicide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_for_body_parts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_murder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_assassination

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_murder

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination

Dictator perpetuo (English: "dictator in perpetuity"), also called dictator in perpetuum,^[2] was the office held by Julius Caesar towards the end of his life. He was granted the title between 26 January and 15 February during the year 44 BCE. He would be killed shortly later on 15 March.^[3] By abandoning the time restrictions usually applied in the case of the Roman dictatorship, it elevated Caesar's dictatorship into the monarchical sphere. 

Weinstock has argued that the perpetual dictatorship was part of the senatorial decrees regarding Caesar's divine honors, as well as his planned apotheosis as Divus Iulius, a complex of honors aimed at eternity and divinity.^[5]

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justitium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_exception

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_necessity

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_(tort)

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass_to_chattels

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass_to_land

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_(law)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larceny

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackmail

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_assault

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possession_of_stolen_goods

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Code_(Canada)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_liability

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_pet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_maxim

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphorism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_operation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fairness

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_recruitment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violent_non-state_actor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_cartel

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/turf_war

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdiction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collusion

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mueller_special_counsel_investigation

A drug cartel is a criminal organization composed of independent drug lords who collude with each other in order to improve their profits and dominate the illegal drug trade. Drug cartels form with the purpose of controlling the supply of the illegal drug trade and maintaining prices at a high level. The formations of drug cartels are common in Latin American countries. Rivalries between multiple drug cartels cause them to wage turf wars against each other. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_cartel

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Organized_crime_groups

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Gangs_by_type

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smuggling

 

Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information or people, such as out of a house or buildings, into a prison, or across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other regulations. More broadly, social scientists define smuggling as the purposeful movement across a border in contravention to the relevant legal frameworks.^[2]

There are various motivations to smuggle. These include the participation in illegal trade, such as in the drug trade, illegal weapons trade, prostitution, human trafficking, kidnapping, exotic wildlife trade, art theft, blood diamonds, heists, chop shops, illegal immigration or illegal emigration, tax evasion, import/export restrictions, providing contraband to prison inmates, or the theft of the items being smuggled.

Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizet's opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books (and later films) Diamonds Are Forever and Goldfinger. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smuggling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Prison-related_crime

 

Prison plastic surgery is plastic surgery or cosmetic surgery (often the terms are used interchangeably) offered and performed to people who are incarcerated, as a means of social rehabilitation. These services were normally provided as part of a larger package of care that may include work training, psychological services, and more. Popular surgeries included rhinoplasties, blepharoplasty, facelifts, scar removal and tattoo removal. These programs began in the early 20th century and were commonplace up till the early 1990s. They took place across the US (in 42+ states), the UK, Canada, and Mexico.^[1]

"Incarceration itself is famously hard on the body," reports Zara Stone in her book, Killer Looks: The Forgotten History of Plastic Surgery In Prisons;^[2] in 2017, facial injuries accounted for 33% of all inmate hospitalizations in New York City, compared to 0.7 percent of the general population. "The existence of prison plastic surgery programs is America’s dirty little secret."

In San Quentin prison, California, the prison's chief medical doctor Dr. Leo L. Stanley was one of the first people to develop a prison plastic surgery practice, focused on reforming the faces of convicts.^[3] "Considerable plastic surgery has been done, particularly that done for deformed noses,” Dr. Leo Stanley wrote in his 1918 report to the warden.^[4] “This work has been of benefit in that it has improved the appearance of many of the men and removed a deforming feature. Some work has been done on ears which were very prominent." Stanley reported long waiting lists, noted researcher Ethan Blue.^[5] Dr. Stanley's "typical prison malingerer,"^[6] had a fractured nose or scarred face, and was treated with crude methods: for nose surgery, a six-inch length of broomstick was placed against the nose and hit with a mallet. "The physician of the future will be an increasing powerful antagonist in the war against crime," Stanley wrote.^[7]

Some of these early surgeries fell in the eugenics bracket, the idea that criminality could be seen and displayed on the face, reports social Psychologist Ray Bull and Nichola Rumsey in their book, The Social Psychology of Facial Appearance. An examination of some of the mid-20th century prison programs suggested that by and large, plastic surgeries did reduce recidivism—in some cases, dropping it from 76% to 33%. Some findings: Plastic surgery is effective in enhancing the outcome for non-addict prisoners. In 1970, the former director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons from 1937 to 1964, James Van Benschoten Bennett, analyzed these programs.^[8] "One of the more fruitful areas of research now under way in the federal prisons concerns plastic surgery: the way to rehabilitate a misshapen prisoner." 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison_plastic_surgery

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison_plastic_surgery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aversive_racism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_apartheid

Apartheid (/əˈpɑːrt(h)aɪt/, especially South African English: /əˈpɑːrt(h)eɪt/, Afrikaans: [aˈpartɦɛit]; transl. "separateness", lit. 'aparthood') was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s.^{[note 1]} Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap (lit. 'boss-hood' or 'boss-ship'), which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically through minoritarianism by the nation's dominant minority white population.^[4] According to this system of social stratification, white citizens had the highest status, followed by Indians and Coloureds, then Black Africans.^[4] The economic legacy and social effects of apartheid continue to the present day, particularly inequality.^{[5][6][7][better source needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid

A dominant minority, also called elite dominance, is a minority group that has overwhelming political, economic, or cultural dominance in a country, despite representing a small fraction of the overall population (a demographic minority). Dominant minorities are also known as alien elites if they are recent immigrants.

The term is most commonly used to refer to an ethnic group which is defined along racial, national, religious, cultural or tribal lines and that holds a disproportionate amount of power. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_minority

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology

Sociological abstraction refers to the varying levels at which theoretical concepts can be understood. It is a tool for objectifying and simplifying sociological concepts.^[1] This idea is very similar to the philosophical understanding of abstraction. There are two basic levels of sociological abstraction: sociological concepts and operationalized sociological concepts.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(sociology)

A sociological concept is a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form. An example of a mental construct is the idea of class, or the distinguishing of two groups based on their income, culture, power, or some other defining characteristic(s). An operational definition specifies concrete, replicable procedures that reliably produce a differentiated, measurable outcome. Similarly, concepts can remain abstract or can be operationalized. Operationalizing a sociological concept takes it to the concrete level by defining how one is going to measure it. Thus, with the concept of social class one could operationalize it by actually measuring people's income. Once operationalized, you have a concrete representation of a sociological concept.^[2]

In addition to the basic levels of sociological abstraction, sociological concepts are often understood at multiple levels as a result of sociological theorizing. Sociological theories postulate relationships between sociological concepts. It is generally understood that there are three levels of sociological theorizing, also known as levels of analysis:

The smallest level of analysis is the micro level of analysis, also referred to as Microsociology. It concerns the nature of everyday human social interactions and agency on a small scale: face to face.^[3]: 5 Microsociology is based on interpretative analysis rather than statistical or empirical observation,^{[4]: 18–21} and shares close association with the philosophy of phenomenology. Methods include symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology; ethnomethodology in particular has led to many academic sub-divisions and studies such as micro-linguistical research and other related aspects of human social behaviour. Examples of micro levels of analysis include, but are not limited to, the following individual analysis type approach:

• Alien, stateless person, asylum seeker, refugee
• Person
• Citizen
• Partnership, marriage
• Families
• Household
• Neighborhood

In general, a meso-level analysis indicates a population size that falls between the micro and macro levels, such as a community or an organization. However, meso level may also refer to analyses that are specifically designed to reveal connections between micro and macro levels. It is sometimes referred to as mid range, especially in sociology. Examples of meso-level units of analysis include the following:

• Clan
• Tribe
• Community
• Village, town, city
• Formal organization
• State

Macrosociology is a large-scale approach to sociology, emphasizing the analysis of social systems and populations at the structural level, often at a necessarily high level of theoretical abstraction.^[5] Though macrosociology does concern itself with individuals, families, and other constituent aspects of a society, it does so in relation to larger social system of which such elements are a part. The approach is also able to analyze generalized collectivities (e.g. "the city", "the church").^[6] Examples of macro-level units of analysis include, but are not limited to, the following:

• Nation
• Society
• Civilization
• International
• Global

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(sociology)

The imperial boomerang or Foucault's boomerang is the thesis that governments that develop repressive techniques to control colonial territories will eventually deploy those same techniques domestically against their own citizens. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_boomerang

The concept of Global North and Global South (or North–South divide in a global context) is used to describe a grouping of countries along the lines of socio-economic and political characteristics. The Global South is a term generally used to identify countries and regions in the regions of Latin America, Africa, Asia and Oceania.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_and_superstructure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_collapse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contested_ideological_terrain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_conflict

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated_disadvantage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clustering_(demographics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clown_society

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapsology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudsill_theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_type

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_escalator

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_actor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemeinschaft_and_Gesellschaft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_prerequisites

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentation_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremism_of_the_centre

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eufunction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_shock

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_of_production

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natal_alienation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referent_power

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_distortion_field

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudospeciation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonaldization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_society

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_action_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sphere

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_socialization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predecessor_culture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_ponerology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_penalty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxury_beliefs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_handicap_of_a_head_start

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Label_(sociology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasocial_interaction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligopticon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_society

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjectivity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_frequency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_value-rational_action

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_problem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual_ministerial_responsibility

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontological_security

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_segregation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_closure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomothetic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualistic_culture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology

 

 

Category:Sociological terminology

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sociological terminology.

The main article for this category is Outline of sociology § General sociology concepts.

See also: Category:Social concepts

This category relates to specifically sociological terms and concepts. Wider societal terms that do not have a specific sociological nature about them should be added to social concepts in keeping with the WikiProject Sociology scope for the subject.

Contents

• Top
• 0–9
• A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Subcategories

This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total.

D

• 
  

• Deviance (sociology) concepts‎ (1 P)

M

• 
  

• Medical sociology concepts‎ (1 P)

Pages in category "Sociological terminology"

The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 328 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.

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A

• Abstraction (sociology)
• Achieved status
• Action group (sociology)
• Affectional action
• Agency (sociology)
• Alternative movement
• Anomie
• Antinaturalism (sociology)
• Appropriation (sociology)
• Articulation (sociology)
• Asabiyyah
• Ascribed status
• Ascription
• Ascriptive inequality
• Authority (sociology)

B

• Base and superstructure

C

• Care drain
• Causation (sociology)
• Character mask
• Closure (sociology)
• Clown society
• Clustering (demographics)
• Cognitive social structures
• Collapsology
• Collective action
• Collective consciousness
• Collective effervescence
• Concentrated disadvantage
• Confessional society
• Social conflict
• Consumption (sociology)
• Contested ideological terrain
• Context collapse

D

• Data imaginaries
• Differentiation (sociology)
• Doing gender
• Dominant minority
• Dyad (sociology)
• Dynamic density

E

• Eastern culture
• Emotive (sociology)
• Eufunction
• Excorporation
• Extremism of the centre

F

• Feeling rules
• Feminization (sociology)
• Fragmentation (sociology)
• Functional prerequisites

G

• Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
• Generalized trust
• Generative actor
• Gezelligheid
• Gharbzadegi
• Glass escalator
• Group action (sociology)

H

• Habitus (sociology)
• Heterosociality
• Homology (sociology)
• Homophily
• Homosociality
• Hygge

I

• Ideal type
• Identity (social science)
• Ideology
• Ikigai
• Imaginary (sociology)
• Imperial boomerang
• In-group favoritism
• Inclusion (disability rights)
• Indeterminacy problem
• Individual ministerial responsibility
• Individualistic culture
• Informal organization
• Information society
• In-group and out-group
• Inner city
• Institutional racism
• Institutional trust (social sciences)
• Instrumental and intrinsic value
• Instrumental and value rationality
• Instrumental and value-rational action
• Interaction frequency
• Interessement
• Intergroup anxiety
• Intermingling
• Internalization
• Internalization (sociology)
• Internalized racism
• Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory
• Intersubjectivity
• Iron cage
• Isomorphism (sociology)

K

• Knowledge society

L

• Label (sociology)
• Labelling
• Law of the handicap of a head start
• Level of analysis
• Life chances
• Lifestyle (social sciences)
• Lifestyle enclave
• Lifeway
• Lifeworld
• Local community
• Luxury beliefs

M

• Macrostructure (sociology)
• Malestream
• Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions
• Mapping controversies
• Marginal man theory
• Market-dominant minority
• Mass action (sociology)
• Mass society
• Master status
• Matthew effect
• McDonaldization
• Mechanical and organic solidarity
• Mechanism (sociology)
• Media ritual
• Media transparency
• Mediatization (media)
• Mentifact
• Middleman minority
• Mode of production
• Modernity
• Moral entrepreneur
• Moral shock
• Mores
• Mudsill theory

N

• Narcotizing dysfunction
• Natal alienation
• Necropolitics
• Neophile
• Network society
• Neurodiversity
• Nomos (sociology)
• Nomothetic
• Norm entrepreneur
• Normal type
• Normalization (sociology)

O

• Occupational closure
• Occupational prestige
• Occupational segregation
• Oligopticon
• One-third hypothesis
• Ontological security
• Open class system
• Opportunity hoarding
• Overchoice

P

• Page 3
• Page 3 culture
• Paralanguage
• Parasocial breakup
• Parasocial interaction
• Public participation (decision making)
• Participation inequality
• Passing (sociology)
• Patchwork religion
• Pay it forward
• Peer group
• Performative interval
• Permissive society
• Person of color
• Plural society
• Police legitimacy
• Policy sociology
• Political ponerology
• Popularity
• Poverty penalty
• Power (social and political)
• Power structure
• Practice theory
• Pre-industrial society
• Predecessor culture
• Prestige (sociolinguistics)
• Primary socialization
• Principle of least interest
• Private sphere
• Professional responsibility
• Professionalization
• Prosopographical network
• Pseudospeciation
• Public
• Public morality
• Public sphere

Q

• Quality of life
• Quality time

R

• Racial literacy
• Racial uplift
• Radicalization
• Rational-legal authority
• Rationalization (sociology)
• Reactive ethnicity
• Reality distortion field
• Recognition (sociology)
• Recuperation (politics)
• Referent power
• Reflexive modernization
• Reflexivity (social theory)
• Regional Religious System
• Rehumanization

(previous page) (next page)

Categories:

• Social concepts
• Social sciences terminology

Hidden categories:

• Commons category link from Wikidata
• Template Category TOC via CatAutoTOC on category with 301–600 pages
• CatAutoTOC generates standard Category TOC

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology

 

Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit.^[1][2][3]

In modern Western societies, social stratification is typically defined in terms of three social classes: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class; in turn, each class can be subdivided into the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum.^[4] Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship, clan, tribe, or caste, or all four. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization

 

In political and sociological theory, the elite (French: élite, from Latin: eligere, to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. Defined by the Cambridge Dictionary, the "elite" are "those people or organizations that are considered the best or most powerful compared to others of a similar type."^[1]

American sociologist C. Wright Mills states that members of the elite accept their fellows' position of importance in society.^[2] "As a rule, 'they accept one another, understand one another, marry one another, tend to work, and to think, if not together at least alike'."^[3][4] It is a well-regulated existence where education plays a critical role. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloak_(disambiguation)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smuggling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_organization

Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental, or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seeking greater autonomy are not separatist as such.^[1] Some discourse settings equate separatism with religious segregation, racial segregation, or sex segregation, while other discourse settings take the broader view that separation by choice may serve useful purposes and is not the same as government-enforced segregation. There is some academic debate about this definition, and in particular how it relates to secessionism, as has been discussed online.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separatism

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=shell+swap&title=Special:Search&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&ns0=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implant

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCAT

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DFA

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=antaongist+drug&title=Special%3ASearch&ns0=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=distance+incapacitation+weapon&title=Special:Search&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&ns0=1

Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit.^[1][2][3]

In modern Western societies, social stratification is typically defined in terms of three social classes: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class; in turn, each class can be subdivided into the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum.^[4] Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship, clan, tribe, or caste, or all four. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization

 

In political and sociological theory, the elite (French: élite, from Latin: eligere, to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. Defined by the Cambridge Dictionary, the "elite" are "those people or organizations that are considered the best or most powerful compared to others of a similar type."^[1]

American sociologist C. Wright Mills states that members of the elite accept their fellows' position of importance in society.^[2] "As a rule, 'they accept one another, understand one another, marry one another, tend to work, and to think, if not together at least alike'."^[3][4] It is a well-regulated existence where education plays a critical role. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloak_(disambiguation)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smuggling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_organization

Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental, or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seeking greater autonomy are not separatist as such.^[1] Some discourse settings equate separatism with religious segregation, racial segregation, or sex segregation, while other discourse settings take the broader view that separation by choice may serve useful purposes and is not the same as government-enforced segregation. There is some academic debate about this definition, and in particular how it relates to secessionism, as has been discussed online.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separatism

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=shell+swap&title=Special:Search&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&ns0=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implant

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCAT

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DFA

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=antaongist+drug&title=Special%3ASearch&ns0=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=distance+incapacitation+weapon&title=Special:Search&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&ns0=1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_on_Auditing_Standards_No._99:_Consideration_of_Fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skimming_(fraud)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargeback_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_tower_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visa_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passport_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_document

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verisimilitude

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_law

In justice and law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or, in modern times, electronic monitoring) is a measure by which a person is confined by the authorities to their residence. Travel is usually restricted, if allowed at all. House arrest is an alternative to being in a prison while awaiting trial or after sentencing.

While house arrest can be applied to criminal cases when prison does not seem an appropriate measure, the term is often applied to the use of house confinement as a measure of repression by authoritarian governments against political dissidents. In these cases, the person under house arrest often does not have access to any means of communication with people outside of the home; if electronic communication is allowed, conversations may be monitored. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_arrest

A restraining order or protective order,^[a] is an order used by a court to protect a person in a situation involving alleged domestic violence, child abuse, assault, harassment, stalking, or sexual assault.

Restraining and personal protection order laws vary from one jurisdiction to another but all establish who can file for an order, what protection or relief a person can get from such an order, and how the order will be enforced. The court will order the adverse party to refrain from certain actions or require compliance with certain provisions. Failure to comply is a violation of the order which can result in the arrest and prosecution of the offender. Violations in some jurisdictions may also constitute criminal or civil contempt of court. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restraining_order

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Money_Heist_episodes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

 

Old money is "the inherited wealth of established upper-class families (i.e. gentry, patriciate)" or "a person, family, or lineage possessing inherited wealth".^[1] The term typically describes a social class of the rich who have been able to maintain their wealth over multiple generations, often referring to perceived members of the de facto aristocracy in societies that historically lack an officially established aristocratic class (such as the United States).

The term is often used in contrast with new money. 

United States

Wealth—assets held by an individual or by a household—provides an important dimension of social stratification because it can pass from generation to generation, ensuring that a family's offspring will remain financially stable. Families with "old money" use accumulated assets or savings to bridge interruptions in income, thus guarding against downward social mobility.^[2]

"Old money" applies to those of the upper class whose wealth separates them from lower social classes. According to anthropologist W. Lloyd Warner, the upper class in the United States during the 1930s was divided into the upper-upper and the lower-upper classes.^[3] The lower-upper were those who did not come from traditionally wealthy families. They earned their money from investments and business, rather than inheritance.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_money

 

 

Money creation, or money issuance, is the process by which the money supply of a country, or of an economic or monetary region,^{[note 1]} is increased. In most modern economies, money creation is controlled by the central banks. Money issued by central banks is termed base money. Central banks can increase the quantity of base money directly, by engaging in open market operations. However, the majority of the money supply is created by the commercial banking system in the form of bank deposits. Bank loans issued by commercial banks that practice fractional reserve banking expands the quantity of broad money to more than the original amount of base money issued by the central bank.

Central banks monitor the amount of money in the economy by measuring monetary aggregates (termed broad money), consisting of cash and bank deposits. Money creation occurs when the quantity of monetary aggregates increase.^{[note 2]} Governmental authorities, including central banks and other bank regulators, can use policies such as reserve requirements and capital adequacy ratios to influence the amount of broad money created by commercial banks.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_creation

 

In economics, broad money is a measure of the amount of money, or money supply, in a national economy including both highly liquid "narrow money" and less liquid forms. The European Central Bank, the OECD and the Bank of England all have their own different definitions of broad money.^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_money}

The term "narrow money" typically covers the most liquid forms of money, i.e. currency (banknotes and coins) as well as bank-account balances that can immediately be converted into currency or used for cashless payments (overnight deposits, checking accounts, etc).^[3] It is typically denoted as M1.^[3] Narrow money is a subset of broad money.

Deposits in foreign currency are excluded from all monetary aggregates by most countries, or they are included only in broad money, with some exceptions.^[4]

OECD defines "broad money" as: all banknotes and coins; bank deposits not considered long term, i.e. with an agreed maturity of up to 2 years; bank deposits redeemable at notice of up to 3 months, and similar repurchase agreements; money-market fund shares or units; and debt securities maturing within a period of up to 2 years. The typical OECD notation for "broad money" is M3.^[5]

Still, the exact definitions of monetary measures depend on the country.^[1] The terms will usually be more exactly defined before a discussion, whenever it is not sufficient to assume a wider definition.^[6] For the Bank of England, the "inescapable conclusion" is that "there can be no unique definition of 'broad money' and any choice of [a] dividing line between those financial assets included in, and those excluded from, broad money is to a degree arbitrary, and is likely over time to be invalidated by developments in the financial system."^[7] Generally, "broad money" is more a term and less a fixed definition across all situations.^[8]

However defined in a specific country, the importance of monitoring the development of broad money has been recognized.^[7] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_money

In macroeconomics, the money supply (or money stock) refers to the total volume of currency held by the public at a particular point in time. There are several ways to define "money", but standard measures usually include currency in circulation (i.e. physical cash) and demand deposits (depositors' easily accessed assets on the books of financial institutions).^[1][2] The central bank of a country may use a definition of what constitutes legal tender for its purposes.

Money supply data is recorded and published, usually by a government agency or the central bank of the country. Public and private sector analysts monitor changes in the money supply because of the belief that such changes affect the price levels of securities, inflation, the exchange rates, and the business cycle.^[3]

The relationship between money and prices has historically been associated with the quantity theory of money. There is some empirical evidence of a direct relationship between the growth of the money supply and long-term price inflation, at least for rapid increases in the amount of money in the economy.^[4] For example, a country such as Zimbabwe which saw extremely rapid increases in its money supply also saw extremely rapid increases in prices (hyperinflation). This is one reason for the reliance on monetary policy as a means of controlling inflation.^[5][6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_supply

 

The private sector is the part of the economy, sometimes referred to as the citizen sector, which is owned by private groups, usually as a means of establishment for profit or non profit, rather than being owned by the government.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_sector

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-sector_model

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_institution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_market_operation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_account#Checking_accounts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_bond

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stagflation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seigniorage

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidity_preference

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_reform

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full-reserve_banking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Contraction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_inflation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_funds_rate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_for_money

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetarism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Monetary_Theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Monetary_Theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_portfolio_theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_monopoly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercive_monopoly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_(economics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregate_demand

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_policy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectoral_balances

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercive_monopoly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contestable_market

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_demand

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_reserves

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_deposit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_requirement

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_deposit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_base

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_account

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_base

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_finance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_base

 

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_of_value}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_bound}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidity_trap}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_paper}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_supply}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_bank}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_regulation}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(market)}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_law}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Banking_industry&redirect=no} 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Industries_(economics)}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_money}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_Z}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_money}

U.S. $50 gold certificate

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_money}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_system#Commodity-backed_money}

 

The Reichsmünzordnung (German: [ˈʁaɪçsˌmʏntsˌʔɔʁdnʊŋ], "imperial minting ordinance") was an attempt to unify the numerous disparate coins in use in the various states of the Holy Roman Empire in the 16th century. 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsm%C3%BCnzordnung}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_of_exchange}

 

Standard of deferred payment

Main article: Standard of deferred payment

While standard of deferred payment is distinguished by some texts,^[22] particularly older ones, other texts subsume this under other functions.^{[4][20][21][clarification needed]} A "standard of deferred payment" is an accepted way to settle a debt—a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender, in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money, the real value of debts may change due to inflation and deflation, and for sovereign and international debts via debasement and devaluation. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity_money

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_economy

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknote

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_creation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_supply

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_card

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_account

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_banking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_transaction

For the song by Clean Bandit, see New Eyes.

Telephone banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution, that enables customers to perform over the telephone a range of financial transactions which do not involve cash or Financial instruments (such as cheques), without the need to visit a bank branch or ATM.

History

Telephone banking became commercially available in the 1980s, first introduced by Girobank in the United Kingdom, which established a dedicated telephone banking service in 1984.^[1] Telephone banking saw growth during the 1980s and early 1990s, and was heavily used by the first generation of direct banks. However, the development online banking in the early 2000s started a long term decline in the use of telephone banking in favor of internet banking.^[2] The advent of mobile banking further eroded the use of telephone banking in the 2010s.

Operation

To use a financial institution's telephone banking facility, a customer must first register with the institution for the service. They would be assigned a customer number (which is not the same as the account number) and they may be given or set up their own password (under various names) for customer verification.

Customers would call the special phone number set up by the bank and would authenticate their identity through the customer number and a numeric or verbal password or security questions asked by a live representative. The service can be provided using an automated system, using voice recognition capability, DTMF technology or by live customer service representatives.

In India, a variation of telephone banking utilizing missed call numbers, assigned to specific tasks (such as checking balances or performing money transfers), is offered by major banks.^[3][4]

See also

• Banks portal

• Bank account
• Mobile banking
• Online banking

References

1. 
   

"A history of banking: from coins to pings". The Telegraph. Jun 1, 2015. Archived from the original on 2014-07-07.

Clark, Teri B. The Complete Personal Finance Handbook: Step-by-step Instructions to Take Control of Your Financial Future. Ocala, FL: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2007. Print.

Anand, Shefali (13 May 2016). "5 Things You Can Get in India With a Missed Call". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 5 October 2017.

4. Banerjee, Tushar (12 February 2014). "Five unusual ways in which Indians use mobile phones". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2017.

Categories:

• Banking
• Information by telephone
• Banking technology
• British inventions

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_banking

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_tender

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_transaction

 

Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce which allows consumers to directly buy goods or services from a seller over the Internet using a web browser or a mobile app. Consumers find a product of interest by visiting the website of the retailer directly or by searching among alternative vendors using a shopping search engine, which displays the same product's availability and pricing at different e-retailers. As of 2020, customers can shop online using a range of different computers and devices, including desktop computers, laptops, tablet computers and smartphones.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_shopping

Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at school,^[1][2] or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance.^[3] Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via mail. Distance education is a technology-mediated modality and has evolved with the evolution of technologies such as video conferencing, TV, and the Internet.^[4] Today, it usually involves online education and the learning is usually mediated by some form of technology. A distance learning program can be completely distance learning, or a combination of distance learning and traditional classroom instruction (called hybrid^[5] or blended).^[6] Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning).^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_education

 Amazon.com, Inc.^[1] (/ˈæməzɒn/ AM-ə-zon UK also /ˈæməzən/ AM-ə-zən) is an American multinational technology company focusing on e-commerce, cloud computing, online advertising, digital streaming, and artificial intelligence. It has been often referred to as "one of the most influential economic and cultural forces in the world",^[5] and is often regarded as one of the world's most valuable brands.^[6] It is considered as one of the Big Five American technology companies, alongside Alphabet (parent company of Google), Apple, Meta (formerly Facebook Inc.) and Microsoft. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_(company)

 

The copyright term is the length of time copyright subsists in a work before it passes into the public domain. In most of the world, this length of time is the life of the author plus either 50 or 70 years.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_term

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_copyright

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Legal_history_by_issue

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_labour_law

Laissez-faire (/ˌlɛseɪˈfɛər/ LESS-ay-FAIR; from French: laissez faire [lɛse fɛʁ] (listen), lit. 'let do') is a type of economic system in which transactions between private groups of people are free from any form of economic interventionism (such as subsidies or transfer payments). As a system of thought, laissez-faire rests on the following axioms: "the individual is the basic unit in society, i.e. the standard of measurement in social calculus; the individual has a natural right to freedom; and the physical order of nature is a harmonious and self-regulating system."^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laissez-faire

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_system

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_and_agency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_necessity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_economicus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_capability

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-foundationalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verificationism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherentism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextualism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definitions_of_knowledge#Justified_true_belief

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-foundationalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_and_superstructure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unthought_known

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercive_monopoly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_norm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergence#Emergent_properties_and_processes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure

Some believe that social structure is naturally developed, caused by larger systemic needs (e.g. the need for labour, management, professional, and military classes), or by conflicts between groups (e.g. competition among political parties or elites and masses). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me_generation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouveau_riche

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit_money

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stolen_Generations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generations_of_warfare

Glock (stylized as GLOCK) is a brand of polymer-framed, short recoil-operated, locked-breech semi-automatic pistols designed and produced by Austrian manufacturer Glock Ges.m.b.H.

The firearm entered Austrian military and police service by 1982 after becoming the top performer in reliability and safety tests.^[7]

Glock pistols have become the company's most profitable line of products, and have been supplied to national armed forces, security agencies, and police forces in at least 48 countries.^[8] Glocks are also popular firearms among civilians for recreational and competition shooting, home- and self-defense, both in concealed or open carry.^[9] In 2020, the Glock 19 was the best selling pistol on GunBroker.com.^[10] 

 

Glock
Glock 17 "First-generation" full-size model adopted in 1985 by the Norwegian military under the P80 designation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glock

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynesian_economics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_transplant

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding_(fraud)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act#Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Section_806%3A_Civil_action_to_protect_against_retaliation_in_fraud_cases

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponzi_scheme

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Frauds

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_of_convenience

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_frauds

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting_scandals

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcript_(education)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney%E2%80%93client_privilege#Crime%E2%80%93fraud_exception

Attorney–client privilege (redirect from Crime-fraud exception)

of a fraud will have no help from the law. He must let the truth be told." The crime–fraud exception also does require that the crime or fraud discussed...

12 KB (1,590 words) - 22:51, 31 March 2023

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_accounting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_fraud_detection

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_account_number

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_security_code

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_change

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_forgery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine-readable_document

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Justice_(Theft_and_Fraud_Offences)_Act_2001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_confidence_tricks#Lottery_fraud_by_proxy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy#Fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark_manuscript

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalistic_scandal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoplifting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_forgery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_point_check

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels_of_identity_security

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawman_theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Reavis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_misrepresentation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud_deterrence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttering

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_fraud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_evasion

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Reavis

 

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misremembered

 

 

 

 

In law, misappropriation is the unauthorized use of another's name, likeness, identity, property, discoveries, inventions, etc. without that person's permission, resulting in harm to that person.

Another use of the word refers to intentional and illegal use of property or funds; it can particularly refer to when done by a public official.

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misappropriation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misremembered

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misrepresentation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation

 

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullibility

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestibility

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_psychology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmata

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_constructionism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_memory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis#Social_constructionism_.2F_Role-playing_theory

Credulity is a person's willingness or ability to believe that a statement is true, especially on minimal or uncertain evidence.^[1][2] Credulity is not necessarily a belief in something that may be false: the subject of the belief may even be correct, but a credulous person will believe it without good evidence. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credulity

 

Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma.^[1][2] For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology. More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God), or the supernatural.^[3] Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Autonomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sovereignty

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disestablishment&redirect=no