05-15-2023-0824 - Extrajudicial punishment is a punishment for an alleged crime or offense which is carried out without legal process or supervision by a court or tribunal through a legal proceeding.

Indivisible may refer to:

Mathematics

• Method of indivisibles, the historical name of what is now known as Cavalieri's principle
• Absence of divisibility (ring theory)

Arts

Films

• Indivisible (2016 film), a 2016 Italian film
• Indivisible (2018 film), a 2018 American film

Music

• Indivisible, album by Lungfish (band) 1997
• "Indivisible", song by Marie-Mai
• "Indivisible", song by Pillar from Fireproof (Pillar album)
• "Indivisible", song by Hatebreed
• "Indivisible", song by Lungfish (band)
• "Indivisible", song by The Dirtbombs
• "Indivisible", song by Plankeye
• "Indivisible", song by Crüxshadows
• "Indivisible", song by Betty Wright
• "Indivisible", song by Yellowjackets

Other media

• Indivisible, a novel by Fanny Howe (2003)
• Indivisible (video game)

Other uses

• French ship Indivisible (1799)
• Indivisible movement, a progressive movement initiated as a reaction to the election of Donald Trump as US President in 2016

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Indivisible.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indivisible

ot to be confused with Cavalieri's quadrature formula.

Two stacks of coins with the same volume, illustrating Cavalieri's principle in three dimensions

In geometry, Cavalieri's principle, a modern implementation of the method of indivisibles, named after Bonaventura Cavalieri, is as follows:^[1]

• 2-dimensional case: Suppose two regions in a plane are included between two parallel lines in that plane. If every line parallel to these two lines intersects both regions in line segments of equal length, then the two regions have equal areas.
• 3-dimensional case: Suppose two regions in three-space (solids) are included between two parallel planes. If every plane parallel to these two planes intersects both regions in cross-sections of equal area, then the two regions have equal volumes.

Today Cavalieri's principle is seen as an early step towards integral calculus, and while it is used in some forms, such as its generalization in Fubini's theorem and layer cake representation, results using Cavalieri's principle can often be shown more directly via integration. In the other direction, Cavalieri's principle grew out of the ancient Greek method of exhaustion, which used limits but did not use infinitesimals. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalieri%27s_principle

In mathematics, the notion of a divisor originally arose within the context of arithmetic of whole numbers. With the development of abstract rings, of which the integers are the archetype, the original notion of divisor found a natural extension.

Divisibility is a useful concept for the analysis of the structure of commutative rings because of its relationship with the ideal structure of such rings. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisibility_(ring_theory)

In concurrent programming, an operation (or set of operations) is linearizable if it consists of an ordered list of invocation and response events, that may be extended by adding response events such that:

1. The extended list can be re-expressed as a sequential history (is serializable).
2. That sequential history is a subset of the original unextended list.

Informally, this means that the unmodified list of events is linearizable if and only if its invocations were serializable, but some of the responses of the serial schedule have yet to return.^[1]

In a concurrent system, processes can access a shared object at the same time. Because multiple processes are accessing a single object, there may arise a situation in which while one process is accessing the object, another process changes its contents. Making a system linearizable is one solution to this problem. In a linearizable system, although operations overlap on a shared object, each operation appears to take place instantaneously. Linearizability is a strong correctness condition, which constrains what outputs are possible when an object is accessed by multiple processes concurrently. It is a safety property which ensures that operations do not complete in an unexpected or unpredictable manner. If a system is linearizable it allows a programmer to reason about the system.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearizability

In computer science, a consistency model specifies a contract between the programmer and a system, wherein the system guarantees that if the programmer follows the rules for operations on memory, memory will be consistent and the results of reading, writing, or updating memory will be predictable. Consistency models are used in distributed systems like distributed shared memory systems or distributed data stores (such as filesystems, databases, optimistic replication systems or web caching). Consistency is different from coherence, which occurs in systems that are cached or cache-less, and is consistency of data with respect to all processors. Coherence deals with maintaining a global order in which writes to a single location or single variable are seen by all processors. Consistency deals with the ordering of operations to multiple locations with respect to all processors.

High level languages, such as C++ and Java, maintain the consistency contract by translating memory operations into low-level operations in a way that preserves memory semantics, reordering some memory instructions, and encapsulating required synchronization with library calls such as pthread_mutex_lock().^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistency_model

In computer science, distributed shared memory (DSM) is a form of memory architecture where physically separated memories can be addressed as a single shared address space. The term "shared" does not mean that there is a single centralized memory, but that the address space is shared—i.e., the same physical address on two processors refers to the same location in memory.^[1]: 201 Distributed global address space (DGAS), is a similar term for a wide class of software and hardware implementations, in which each node of a cluster has access to shared memory in addition to each node's private (i.e., not shared) memory.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_shared_memory

In computer science, shared memory is memory that may be simultaneously accessed by multiple programs with an intent to provide communication among them or avoid redundant copies. Shared memory is an efficient means of passing data between programs. Depending on context, programs may run on a single processor or on multiple separate processors.

Using memory for communication inside a single program, e.g. among its multiple threads, is also referred to as shared memory. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_memory

Overlapping instructions

On processor architectures with variable-length instruction sets^[5] (such as Intel's x86 processor family) it is, within the limits of the control-flow resynchronizing phenomenon known as the Kruskal Count,^[6][5] sometimes possible through opcode-level programming to deliberately arrange the resulting code so that two code paths share a common fragment of opcode sequences. These are called overlapping instructions, overlapping opcodes, overlapping code, overlapped code, instruction scission, or jump into the middle of an instruction, and represent a form of superposition.^[7][8][9]

In the 1970s and 1980s, overlapping instructions were sometimes used to preserve memory space. One example were in the implementation of error tables in Microsoft's Altair BASIC, where interleaved instructions mutually shared their instruction bytes.^[10][5][7] The technique is rarely used today, but might still be necessary to resort to in areas where extreme optimization for size is necessary on byte-level such as in the implementation of boot loaders which have to fit into boot sectors.^{[nb 2]}

It is also sometimes used as a code obfuscation technique as a measure against disassembly and tampering.^[5]

The principle is also utilized in shared code sequences of fat binaries which must run on multiple instruction-set-incompatible processor platforms.

This property is also used to find unintended instructions called gadgets in existing code repositories and is utilized in return-oriented programming as alternative to code injection for exploits such as return-to-libc attacks.^[11][5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code#Overlapping_instructions

In computer architecture, cache coherence is the uniformity of shared resource data that ends up stored in multiple local caches. When clients in a system maintain caches of a common memory resource, problems may arise with incoherent data, which is particularly the case with CPUs in a multiprocessing system.

In the illustration on the right, consider both the clients have a cached copy of a particular memory block from a previous read. Suppose the client on the bottom updates/changes that memory block, the client on the top could be left with an invalid cache of memory without any notification of the change. Cache coherence is intended to manage such conflicts by maintaining a coherent view of the data values in multiple caches. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_coherence

Indivisible security or the indivisibility of security is a term first used during the Cold War.^[1][2] First included in the Helsinki Accords as the "indivisibility of security in Europe", the term states that the security of one nation is inseparable from other countries in its region.^[1] In 2022, Russia has used this term to justify its military build-up near Ukraine, which ultimately led to a full-fledged invasion.^[1] The term has also been promoted by China,^[3] including as part of its promoted "global security initiative".^[4]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indivisible_security}

The uncertainty reduction theory, also known as initial interaction theory, developed in 1975 by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese, is a communication theory from the post-positivist tradition. It is one of the few communication theories that specifically looks into the initial interaction between people prior to the actual communication process. The theory asserts the notion that, when interacting, people need information about the other party in order to reduce their uncertainty. In gaining this information people are able to predict the other's behavior and resulting actions, all of which according to the theory is crucial in the development of any relationship.^[1][2]

Berger and Calabrese explain the connection between their central concept of uncertainty and seven key variables of relationship development with a series of axioms, and deduce a series of theorems accordingly. Within the theory two types of uncertainty are identified; cognitive uncertainty and behavioral uncertainty. There are three types of strategies which people may use to seek information about someone: passive, active, and interactive. Furthermore, the initial interaction of strangers can be broken down into individual stages—the entry stage, the personal stage, and the exit stage. According to the theory, people find uncertainty in interpersonal relationships unpleasant and are motivated to reduce it through interpersonal communication. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_reduction_theory

his article is about the societal concept. For the similar concept that relates to individuals, see Ambiguity aversion.

In cross-cultural psychology, uncertainty avoidance is how cultures differ on the amount of tolerance they have of unpredictability.^[1] Uncertainty avoidance is one of five key qualities or dimensions measured by the researchers who developed the Hofstede model of cultural dimensions to quantify cultural differences across international lines and better understand why some ideas and business practices work better in some countries than in others. ^[2] According to Geert Hofstede, "The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: Should we try to control it or just let it happen?"^[1]

The uncertainty avoidance dimension relates to the degree to which individuals of a specific society are comfortable with uncertainty and the unknown. Countries displaying strong uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) believe and behave in a strict manner. Individuals belonging to those countries also avoid unconventional ways of thinking and behaving. Weak UAI societies display more ease in regards to uncertainty.^[2] People in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance try to minimize the occurrence of unknown and unusual circumstances and to proceed with careful changes step by step by planning and by implementing rules, laws and regulations. In contrast, low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible. People in these cultures tend to be more pragmatic and more tolerant of change.^[3]

When it comes to the tolerance of unpredictability, the areas which uncertainty avoidance deals with the most are technology, law, and religion. Technology assists with the uncertainty done by nature with new developments. Law defends the uncertainty of behavior by the people with rules that are set. Religion accepts the uncertainty people cannot get protected from. Individuals use their beliefs to get through their uncertainties.^[4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance

Grant or Grants may refer to:

Places

• Grant County (disambiguation)

Australia

• Grant, Queensland, a locality in the Barcaldine Region, Queensland, Australia

United Kingdom

• Castle Grant

United States

• Grant, Alabama
• Grant, Inyo County, California
• Grant, Colorado
• Grant-Valkaria, Florida
• Grant, Iowa
• Grant, Michigan
• Grant, Minnesota
• Grant, Nebraska
• Grant, Ohio, an unincorporated community
• Grant, Washington
• Grant, Wisconsin (disambiguation) (six towns)
• Grant City, Indiana
• Grant City, Missouri
• Grant City, Staten Island
• Grant Lake (disambiguation), several lakes
• Grant Park, Illinois
• Grant Park (Chicago)
• Grant Town, West Virginia
• Grant Township (disambiguation) (100 townships in 12 states)
• Grant Village in Yellowstone National Park
• Grants, New Mexico
• Grants Pass, Oregon
• U.S. Grant Bridge over Ohio River and Scioto River
• General Grant National Memorial aka Grant's Tomb

India

• Jolly Grant Airport Dehradun, Uttarakhand

Canada

• Rural Municipality of Grant No. 372, Saskatchewan

People

• Grant (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters
• Grant (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters
  • Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885), the 18th president of the United States and general of the Union during the American Civil War
  • Cary Grant (1904–1986), British-American actor
  • Hugh Grant (born 1960), British actor
  • Richard E. Grant (born 1957), British-Swazi actor
  • Justice Grant (disambiguation), judges named Grant
• Clan Grant, a Highland Scottish clan

Art, entertainment, and media

• Grant (book), a 2017 biography of Ulysses S. Grant by Ron Chernow
• Grant (miniseries), a 2020 miniseries based on the Chernow book
• "Grant", a poem by Patti Smith from her 1978 book Babel

Businesses

• Donald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc., a fantasy and science fiction small press publisher in New Hampshire
• W. T. Grant variety store, a chain of mass-merchandise stores
• William Grant & Sons, a Scotch whisky distilling company

Law and philanthropy

• Grant (law), a term in conveyancing
• Grant (money), an award usually funded by a government, business, or foundation, often with not-for-profit preconditions
• Spanish and Mexican land grants in New Mexico
• Spanish land grants in Florida
• Grant v Torstar Corp, a leading Supreme Court of Canada case on responsible communication in the public interest as a defence against defamation

Vehicles and transportation

• Grant (automobile), a defunct Findlay, Ohio auto manufacturer
• M3 Lee, an American tank, a modified version was called the Grant
• USS Grant, several ships of the U.S. Navy

Other uses

• Grant, colloquial term for a United States fifty-dollar bill which bears a portrait of President Ulysses S. Grant
• Cyclone Grant, a tropical cyclone that made landfall near Darwin, Australia, in late-December 2011
• Grant of arms in nobility

See also

Search for "grant"  or "grants" on Wikipedia.

• All pages with titles beginning with Grant
• All pages with titles containing grants
• All pages with titles containing grant
• General Grant (disambiguation)
• Justice Grant (disambiguation)
• President Grant (disambiguation)
• Grant Thornton (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Grant.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories:

• Disambiguation pages
• Place name disambiguation pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant

"Deported" and "Deport" redirect here. For the film, see Deported (film). For French officer and engineer, see Joseph-Albert Deport.

For the process of transferring criminals between countries, see Extradition.

Prisoners and gendarmes on the road to Siberia, 1845

Certificate of identity of deported individual that pertains other Chinese deportation records of the US District court, Los Angeles County, California.

Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. The term expulsion is often used as a synonym for deportation, though expulsion is more often used in the context of international law, while deportation is more used in national (municipal) law.^[1] Forced displacement or forced migration of an individual or a group may be caused by deportation, for example ethnic cleansing, and other reasons. A person who has been deported or is under sentence of deportation is called a deportee.^[2]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation

Forced displacement (also forced migration or forced relocation) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR defines 'forced displacement' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_displacement

Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, and religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal, extermination, deportation or population transfer, it also includes indirect methods aimed at forced migration by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction.^[2][3][4] It constitutes a crime against humanity and may also fall under the Genocide Convention, even as ethnic cleansing has no legal definition under international criminal law.^[2][5][6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing

Arbitrary arrest and arbitrary detention are the arrest or detention of an individual in a case in which there is no likelihood or evidence that they committed a crime against legal statute, or in which there has been no proper due process of law or order.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention

Adjective

incommunicado (not comparable)

In a state or condition of inability or unwillingness to communicate.

 

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/incommunicado

 

Exile is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suffer exile, but sometimes social entities like institutions (e.g. the papacy or a government) are forced from their homeland.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A tax exile is a person who leaves a country to avoid the payment of income tax or other taxes. The term refers to an individual who already owes money to the tax authorities or wishes to avoid being liable in the future for taxation at what they consider high tax rates, instead choosing to reside in a foreign country or jurisdiction which has no taxes or lower tax rates.

In general, there is no extradition agreement between countries which covers extradition for outstanding tax liabilities. Going into tax exile is a form of tax mitigation or avoidance. A tax exile normally cannot return to their home country without being subject to outstanding tax liabilities. This may prevent the individual from leaving the country until these taxes owing have been paid.

Most countries tax individuals who are resident in their jurisdiction. Though residency rules vary, most commonly individuals are resident in a country for taxation purposes if they spend at least six months (or some other period) in any one tax year in the country, and/or have an abiding attachment to the country, such as owning a fixed property. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_exile

In an extradition, one jurisdiction delivers a person accused or convicted of committing a crime in another jurisdiction, over to the other's law enforcement. It is a cooperative law enforcement procedure between the two jurisdictions and depends on the arrangements made between them. In addition to legal aspects of the process, extradition also involves the physical transfer of custody of the person being extradited to the legal authority of the requesting jurisdiction.^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extradition}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain-Var-Rus-As-etc.}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bruen-mest-eur-lat-etc.}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/af-var-etc.}

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Police_misconduct}

 

A mass arrest occurs when police apprehend large numbers of suspects at once. This sometimes occurs at protests. Some mass arrests are also used in an effort to combat gang activity.^[1] This is sometimes controversial, and lawsuits sometimes result.^[2] In police science, it is deemed to be good practice to plan for the identification of those arrested during mass arrests, since it is unlikely that the officers will remember everyone they arrested.^[3]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_arrest}

In justice and law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or, in modern times, electronic monitoring) is a measure by which a person is confined by the authorities to their residence. Travel is usually restricted, if allowed at all. House arrest is an alternative to being in a prison while awaiting trial or after sentencing.

While house arrest can be applied to criminal cases when prison does not seem an appropriate measure, the term is often applied to the use of house confinement as a measure of repression by authoritarian governments against political dissidents. In these cases, the person under house arrest often does not have access to any means of communication with people outside of the home; if electronic communication is allowed, conversations may be monitored. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_arrest

In history, religion and political science, a purge is a position removal or execution of people who are considered undesirable by those in power from a government, another organization, their team leaders, or society as a whole. A group undertaking such an effort is labeled as purging itself. Purges can be either nonviolent or violent, with the former often resolved by the simple removal of those who have been purged from office, and the latter often resolved by the imprisonment, exile, or murder of those who have been purged.^[1]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purge}

 

Unknown or The Unknown may refer to:

Film

• The Unknown (1915 comedy film), a silent boxing film
• The Unknown (1915 drama film)
• The Unknown (1922 drama film)
• The Unknown (1927 film), a silent horror film starring Lon Chaney
• The Unknown (1936 film), a German drama film
• The Unknown (1946 film), a mystery film
• Anjaane: The Unknown, a 2005 Bollywood horror movie
• The Unknown, a 2005 action/thriller starring Miles O'Keeffe
• Unknown (2006 film), a thriller starring James Caviezel
• Unknown (2011 film), a thriller starring Liam Neeson

Literature

• Unknown (magazine), an American pulp fantasy fiction magazine published from 1939 to 1943
• The Unknown (novel), a 1998 book by K. A. Applegate
• The Unknown, a comic book mini-series by Mark Waid

Music

• The Unknown (Madeline Juno album) (2014)
• Unknown (Rasputina album) (2015)
• The Unknown (The Vision Bleak album) (2016)
• The Unknown, a 2014 album by Dillon
• "The Unknown" (song), by 10 Years, 2019
• "The Unknown", a song by Crossfade from Crossfade, 2004
• "The Unknown", a song by Shadows Fall from Fire from the Sky, 2012
• "Unknown", a song by Reks from The Greatest X, 2016

Science and mathematics

• Unknown (mathematics), a variable that appears in an equation for which a solution is sought
• Unknown, the ongoing answer to an open problem

Video games

• Unknown (video game) or Amnesia: The Dark Descent, a 2010 video game
• Unknown (Tekken), a character in Tekken

Other uses

• The Unknown (Over the Garden Wall), an episode of Over the Garden Wall
  • The Unknown, a location in Over the Garden Wall
• The Unknown, a sculpture by Kenny Hunter
• Unknown, a Unicode script
• The Unknowns, a self-proclaimed ethical hacking group

People

• Unknown Hinson (born 1954), musician and performer
• The Unknown Comic (born 1945), Canadian actor and comedian
• The Unknown DJ, American disc jockey and record producer
• Unknown T (born 1998), British rapper

See also

• The Great Unknown (disambiguation)
• L'Inconnue de la Seine (died c. 1880), unidentified young woman whose death mask was the model for the CPR doll Resusci Anne
• Unknown known
• Unknown Soldier (disambiguation)
• Unown, a Pokémon species

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Unknown.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories:

• Disambiguation pages
• Disambiguation pages with given-name-holder lists

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unknown

Xenophobia (from Ancient Greek ξένος (xénos) 'strange, foreign, alien', and φόβος (phóbos) 'fear')^[1] is the fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or strange.^[2][3][4] It is an expression which is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group which is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity.^[5][6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/impact

See also

• Afrophobia, hostility towards Africa, Africans and people of African descent
• Anti-intellectualism
• Aporophobia, hostility towards poor people
• Authoritarian personality
• Black genocide conspiracy theory, the notion that African Americans have been subjected to genocide via birth control because of racism against African Americans
• Chauvinism
• Conformity
• Criticism of multiculturalism
• Cultural genocide
• Discrimination based on skin color
• Ethnic cleansing
• Ethnocentrism
• Eurabia, the belief that the culture of Europe is being Arabized and Islamized and the belief that Europe's previous alliances with the United States and Israel are being undermined
• European Commission against Racism and Intolerance
• Forced assimilation
• Genocide
• Great replacement, a variant of the white genocide conspiracy theory
• Hispanophobia, hostility towards Spaniards, hostility towards people of Spanish descent, dislike of Spanish culture, dislike of Spain and dislike of the Spanish language
• Index of racism-related articles
• Kalergi Plan conspiracy theory
• List of phobias
• Nationalism
• Nativism (politics)
• Negrophobia (also termed anti-Blackness) is characterized by fear of, hatred of or extreme aversion to Black people and Cape Coloureds or Coloureds, and Black & Colored culture
• Opposition to immigration
• Racism
• Stranger danger
• Supremacism
• Überfremdung, a German term for excessive immigration
• Xenocentrism
• Xenophilia
• Xenoracism

 ^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophobia}

A preemptive arrest is one in which a person is arrested prior to committing a crime. Preemptive arrests are sometimes viewed with suspicion as being contrary to the principles of a democracy.^[1]

This practice is distinct from an arrest on a charge of conspiracy to commit a crime, which for example in the United States federal system is itself a crime. A conspiracy charge in this system must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, and requires that two or more parties have agreed to or planned to commit a crime and have taken concrete action to advance this plot.^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preemptive_arrest

An arrest without warrant or a warrantless arrest is an arrest of an individual without the use of an arrest warrant.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrest_without_warrant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:United_States_criminal_law

The power of arrest is a mandate given by a central authority that allows an individual to remove a criminal's (or suspected criminal's) liberty. The power of arrest can also be used to protect a person, or persons from harm or to protect damage to property.

However, in many countries, a person also has powers of arrest under citizen's arrest or any person arrest / breach of the peace arrest powers. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_arrest

A citizen's arrest is an arrest made by a private citizen – that is, a person who is not acting as a sworn law-enforcement official.^[1] In common law jurisdictions, the practice dates back to medieval England and the English common law, in which sheriffs encouraged ordinary citizens to help apprehend law breakers.^[2]

Despite the practice's name, in most countries, the arresting person is usually designated as a person with arrest powers, who need not be a citizen of the country in which they are acting. For example, in the British jurisdiction of England and Wales, the power comes from section 24A(2) of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984,^[3] called "any person arrest". This legislation states "any person" has these powers, and does not state that they need to be a British citizen. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen%27s_arrest

Look up justification in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Justification may refer to:

• Justification (epistemology), a property of beliefs that a person has good reasons for holding
• Justification (jurisprudence), defence in a prosecution for a criminal offenses
• Justification (theology), God's act of declaring or making a sinner righteous before God
• Justification (typesetting), a kind of typographic alignment
• Rationalization (making excuses), a phenomenon in psychology

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification

"Missing people" redirects here. For the UK charity, see Missing People. For the ethnic group, see Mising people. For other uses, see Missing Persons (disambiguation).

A missing person is a person who has disappeared and whose status as alive or dead cannot be confirmed as their location and condition are unknown. A person may go missing through a voluntary disappearance, or else due to an accident, crime, death in a location where they cannot be found (such as at sea), or many other reasons. In most parts of the world, a missing person will usually be found quickly. While criminal abductions are some of the most widely reported missing person cases, these account for only 2–5% of missing children in Europe.^{[citation needed]}

By contrast, some missing person cases remain unresolved for many years. Laws related to these cases are often complex since, in many jurisdictions, relatives and third parties may not deal with a person's assets until their death is considered proven by law and a formal death certificate issued. The situation, uncertainties, and lack of closure or a funeral resulting when a person goes missing may be extremely painful with long-lasting effects on family and friends.

A number of organizations seek to connect, share best practices, and disseminate information and images of missing children to improve the effectiveness of missing children investigations, including the International Commission on Missing Persons, the International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children (ICMEC), as well as national organizations, including the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children in the US, Missing People in the UK, Child Focus in Belgium, and The Smile of the Child in Greece. 

Reasons

People disappear for many reasons. Some individuals choose to disappear, for others disappearance is inadvertent (e.g. getting lost) or it is imposed on them (abduction/imprisonment). Reasons for disappearance may include:^[1][2][3]

• To escape domestic abuse.
• Leaving home to live in an unknown place under a new identity.
• Becoming the victim of kidnapping.
• Child abduction by a non-custodial parent or other relative.
• Seizure by the federal authorities (Military, law enforcement, government) and imprisoned / detained indefinitely / tortured fatally / non fatally for an unknown period of time in an undisclosed guarded location without due process of law (see forced disappearance).
• Suicide in a remote location or under an assumed name (generally to spare their families the suicide at home or to allow their deaths to be eventually declared in absentia).
• Victim of murder (body disguised, destroyed, or hidden).
• Mental illness or other ailments such as Alzheimer's disease can cause people to forget where or who they are.
• Death by natural causes (disease) or accident far from home without identification.
• Becoming lost accidentally in remote areas, including when participating in outdoor recreation or labour (hiking, mountaineering, hunting, etc.)
• Disappearance to take advantage of better employment or living conditions elsewhere.
• Sold into slavery, serfdom, sexual servitude, or other unfree labor.
• To avoid discovery of a crime or apprehension by law-enforcement authorities, (See also failure to appear.) and punishment after committing a such crime (murder, theft, rape, terrorism, fraud, etc.).
• Joining a cult or other religious organization that requires no contact to the outside world.
• To avoid war or persecution during a genocide.
• As a consequence of war - e.g. missing in action, impressment, collateral damage
• To escape famine or natural disaster.
• Death by floods, flash floods, debris flows, hurricanes, tsunamis and tornadoes.
• Death in the water, with no body recovered.
• Aviation accident where no wreckage is found or ship wreck where no wreckage is found
• Desertion during war or absent without leave (AWOL).
• To avoid conscription.
• Hostage.
• To avoid paying someone or something.

 

Categories of missing children

• Runaways: Minors who run away from home, from the institution where they have been placed, or from the people responsible for their care.
• Thrownaways: Minors who are abandoned by their parents or guardians.
• Parental abduction: Minors who are abducted by their parents or guardians for unknown reasons.
• Non-parental abduction: Minors who are abducted by non-parental means. (e.g. random kidnapping on streets by random people.)
• Missing unaccompanied migrant minors: Disappearances of migrant children, nationals of a country in which there is no free movement of persons, under the age of 18 who have been separated from both parents and are not being cared for by an adult, who by law is responsible for doing so.
• Lost, injured or otherwise missing children: Disappearances for no apparent reason of minors who got lost (e.g., young children at the seaside in summer) or hurt themselves and cannot be found immediately (e.g. accidents during sport activities, at youth camps, etc.), as well as children whose reason for disappearing has not yet been determined or found.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_person

 

Legal aspects

A common misconception is that a person must be absent for at least 24 hours before being legally classed as missing, but this is rarely the case. Law enforcement agencies often stress that the case should be reported as early as possible.^[4][5] In fact it is extremely crucial to report a missing person as soon as possible. This is in order to take immediate action in the vital first 48 hours after a person is declared missing. In these 48 hours the police will be able to interview any eyewitness and get any suspect descriptions while it is still fresh in their minds.

In most common law jurisdictions a missing person can be declared dead in absentia (or "legally dead") after seven years. This time frame may be reduced in certain cases, such as deaths in major battles or mass disasters such as the September 11 attacks.^{[citation needed]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_person

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/russia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/niggers

 

A presumption of death occurs when a person is thought to be dead by a group of people despite the absence of direct proof of the person's death, such as the finding of remains (e.g., a corpse or skeleton) attributable to that person. Such a presumption is typically made by an individual when a person has been missing for an extended period and in the absence of any evidence that person is still alive—or after a shorter period, but where the circumstances surrounding a person's disappearance overwhelmingly support the belief that the person is dead (e.g., an airplane crash).

A declaration that a person is dead resembles other forms of "preventive adjudication", such as the declaratory judgment.^[1] Different jurisdictions have different legal standards for obtaining such a declaration and in some jurisdictions a presumption of death may arise after a person has been missing under certain circumstances and a certain amount of time. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presumption_of_death

 

False imprisonment or unlawful imprisonment occurs when a person intentionally restricts another person’s movement within any area without legal authority, justification, or the restrained person's permission.^[1] Actual physical restraint is not necessary for false imprisonment to occur. A false imprisonment claim may be made based upon private acts, or upon wrongful governmental detention. For detention by the police, proof of false imprisonment provides a basis to obtain a writ of habeas corpus.^[2]

Under common law, false imprisonment is both a crime and a tort. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_imprisonment

 

False arrest, Unlawful arrest or Wrongful arrest is a common law tort, where a plaintiff alleges they were held in custody without probable cause, or without an order issued by a court of competent jurisdiction. Although it is possible to sue law enforcement officials for false arrest, the usual defendants in such cases are private security firms.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_arrest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_and_Criminal_Evidence_Act_1984

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloak

Ticket quotas are commonly defined as any establishment of a predetermined or specified number of traffic citations an officer must issue in a specified time.^[1] Some police departments may set "productivity goals" but deny specific quotas.^[2] In many places, such as California, Texas, and Florida, traffic ticket quotas are specifically prohibited by law or illegal.^[3][4][5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticket_quota

A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states,^[1] but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal persons.^[2][3] A treaty may also be known as an international agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, pact, or exchange of letters, among other terms. However, only documents that are legally binding on the parties are considered treaties under international law.^[4] Treaties vary on the basis of obligations (the extent to which states are bound to the rules), precision (the extent to which the rules are unambiguous), and delegation (the extent to which third parties have authority to interpret, apply and make rules).^[1][5]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty}

In telecommunications, asynchronous communication is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream.^[1] Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols.

The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start and stop bits. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_communication

Cave rescue is a highly specialized field of wilderness rescue in which injured, trapped or lost cave explorers are medically treated and extracted from various cave environments.

Cave rescue borrows elements from firefighting, confined space rescue, rope rescue and mountaineering techniques but has also developed its own special techniques and skills for performing work in conditions that are almost always difficult and demanding. Since cave accidents, on an absolute scale, are a very limited form of incident, and cave rescue is a very specialized skill, normal emergency staff are rarely employed in the underground elements of the rescue. Instead, this is usually undertaken by other experienced cavers who undergo regular training through their organizations and are called up at need.

Cave rescues are slow, deliberate operations that require both a high level of organized teamwork and good communication. The extremes of the cave environment (air temperature, water, vertical depth) dictate every aspect of a cave rescue. Therefore, the rescuers must adapt skills and techniques that are as dynamic as the environment they must operate in. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_rescue

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_memory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_grade_mental_illness

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)

 

The encoding specificity principle is the general principle that matching the encoding contexts of information at recall assists in the retrieval of episodic memories. It provides a framework for understanding how the conditions present while encoding information relate to memory and recall of that information.^[1]

It was introduced by Thomson and Tulving who suggested that contextual information is encoded with memories which affect the retrieval process. When a person uses information stored in their memory it is necessary that the information is accessible. The accessibility is governed by retrieval cues, these cues are dependent on the encoding pattern; the specific encoding pattern may vary from instance to instance, even if nominally the item is the same, as encoding depends on the context. This conclusion was drawn from a recognition-memory task.^[2] A series of psychological experiments were undertaken in the 1970s which continued this work and further showed that context affects our ability to recall information.

The context may refer to the context in which the information was encoded, the physical location or surroundings, as well as the mental or physical state of the individual at the time of encoding. This principle plays a significant role in both the concept of context-dependent memory and the concept of state-dependent memory.

Examples of the use of the encoding specificity principle include; studying in the same room as an exam is taken and the recall of information when intoxicated being easier when intoxicated again.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_specificity_principle

 

The outshining hypothesis

The outshining hypothesis is the phenomenon by which context effects are absent as a result of a different cue (item cue) suppressing the weaker cue at retrieval. This "outshining" can also occur for item cues by stronger context cues.^[22] It is based on the idea that a heavenly body is more difficult to see when it is obscured by a full moon. Similarly, incidental encoding of environmental context-dependent cues can be completely "outshone" when there are better cues available. However, these incidentally encoded environmental cues can be used to prompt memory recall if stronger cues are not present at encoding. A cue may be considered "better" simply because it has been more deeply processed, repeated more often, or has fewer items associated with it.^[21] As an example, a study by Steuck and Levy showed that environmental context-dependent memory has a decreased effect in word recall tests if the words are embedded into meaningful text.^[21] This is because meaningful texts are stored better in memory and are more deeply processed. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-dependent_memory#The_outshining_hypothesis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory

 

Unreported missing (also known as missing missing^[1]) describes persons who cannot be found, yet have not been or cannot be reported as missing persons to law enforcement, specifically the National Crime Information Center database of missing persons in the United States. The term applies whether the missing person is a child or an adult. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreported_missing

A do-not-resuscitate order (DNR), also known as Do Not Attempt Resuscitation (DNAR), Do Not Attempt Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (DNACPR^[3]), no code^[4][5] or allow natural death, is a medical order, written or oral depending on country, indicating that a person should not receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if that person's heart stops beating.^[5] Sometimes these decisions and the relevant documents also encompass decisions around other critical or life-prolonging medical interventions.^[6] The legal status and processes surrounding DNR orders vary from country to country. Most commonly, the order is placed by a physician based on a combination of medical judgement and patient involvement.^[7]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_resuscitate}

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Euthanasia}

An advance healthcare directive, also known as living will, personal directive, advance directive, medical directive or advance decision, is a legal document in which a person specifies what actions should be taken for their health if they are no longer able to make decisions for themselves because of illness or incapacity. In the U.S. it has a legal status in itself, whereas in some countries it is legally persuasive without being a legal document.

A living will is one form of advance directive, leaving instructions for treatment. Another form is a specific type of power of attorney or health care proxy, in which the person authorizes someone (an agent) to make decisions on their behalf when they are incapacitated. People are often encouraged to complete both documents to provide comprehensive guidance regarding their care, although they may be combined into a single form. An example of combination documents includes the Five Wishes in the United States. The term living will is also the commonly recognised vernacular in many countries, especially the U.K.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advance_healthcare_directive

Override may refer to:

• Dr. Gregory Herd, a Marvel Comics character formerly named Override
• Manual override, a function where an automated system is placed under manual control
• Method overriding, a subclassing feature in Object Oriented programming languages.
• Price override, in retail
• Override, a character on the anime television series Transformers: Cybertron
• Override (film), a 1994 science fiction short film
• Override, a 2021 British science fiction thriller film
• OverRide (video game)
• Overrider, a Marvel Comics mutant
• Overriders, an insurance term
• Overriding (mathematics)
• Overriding aorta, a medical condition in which aorta emerge from abnormal position.
• Veto override, a procedure employed by legislatures

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Override.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Category:

• Disambiguation pages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Override

In contract law, a non-compete clause (often NCC), restrictive covenant, or covenant not to compete (CNC), is a clause under which one party (usually an employee) agrees not to enter into or start a similar profession or trade in competition against another party (usually the employer). Some courts refer to these as "restrictive covenants". As a contract provision, a CNC is bound by traditional contract requirements including the consideration doctrine.

The use of such clauses is premised on the possibility that upon their termination or resignation, an employee might begin working for a competitor or start a business, and gain competitive advantage by exploiting confidential information about their former employer's operations or trade secrets, or sensitive information such as customer/client lists, business practices, upcoming products, and marketing plans.

However, an over-broad CNC may prevent an employee from working elsewhere at all. English common law originally held any such constraint to be unenforceable under the public policy doctrine.^[1] Contemporary case law permits exceptions, but generally will only enforce CNCs to the extent necessary to protect the employer. Most jurisdictions in which such contracts have been examined by the courts have deemed CNCs to be legally binding so long as the clause contains reasonable limitations as to the geographical area and time period in which an employee of a company may not compete.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-compete_clause

The non-cooperation movement of 1971 was a historical movement in then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) by the Awami League and the general public against the military government of Pakistan in March of that year. After the announcement of the suspension of the session of the National Assembly of Pakistan on March 1, the spontaneous movement of the people started, but officially on the call of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the non-cooperation movement started on March 2^[1] and continued until March 25. The movement lasted for a total of 25 days.^[2] The main objective of this movement was to ensure the autonomy of East Pakistan from the central government of Pakistan.^[3][4] During this period, the control of the central government of West Pakistan over the civilian administration of East Pakistan was almost non-existent. At one stage of the movement, the whole of East Pakistan (except the cantonments) was practically under the command of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.^[1][5]

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1971)}

Introduction

A non-cooperative game is a form of game under the topic of game theory. Non-cooperative games are used in situations where there are competition between the players of the game. In this model, there are no external rules that enforces the cooperation of the players therefore it is typically used to model a competitive environment. This is stated in various accounts most prominent being John Nash's paper.^[1]

That being said, there are many arguments to be made regarding this point as with decades of research, it is shown that non-cooperative game models can be used to show cooperation as well and vice versa for cooperative game model being used to show competition.

Some examples of this would be the usage of non-cooperative model in determining the stability and sustainability of cartels and coalitions.^[2][3]

Non zero-sum games and zero-sum games are both types of non-cooperative games.^[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cooperative_game_theory

Not to be confused with Empty sum or Zero game.

For other uses, see Zero sum (disambiguation).

Zero-sum game is a mathematical representation in game theory and economic theory of a situation that involves two sides, where the result is an advantage for one side and an equivalent loss for the other.^[1] In other words, player one's gain is equivalent to player two's loss, with the result that the net improvement in benefit of the game is zero.^[2]

If the total gains of the participants are added up, and the total losses are subtracted, they will sum to zero. Thus, cutting a cake, where taking a more significant piece reduces the amount of cake available for others as much as it increases the amount available for that taker, is a zero-sum game if all participants value each unit of cake equally. Other examples of zero-sum games in daily life include games like poker, chess, and bridge where one person gains and another person loses, which results in a zero-net benefit for every player.^[3] In the markets and financial instruments, futures contracts and options are zero-sum games as well.^[4]

In contrast, non-zero-sum describes a situation in which the interacting parties' aggregate gains and losses can be less than or more than zero. A zero-sum game is also called a strictly competitive game, while non-zero-sum games can be either competitive or non-competitive. Zero-sum games are most often solved with the minimax theorem which is closely related to linear programming duality,^[5] or with Nash equilibrium. Prisoner's Dilemma is a classic non-zero-sum game.^[6] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_game

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Non-cooperative_games

 

Detainer (from detain, Latin detinere); originally in British law, the act of keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgments Act 1838.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detainer

Detention is the process whereby a state or private citizen lawfully holds a person by removing their freedom or liberty at that time. This can be due to (pending) criminal charges preferred against the individual pursuant to a prosecution or to protect a person or property. Being detained does not always result in being taken to a particular area (generally called a detention centre), either for interrogation or as punishment for a crime (see prison). An individual may be detained due a psychiatric disorder, potentially to treat this disorder involuntarily.^[2] They may also be detained for to prevent the spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detention_(imprisonment)

Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges^[1] or intent to file charges.^[2] The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects".^[3] Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement rather than confinement after having been convicted of some crime. Use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities.^[4] The word internment is also occasionally used to describe a neutral country's practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war, under the Hague Convention of 1907.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment

Nazi Germany used six extermination camps (German: Vernichtungslager), also called death camps (Todeslager), or killing centers (Tötungszentren), in Central Europe during World War II to systematically murder over 2.7 million people – mostly Jews – in the Holocaust.^[1][2][3] The victims of death camps were primarily murdered by gassing, either in permanent installations constructed for this specific purpose, or by means of gas vans.^[4] The six extermination camps were Chełmno, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz-Birkenau. Extermination through labour was also used at the Auschwitz and Majdanek death camps.^[5][6][4] Millions were also murdered in concentration camps, in the Aktion T4 or murdered directly on side.^[7]

The idea of mass extermination with the use of stationary facilities, to which the victims were taken by train, was the result of earlier Nazi experimentation with chemically manufactured poison gas during the secretive Aktion T4 euthanasia programme against hospital patients with mental and physical disabilities.^[8] The technology was adapted, expanded, and applied in wartime to unsuspecting victims of many ethnic and national groups; the Jews were the primary target, accounting for over 90 percent of extermination camp victims.^[9] The genocide of the Jews of Europe was Nazi Germany's "Final Solution to the Jewish question".^[10][4][11] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp

Cremation is a method of final disposition of a dead body through burning.^[1]

Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India and Nepal, cremation on an open-air pyre is an ancient tradition. Starting in the 19th century, cremation was introduced or reintroduced into other parts of the world. In modern times, cremation is commonly carried out with a closed furnace (cremator), at a crematorium.

Cremation leaves behind an average of 2.4 kg (5.3 lbs) of remains known as "ashes" or "cremains". This is not all ash but includes unburnt fragments of bone mineral, which are commonly ground into powder. They do not constitute a health risk and may be buried, interred in a memorial site, retained by relatives or scattered in various ways. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremation

History

Ancient

Further information: Secondary cremation

Bronze container of ancient cremated human remains, complete with votive offering

Cremation dates from at least 17,000 years ago^[2][3] in the archaeological record, with the Mungo Lady, the remains of a partly cremated body found at Lake Mungo, Australia.^[4]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremation

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Death_customs

 

Category:Fire

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fire.

For a list of words relating to Fire, see the Fire category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The main article for this category is Fire.

For specific fires that have occurred, see Category:Fires.

Subcategories

This category has the following 17 subcategories, out of 17 total.

 

• 
  

• Fires‎ (10 C, 1 P)

*

• 
  

• Types of fire‎ (28 P)

A

• 
  

• Arson‎ (10 C, 5 P)

C

• 
  
  
  

Candles‎ (2 C, 67 P)

Coats of arms with flames‎ (21 P)

Combustion engineering‎ (5 C, 12 P)

• Fire in culture‎ (8 C, 14 P)

D

• 
  

• Deaths from fire‎ (6 C, 157 P)

F

• 
  

Firebombings‎ (1 C, 42 P)

Firefighting‎ (27 C, 86 P)

Fireplaces‎ (4 C, 63 P)

• Furnaces‎ (4 C, 9 P)

I

• 
  

Incendiary weapons‎ (6 C, 50 P)

• Incineration‎ (2 C, 18 P)

L

• 
  

• Firelighting‎ (7 C, 16 P)

P

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• Fire protection‎ (5 C, 69 P)

S

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• Smoke‎ (6 C, 37 P)

Pages in category "Fire"

The following 71 pages are in this category, out of 71 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.

 

• Fire

A

• Arc mapping
• Arson
• Autoignition temperature

B

• Backdraft
• Black carbon
• Blue lava
• Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion
• Boilover
• Bride burning
• Burke–Schumann flame
• Burke–Schumann limit
• Burning Index

C

• Child pyromaniac
• Chimney crane
• Conflagration
• Control of fire by early humans
• Cool flame
• Cremation

D

• Death by burning
• Diffusion flame

E

• Ember

F

• Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests
• Fire challenge
• Fire ecology
• Fire glass
• Fire history
• Fire pit
• Fire point
• Fire-safe cigarette
• Fire sale
• Fire triangle
• Fireboats of Jamaica
• Firefighting
• Firestorm
• Flame
• Flame test
• Flammability limit

H

• Hot foot

I

• Ignition Component
• Inerting (gas)

K

• K Foundation Burn a Million Quid

L

• Limiting oxygen concentration
• Lower flammability limit
• Lp0 on fire
• Luminous flame

M

• Money burning

N

• Native American use of fire in ecosystems

O

• Oxidizing and reducing flames
• Oxyhydrogen

P

• Pothook
• Premixed flame
• Purging (gas)
• Pyre
• Pyrokinesis
• Pyromania
• Pyrophilia
• Pyrophobia

R

• Reckless burning
• Guillermo Rein
• Roasting jack
• Rubens tube

S

• Smoke
• Smouldering
• Spark (fire)
• Stubble burning
• Swan band

T

• Theft of fire
• Torch

W

• Wash copper
• Wick effect

Categories:

• Combustion
• Hazards
• Heat transfer
• Disasters by cause

Hidden category:

• Commons category link is on Wikidata

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Fire

In computer science, brute-force search or exhaustive search, also known as generate and test, is a very general problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigm that consists of systematically enumerating all possible candidates for the solution and checking whether each candidate satisfies the problem's statement.

A brute-force algorithm that finds the divisors of a natural number n would enumerate all integers from 1 to n, and check whether each of them divides n without remainder. A brute-force approach for the eight queens puzzle would examine all possible arrangements of 8 pieces on the 64-square chessboard and for each arrangement, check whether each (queen) piece can attack any other.^[1]

While a brute-force search is simple to implement and will always find a solution if it exists, implementation costs are proportional to the number of candidate solutions – which in many practical problems tends to grow very quickly as the size of the problem increases (§Combinatorial explosion).^[2] Therefore, brute-force search is typically used when the problem size is limited, or when there are problem-specific heuristics that can be used to reduce the set of candidate solutions to a manageable size. The method is also used when the simplicity of implementation is more important than speed.

This is the case, for example, in critical applications where any errors in the algorithm would have very serious consequences or when using a computer to prove a mathematical theorem. Brute-force search is also useful as a baseline method when benchmarking other algorithms or metaheuristics. Indeed, brute-force search can be viewed as the simplest metaheuristic. Brute force search should not be confused with backtracking, where large sets of solutions can be discarded without being explicitly enumerated (as in the textbook computer solution to the eight queens problem above). The brute-force method for finding an item in a table – namely, check all entries of the latter, sequentially – is called linear search. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_search

An uninterruptible power supply or uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries, supercapacitors, or flywheels. The on-battery run-time of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the protected equipment. It is a type of continual power system.

A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units range in size from ones designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 volt-ampere rating) to large units powering entire data centers or buildings. The world's largest UPS, the 46-megawatt Battery Energy Storage System (BESS), in Fairbanks, Alaska, powers the entire city and nearby rural communities during outages.^[1] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supply

In linguistic morphology, an uninflected word is a word that has no morphological markers (inflection) such as affixes, ablaut, consonant gradation, etc., indicating declension or conjugation. If a word has an uninflected form, this is usually the form used as the lemma for the word.^[1]

In English and many other languages, uninflected words include prepositions, interjections, and conjunctions, often called invariable words. These cannot be inflected under any circumstances (unless they are used as different parts of speech, as in "ifs and buts").

Only words that cannot be inflected at all are called "invariable". In the strict sense of the term "uninflected", only invariable words are uninflected, but in broader linguistic usage, these terms are extended to be inflectable words that appear in their basic form. For example, English nouns are said to be uninflected in the singular, while they show inflection in the plural (represented by the affix -s/-es). The term "uninflected" can also refer to uninflectability with respect to one or more, but not all, morphological features; for example, one can say that Japanese verbs are uninflected for person and number, but they do inflect for tense, politeness, and several moods and aspects.

In the strict sense, among English nouns only mass nouns (such as sand, information, or equipment) are truly uninflected, since they have only one form that does not change; count nouns are always inflected for number, even if the singular inflection is shown by an "invisible" affix (the null morpheme). In the same way, English verbs are inflected for person and tense even if the morphology showing those categories is realized as null morphemes. In contrast, other analytic languages like Mandarin Chinese have true uninflected nouns and verbs, where the notions of number and tense are completely absent.

In many inflected languages, such as Greek and Russian, some nouns and adjectives of foreign origin are left uninflected in contexts where native words would be inflected; for instance, the name Abraam in Greek (from Hebrew), the Modern Greek word μπλε ble (from French bleu), the Italian word computer, and the Russian words кенгуру, kenguru (kangaroo) and пальто, pal'to (coat, from French paletot).

In German, all modal particles are uninflected.^[2] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninflected_word

In morphology, a null morpheme or zero morpheme is a morpheme that has no phonetic form.^[1] In simpler terms, a null morpheme is an "invisible" affix. It is a concept useful for analysis, by contrasting null morphemes with alternatives that do have some phonetic realization.^[2] The null morpheme is represented as either the figure zero (0) or the empty set symbol ∅.

In most languages, it is the affixes that are realized as null morphemes, indicating that the derived form does not differ from the stem. For example, plural form sheep can be analyzed as combination of sheep with added null affix for the plural. The process of adding a null affix is called null affixation, null derivation or zero derivation. The concept was first used by the 4th century BCE Sanskrit grammarian from ancient India, Pāṇini, in his Sanskrit grammar.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_morpheme

A prior probability distribution of an uncertain quantity, often simply called the prior, is its assumed probability distribution before some evidence is taken into account. For example, the prior could be the probability distribution representing the relative proportions of voters who will vote for a particular politician in a future election. The unknown quantity may be a parameter of the model or a latent variable rather than an observable variable.

In Bayesian statistics, Bayes' rule prescribes how to update the prior with new information to obtain the posterior probability distribution, which is the conditional distribution of the uncertain quantity given new data. Historically, the choice of priors was often constrained to a conjugate family of a given likelihood function, for that it would result in a tractable posterior of the same family. The widespread availability of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, however, has made this less of a concern.

There are many ways to construct a prior distribution.^[1] In some cases, a prior may be determined from past information, such as previous experiments. A prior can also be elicited from the purely subjective assessment of an experienced expert.^[2][3] When no information is available, an uninformative prior may be adopted as justified by the principle of indifference.^[4][5] In modern applications, priors are also often chosen for their mechanical properties, such as regularization and feature selection.^[6][7]

The prior distributions of model parameters will often depend on parameters of their own. Uncertainty about these hyperparameters can, in turn, be expressed as hyperprior probability distributions. For example, if one uses a beta distribution to model the distribution of the parameter p of a Bernoulli distribution, then:

• p is a parameter of the underlying system (Bernoulli distribution), and
• α and β are parameters of the prior distribution (beta distribution); hence hyperparameters.

In principle, priors can be decomposed into many conditional levels of distributions, so-called hierarchical priors.^[8] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_probability

A Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is a unique sequence of characters that identifies a logical or physical resource used by web technologies. URIs may be used to identify anything, including real-world objects, such as people and places, concepts, or information resources such as web pages and books. Some URIs provide a means of locating and retrieving information resources on a network (either on the Internet or on another private network, such as a computer filesystem or an Intranet); these are Uniform Resource Locators (URLs). A URL provides the location of the resource. A URI identifies the resource by name at the specified location or URL. Other URIs provide only a unique name, without a means of locating or retrieving the resource or information about it, these are Uniform Resource Names (URNs). The web technologies that use URIs are not limited to web browsers. URIs are used to identify anything described using the Resource Description Framework (RDF), for example, concepts that are part of an ontology defined using the Web Ontology Language (OWL), and people who are described using the Friend of a Friend vocabulary would each have an individual URI.  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier

This article lists forms of government and political systems, according to a series of different ways of categorizing them. The systems listed are not mutually exclusive, and often have overlapping definitions.^[1]

According to Yale professor Juan José Linz there are three main types of political systems today: democracies, totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with hybrid regimes.^[2][3] Another modern classification system includes monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.^[4] Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.^[5][2][6]

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato discusses in the Republic five types of regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. ^[7] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government

State space search is a process used in the field of computer science, including artificial intelligence (AI), in which successive configurations or states of an instance are considered, with the intention of finding a goal state with the desired property.

Problems are often modelled as a state space, a set of states that a problem can be in. The set of states forms a graph where two states are connected if there is an operation that can be performed to transform the first state into the second.

State space search often differs from traditional computer science search methods because the state space is implicit: the typical state space graph is much too large to generate and store in memory. Instead, nodes are generated as they are explored, and typically discarded thereafter. A solution to a combinatorial search instance may consist of the goal state itself, or of a path from some initial state to the goal state. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_space_search

Bidirectional search is a graph search algorithm that finds a shortest path from an initial vertex to a goal vertex in a directed graph. It runs two simultaneous searches: one forward from the initial state, and one backward from the goal, stopping when the two meet. The reason for this approach is that in many cases it is faster: for instance, in a simplified model of search problem complexity in which both searches expand a tree with branching factor b, and the distance from start to goal is d, each of the two searches has complexity O(b^d/2) (in Big O notation), and the sum of these two search times is much less than the O(b^d) complexity that would result from a single search from the beginning to the goal.

Andrew Goldberg and others explained the correct termination conditions for the bidirectional version of Dijkstra’s Algorithm.^[1]

As in A* search, bi-directional search can be guided by a heuristic estimate of the remaining distance to the goal (in the forward tree) or from the start (in the backward tree).

Ira Pohl (1971) was the first one to design and implement a bi-directional heuristic search algorithm. Search trees emanating from the start and goal nodes failed to meet in the middle of the solution space. The BHFFA algorithm fixed this defect Champeaux (1977).

A solution found by the uni-directional A* algorithm using an admissible heuristic has a shortest path length; the same property holds for the BHFFA2 bidirectional heuristic version described in de Champeaux (1983). BHFFA2 has, among others, more careful termination conditions than BHFFA. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidirectional_search

Incremental heuristic search algorithms combine both incremental and heuristic search to speed up searches of sequences of similar search problems, which is important in domains that are only incompletely known or change dynamically.^[1] Incremental search has been studied at least since the late 1960s. Incremental search algorithms reuse information from previous searches to speed up the current search and solve search problems potentially much faster than solving them repeatedly from scratch.^[2] Similarly, heuristic search has also been studied at least since the late 1960s.

Heuristic search algorithms, often based on A*, use heuristic knowledge in the form of approximations of the goal distances to focus the search and solve search problems potentially much faster than uninformed search algorithms.^[3] The resulting search problems, sometimes called dynamic path planning problems, are graph search problems where paths have to be found repeatedly because the topology of the graph, its edge costs, the start vertex or the goal vertices change over time.^[4]

So far, three main classes of incremental heuristic search algorithms have been developed:

• The first class restarts A* at the point where its current search deviates from the previous one (example: Fringe Saving A*^[5]).
• The second class updates the h-values (heuristic, i.e. approximate distance to goal) from the previous search during the current search to make them more informed (example: Generalized Adaptive A*^[6]).
• The third class updates the g-values (distance from start) from the previous search during the current search to correct them when necessary, which can be interpreted as transforming the A* search tree from the previous search into the A* search tree for the current search (examples: Lifelong Planning A*,^[7] D*,^[8] D* Lite^[9]).

All three classes of incremental heuristic search algorithms are different from other replanning algorithms, such as planning by analogy, in that their plan quality does not deteriorate with the number of replanning episodes. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incremental_heuristic_search

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the United States federal government, tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world.

The National Resources Division is the domestic wing of the CIA. Although the CIA is focused on gathering intelligence from foreign nations, it has performed operations within the United States to achieve its goals. Some of these operations only became known to the public years after they had been conducted, and were met with significant criticism from the population as a whole, with allegations that these operations may violate the Constitution. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_activities_in_the_United_States

Theoretic suitability for search

Different scholars provided the theoretic support to argue the suitability of folksonomies as a navigational aid. There are four main perspectives:

• Network theoretic perspective has two aspects: the general navigability of a folksonomy as a graph, or the ability of tag hierarchies to guide navigation in such a graph
• Information theoretic perspective suggest to see social tagging as the collective effort of creating a mental map that summarize an information space
• Information foraging perspective to describe the human information seeking in a digital environment
• Tagging vs. library approach. They^[who?] proposed a definition of a controlled vocabulary and compared unrestricted free-form vocabularies emerged in social tagging systems to controlled vocabularies

Pragmatic folksonomy evaluation

The evaluation method introduced in this section is based on the paper by Helic et al.^[30] The author proposed in the paper the general idea that people can leverage on the output produced by folksonomy algorithms (hierarchical structures) as input (background knowledge) for decentralized search for the following reasons:

• The performance of decentralized search highly depends on the quality of the hierarchical clustering results that developed to facilitated navigation.
• The performance of the decentralized search algorithm depends on the suitability of folksonomies.
• The authors proposed the simulation method on decentralized search can be leveraged to evaluate the suitability of folksonomies.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_navigation#Theoretic_suitability_for_search

The FBI Laboratory (also called the Laboratory Division)^[2] is a division within the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation that provides forensic analysis support services to the FBI, as well as to state and local law enforcement agencies free of charge. The lab is located at Marine Corps Base Quantico in Quantico, Virginia. Opened November 24, 1932,^[3] the lab was first known as the Technical Laboratory. It became a separate division when the Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was renamed as the FBI.

Laboratory building on the grounds of Marine Corps Base Quantico

The Lab staffs approximately 500 scientific experts and special agents. The lab generally enjoys the reputation as the premier crime lab in the United States. However, during the 1990s, its reputation and integrity came under withering criticism, primarily due to the revelations of Special Agent Dr. Frederic Whitehurst, the most prominent whistleblower in the history of the Bureau. Whitehurst was a harsh critic of conduct at the Lab. He believed that a lack of funding had affected operations and that Lab technicians had a pro-prosecution bias. He suggested they were FBI agents first and forensic scientists second, due to the institutional culture of the Bureau, which resulted in the tainting of evidence. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI_Laboratory

Herd behavior is the behavior of individuals in a group acting collectively without centralized direction. Herd behavior occurs in animals in herds, packs, bird flocks, fish schools and so on, as well as in humans. Voting, demonstrations, riots, general strikes,^[1] sporting events, religious gatherings, everyday decision-making, judgement and opinion-forming, are all forms of human-based herd behavior.

Raafat, Chater and Frith proposed an integrated approach to herding, describing two key issues, the mechanisms of transmission of thoughts or behavior between individuals and the patterns of connections between them.^[2] They suggested that bringing together diverse theoretical approaches of herding behavior illuminates the applicability of the concept to many domains, ranging from cognitive neuroscience to economics.^[3] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behavior

The reliability of Wikipedia concerns the validity, verifiability, and veracity of Wikipedia and its user-generated editing model, particularly its English-language edition. It is written and edited by volunteer editors who generate online content with the editorial oversight of other volunteer editors via community-generated policies and guidelines. This editing model is highly concentrated, as 77% of all articles are written by 1% of its editors, a majority of whom have chosen to remain anonymous.^[1][2] The reliability of the project has been tested statistically through comparative review, analysis of the historical patterns, and strengths and weaknesses inherent in its editing process.^[3] The online encyclopedia has been criticized for its factual reliability, principally regarding its content, presentation, and editorial processes. Studies and surveys attempting to gauge the reliability of Wikipedia have mixed results. Wikipedia's reliability was frequently criticized in the 2000s but has been improved; it has been generally praised in the late 2010s and early 2020s.^[4][5][6]

A South American coati. In July 2008, a 17-year-old student added an invented nickname to the Wikipedia article coati as a private joke, calling them "Brazilian aardvarks". The false information lasted for six years and was propagated by hundreds of websites, several newspapers, and even a few books published by university presses.^[7][8]

Select assessments of its reliability have examined how quickly vandalism—content perceived by editors to constitute false or misleading information—is removed. Two years after the project was started, in 2003, an IBM study found that "vandalism is usually repaired extremely quickly—so quickly that most users will never see its effects".^[9][10] The inclusion of false or fabricated content has, at times, lasted for years on Wikipedia due to its volunteer editorship.^[11][12] Its editing model facilitates multiple systemic biases: namely, selection bias, inclusion bias, participation bias, and group-think bias. The majority of the encyclopedia is written by male editors, leading to a gender bias in coverage and the make up of the editing community has prompted concerns about racial bias, spin bias, corporate bias, and national bias, among others.^[13][14][15] An ideological bias on Wikipedia has also been identified on both conscious and subconscious levels. A series of studies from Harvard Business School in 2012 and 2014 found Wikipedia "significantly more biased" than Encyclopædia Britannica but attributed the finding more to the length of the online encyclopedia as opposed to slanted editing.^[16][17]

The prevalence of non-neutral or conflict-of-interest editing and the use of Wikipedia for "revenge editing" has attracted publicity for inserting false, biased, or defamatory content into articles, especially biographies of living people.^[18][19] Articles on less technical subjects, such as the social sciences, humanities, and culture, have been known to deal with misinformation cycles, cognitive biases, coverage discrepancies, and editor disputes. The online encyclopedia does not guarantee the validity of its information. It is seen as a valuable "starting point" for researchers when they pass over content to examine the listed references, citations, and sources. Academics suggest reviewing reliable sources when assessing the quality of articles.^[20][21]

Its coverage of medical and scientific articles such as pathology,^[22] toxicology,^[23] oncology,^[24] pharmaceuticals,^[25] and psychiatry^[26] were compared to professional and peer-reviewed sources in a 2005 Nature study.^[27] A year later Encyclopædia Britannica disputed the Nature study, whose authors, in turn, replied with a further rebuttal.^[28][29] Concerns regarding readability and the overuse of technical language were raised in studies published by the American Society of Clinical Oncology (2011),^[30] Psychological Medicine (2012),^[26] and European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2014).^[31] Wikipedia's popularity, mass readership, and free accessibility has led the encyclopedia to command a substantial second-hand cognitive authority across the world.^{[32][33][nb 1]} 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_of_Wikipedia

Wikipedia makes no guarantee of validity

Wikipedia is an online open-content collaborative encyclopedia; that is, a voluntary association of individuals and groups working to develop a common resource of human knowledge. The structure of the project allows anyone with an Internet connection to alter its content. Please be advised that nothing found here has necessarily been reviewed by people with the expertise required to provide you with complete, accurate, or reliable information.

That is not to say that you will not find valuable and accurate information in Wikipedia; much of the time you will. However, Wikipedia cannot guarantee the validity of the information found here. The content of any given article may recently have been changed, vandalized, or altered by someone whose opinion does not correspond with the state of knowledge in the relevant fields. Note that most other encyclopedias and reference works also have disclaimers.

No formal peer review

Our active community of editors uses tools such as the Special:RecentChanges and Special:NewPages feeds to monitor new and changing content. However, Wikipedia is not uniformly peer reviewed; while readers may correct errors or engage in casual peer review, they have no legal duty to do so and thus all information read here is without any implied warranty of fitness for any purpose or use whatsoever. Even articles that have been vetted by informal peer review or featured article processes may later have been edited inappropriately, just before you view them.

None of the contributors, sponsors, administrators, or anyone else connected with Wikipedia in any way whatsoever can be responsible for the appearance of any inaccurate or libelous information or for your use of the information contained in or linked from these web pages.

No contract; limited license

Please make sure that you understand that the information provided here is being provided freely, and that no kind of agreement or contract is created between you and the owners or users of this site, the owners of the servers upon which it is housed, the individual Wikipedia contributors, any project administrators, sysops, or anyone else who is in any way connected with this project or sister projects subject to your claims against them directly. You are being granted a limited license to copy anything from this site; it does not create or imply any contractual or extracontractual liability on the part of Wikipedia or any of its agents, members, organizers, or other users.

There is no agreement or understanding between you and Wikipedia regarding your use or modification of this information beyond the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA) and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL); neither is anyone at Wikipedia responsible should someone change, edit, modify, or remove any information that you may post on Wikipedia or any of its associated projects.

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Any of the trademarks, service marks, collective marks, design rights, or similar rights that are mentioned, used, or cited in the articles of the Wikipedia encyclopedia are the property of their respective owners. Their use here does not imply that you may use them for any purpose other than for the same or a similar informational use as contemplated by the original authors of these Wikipedia articles under the CC-BY-SA and GFDL licensing schemes. Unless otherwise stated, Wikipedia and Wikimedia sites are neither endorsed by, nor affiliated with, any of the holders of any such rights, and as such, Wikipedia cannot grant any rights to use any otherwise protected materials. Your use of any such or similar incorporeal property is at your own risk.

Personality rights

Wikipedia contains material which may portray an identifiable person who is alive or recently-deceased. The use of images of living or recently-deceased individuals is, in some jurisdictions, restricted by laws pertaining to personality rights, independent from their copyright status. Before using these types of content, please ensure that you have the right to use it under the laws which apply in the circumstances of your intended use. You are solely responsible for ensuring that you do not infringe someone else's personality rights.

Jurisdiction and legality of content

Publication of information found in Wikipedia may be in violation of the laws of the country or jurisdiction from where you are viewing this information. The Wikipedia database is stored on servers in the United States of America, and is maintained in reference to the protections afforded under local and federal law. Laws in your country or jurisdiction may not protect or allow the same kinds of speech or distribution. Wikipedia does not encourage the violation of any laws, and cannot be responsible for any violations of such laws, should you link to this domain, or use, reproduce, or republish the information contained herein.

Not professional advice

If you need specific advice (for example, medical, legal, financial, or risk management), please seek a professional who is licensed or knowledgeable in that area.

Category:

• Wikipedia disclaimers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer

Automatic writing, also called psychography, is a claimed psychic ability allowing a person to produce written words without consciously writing. Practitioners engage in automatic writing by holding a writing instrument and allowing alleged spirits to manipulate the practitioner's hand. The instrument may be a standard writing instrument, or it may be one specially designed for automatic writing, such as a planchette or a ouija board.

Religious and spiritual traditions have incorporated automatic writing, including Fuji in Chinese folk religion and the Enochian language associated with Enochian magic. In the modern era, it is associated with spiritualism and the occult, with notable practitioners including W. B. Yeats, Arthur Conan Doyle, and David Icke. There is no evidence supporting the existence of automatic writing, and claims associated with it are unfalsifiable. Documented examples are considered to be the result of the ideomotor phenomenon.^[1][2][3][4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_writing

Collective intelligence (CI) is shared or group intelligence (GI) that emerges from the collaboration, collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making. The term appears in sociobiology, political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. It may involve consensus, social capital and formalisms such as voting systems, social media and other means of quantifying mass activity.^[1] Collective IQ is a measure of collective intelligence, although it is often used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Collective intelligence has also been attributed to bacteria and animals.^[2]

It can be understood as an emergent property from the synergies among:

1. data-information-knowledge
2. software-hardware
3. individuals (those with new insights as well as recognized authorities) that continually learns from feedback to produce just-in-time knowledge for better decisions than these three elements acting alone^[1][3]

Or it can be more narrowly understood as an emergent property between people and ways of processing information.^[4] This notion of collective intelligence is referred to as "symbiotic intelligence" by Norman Lee Johnson.^[5] The concept is used in sociology, business, computer science and mass communications: it also appears in science fiction. Pierre Lévy defines collective intelligence as, "It is a form of universally distributed intelligence, constantly enhanced, coordinated in real time, and resulting in the effective mobilization of skills. I'll add the following indispensable characteristic to this definition: The basis and goal of collective intelligence is mutual recognition and enrichment of individuals rather than the cult of fetishized or hypostatized communities."^[6] According to researchers Pierre Lévy and Derrick de Kerckhove, it refers to capacity of networked ICTs (Information communication technologies) to enhance the collective pool of social knowledge by simultaneously expanding the extent of human interactions.^[7][8] A broader definition was provided by Geoff Mulgan in a series of lectures and reports from 2006 onwards ^[9] and in the book Big Mind ^[10] which proposed a framework for analysing any thinking system, including both human and machine intelligence, in terms of functional elements (observation, prediction, creativity, judgement etc.), learning loops and forms of organisation. The aim was to provide a way to diagnose, and improve, the collective intelligence of a city, business, NGO or parliament.

Collective intelligence strongly contributes to the shift of knowledge and power from the individual to the collective. According to Eric S. Raymond in 1998 and JC Herz in 2005,^[11][12] open-source intelligence will eventually generate superior outcomes to knowledge generated by proprietary software developed within corporations.^[13] Media theorist Henry Jenkins sees collective intelligence as an 'alternative source of media power', related to convergence culture. He draws attention to education and the way people are learning to participate in knowledge cultures outside formal learning settings. Henry Jenkins criticizes schools which promote 'autonomous problem solvers and self-contained learners' while remaining hostile to learning through the means of collective intelligence.^[14] Both Pierre Lévy and Henry Jenkins support the claim that collective intelligence is important for democratization, as it is interlinked with knowledge-based culture and sustained by collective idea sharing, and thus contributes to a better understanding of diverse society.^[15][16]

Similar to the g factor (g) for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor c factor for groups indicating a group's ability to perform a wide range of tasks.^[17] Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from g. Similarly as g is highly interrelated with the concept of IQ,^[18][19] this measurement of collective intelligence can be interpreted as intelligence quotient for groups (Group-IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Causes for c and predictive validity are investigated as well.

Writers who have influenced the idea of collective intelligence include Francis Galton, Douglas Hofstadter (1979), Peter Russell (1983), Tom Atlee (1993), Pierre Lévy (1994), Howard Bloom (1995), Francis Heylighen (1995), Douglas Engelbart, Louis Rosenberg, Cliff Joslyn, Ron Dembo, Gottfried Mayer-Kress (2003), and Geoff Mulgan. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_intelligence

Denial of atrocities against Indigenous Peoples are present or historical claims made by organizations or states that deny any of various atrocities against Indigenous Peoples when academic consensus or present state policy that acknowledges that such crimes occurred.^[1] This includes denial of various genocides against Indigenous Peoples and other crimes against humanity, war crimes, or ethnic cleansing.^[2][3][4] Denial may be the result of minority status, cultural distance, small scale or visibility, marginalization, the lack of political, economic and social status of Indigenous nations within a modern nation-state.^[5][6][7][8]

During the age of colonization, several states colonized territories which were inhabited by Indigenous Peoples, and in some cases, they created new states that included the surviving Indigenous Peoples within their new borders.^[9][10][11] In such processes of expanding their frontier, there were a number of cases of alleged atrocity crimes against Indigenous nations. Given that the dominant or majority group have held political and economic power, they have not addressed these issues on some occasions.^{[12][13][14][6]} Scholars and historians have increasingly examined the impact of settler colonialism and internal colonialism in general from the perspective of Indigenous Peoples.^{[15][16][17][18][19][6][20]} The forced population and territorial controls of Indigenous Peoples may include internal displacement, forced containment in reservations, forced assimilation, criminalization, dispossession, removal of children, enslavement, captivity, massacres and reduction of means of subsistence.^[21][22]

 

^{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial_of_atrocities_against_indigenous_peoples}

Mass killing is a concept which has been proposed by genocide scholars who wish to define incidents of non-combat killing which are perpetrated by a government or a state. A mass killing is commonly defined as the killing of group members without the intention to eliminate the whole group,^[1] or otherwise the killing of large numbers of people without a clear group membership.^[2]

Mass killing is used by a number of genocide scholars because genocide (its strict definition) does not cover mass killing events in which no specific ethnic or religious groups are targeted, or events in which perpetrators do not intend to eliminate whole groups or significant parts of them. Genocide scholars use different models in order to explain and predict the onset of mass killing events. There has been little consensus^[3] and no generally-accepted terminology,^[4] prompting scholars, such as Anton Weiss-Wendt,^[5] to describe comparative attempts a failure.^[6] Genocide scholarship rarely appears in mainstream disciplinary journals.^[7] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_killing

Mass killings under communist regimes occurred through a variety of means during the 20th century, including executions, famine, deaths through forced labour, deportation, starvation, and imprisonment. Some of these events have been classified as genocides or crimes against humanity. Other terms have been used to describe these events, including classicide, democide, red holocaust, and politicide. The mass killings have been studied by authors and academics and several of them have postulated the potential causes of these killings along with the factors which were associated with them. Some authors have tabulated a total death toll, consisting of all of the excess deaths which cumulatively occurred under the rule of communist states, but these death toll estimates have been criticized. Most frequently, the states and events which are studied and included in death toll estimates are the Holodomor and the Great Purge in the Soviet Union, the Great Chinese Famine and the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic of China, and the Cambodian genocide in Democratic Kampuchea (now Cambodia) .

The concept of connecting disparate killings to the status of the communist states which committed them and the concept of trying to ascribe common causes and factors to them have both been supported and criticized by the academic community. Some academics view it as an indictment of communism as an ideology, while other academics view it as being overly simplistic and they also view it as being rooted in anti-communism. Also, some academics attribute the causes of the killings to either the political systems or the leaders of the communist states. There is also debate over whether or not the famines which occurred during the rule of communist states can be considered mass killings. Mass killings which were committed by communist states have been compared to killings which were committed by other types of states.

Monuments to the victims of communism exist in almost all the capitals of Eastern Europe and one in Washington, D.C. A memorial is being constructed in Ottawa, Canada however progress has stalled, with no construction progress made in 2022. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes

Terminology

Several different terms are used to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants,^[5] but there is no consensus or generally-accepted terminology.^{[8][9][10][11]} Mass killing has emerged as a "more straightforward" term than genocide or politicide.^[12] Mass killing was proposed by genocide scholars in attempts to collect a uniform global database of genocidal events and identify statistical models for prediction of onset of mass killings. Atsushi Tago and Frank Wayman reference mass killing as defined by Valentino and state that even with a lower threshold (10,000 killed per year, 1,000 killed per year, or even 1), "autocratic regimes, especially communist, are prone to mass killing generically, but not so strongly inclined (i.e. not statistically significantly inclined) toward geno-politicide."^[13] Other terms used by several authors to describe mass killings of non-combattents include:

• Classicide – "intended mass killing of entire social classes",^[14] which sociologist Michael Mann considers more apt than genocide for describing crimes committed by communist states.^[15]
• Gendercide – the systematic killing of members of a specific gender. ^[16]
• Democide – political scientist Rudolph Rummel defined democide as "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command";^[17] according to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, killings by unofficial private groups, extrajudicial summary killings and mass deaths in deliberate famines as well as killings by de facto governments, e.g. civil war killings.^[18] Rummel's democide concept is similar to geno-politicide, but there are two important differences. First, an important prerequisite for geno-politicide is government's intent to destroy a specific group.^[19] In contrast, democide deals with wider range of cases, including the cases when governments are engaged in random killing either directly or due to the acts of criminal omission and neglect.^[17] Second, whereas some lower threshold exists for a killing event to be considered geno-politicide, there is no low threshold for democide which covers any murder of any number of persons by any government.^[17]
• Genocide – under the Genocide Convention, the crime of genocide generally applies to mass murder of ethnic rather than political or social groups.^[20] Protection of political groups was eliminated from the United Nations resolution after a second vote because many states anticipated that clause to apply unneeded limitations to their right to suppress internal disturbances.^[21] Genocide is also a popular term for political killings which are studied academically as democide and politicide.^[13]
• Mass killing – referencing earlier definitions,^{[nb 1]} Joan Esteban, Massimo Morelli, and Dominic Rohner define mass killings as "the killings of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under the conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims."^[23] Valentino defines the term as "the intentional killing of a massive number of noncombatants",^[24] where a "massive number" is at least 50,000 intentional deaths over the course of five years or less;^[25] this is the most accepted quantitative minimum threshold for the term.^[23][26]
• Politicide – some genocide scholars propose the concept of politicide to describe the killing of groups that would not otherwise be covered by the Genocide Convention.^[27] Barbara Harff studies genocide and politicide, sometimes shortened as geno-politicide, to include the mass killing of political, economic, ethnic, and cultural groups.^[13]

In the United States, the Investigative Assistance for Violent Crimes Act of 2012, passed in the aftermath of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, clarified the statutory authority for federal law enforcement agencies to provide investigatory assistance to the States. and mandated across federal agencies, including the Departments of Justice and Homeland Security, a definition of "mass killing" as three or more killings during an incident, while making no reference to the choice of weapon.^{[28][29][30][31]}

Topology

Benjamin Valentino outlines two major categories of mass killings: dispossessive mass killing and coercive mass killing. The first category defines three types: communist, ethnic, and territorial, containing the following scenarios of ethnic cleansing, killings that accompany agrarian reforms in some Communist states, and killings during colonial expansion, among others. The second category includes the types: counterguerrilla, terrorist, and imperialist, containing the following scenarios of killing during counterinsurgent warfare, and killings as part of the imperialist conquests by the Axis powers during the World War II, among others.^[32]

Topology of mass killings as defined by Valentino, 2003^[33]

Type	Scenario	Examples[nb 2]
	Dispossessive mass killing
Communist	Agricultural collectivization and political terror	Soviet Union (1917–1953) China (1950–1976) Cambodia (1975–1979)
Ethnic	Ethnic cleansing	Turkish Armenia (1915–1918) The Holocaust (1939–1945) Rwanda (1994)
Territorial	Colonial enlargement	European colonies in North and South America (15th–19th centuries) Genocide of the Herero in German South-West Africa (1904–1907)
	Expansionist wars	German annexation of western Poland (1939–1945)
	Coercive mass killing
Counterguerrilla	Guerrilla wars	Algerian war of independence from France (1954–1962) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989) Ethiopian civil war (1970s–1980s)
Terrorist	Terror bombing	Allied bombings of Germany and Japan (1940–1945)
	Starvation blockades/siege warfare	Allied naval blockade of Germany (1914–1919) Nigerian land blockade Biafra (1967–1970)
	Sub-state/insurgent terrorism	FLN terrorism in Algerian war of independence against France (1954–1962) Viet Cong terrorism in South Vietnam (1957–1975) RENAMO terrorism in Mozambique (1976–1992)
Imperialist	Imperial conquests and rebellions	German occupation of Western Europe (1940–1945) Japan's empire in East Asia (1910–1945)

Analysis

Benjamin Valentino does not consider ideology or regime-type as an important factor that explains mass killings, and outlines Communist mass killing as a subtype of dispossessive mass killing, which is considered as a complication of original theory his book is based on.^[13] About why it occurs,^[34] Valentino states that ideology, paranoia, and racism can shape leaders' beliefs for why genocide and mass killing may be justified.^[35] Unlike Rudolph Rummel and first-generation studies, Valentino does not see authoritarianism or totalitarianism as explaining mass killing;^[36] it is not ideology or regime-type but the leader's motive that matters and can explain it,^[37] which is in line with second-generation scholarship.^[37]

Manus Midlarsky also focuses on leaders' decision making but his case selection and general conclusions are different from Valentino's. Midlarsky has a more narrower definition of the dependent variable and only analyzes three case studies (the Armenian genocide, the Holocaust, and the Rwanda genocide). Midlarsky tries to explain why individuals may comply with the culprits, why politicide rather than genocide happened in Cambodia (Cambodian genocide), and why ethnic minorities, such as Greeks in the Ottoman Empire and Jews in the Second Polish Republic, were not targeted for genocide. Like Michael Mann and Valentino to a lesser extent, Midlarsky mainly addresses genocides that did not take place. Both Midlarsky and Valentino mainly focus on proximate conditions, while Mann considers genocide within the broad context of ideologies and nation-states development.^[38]

Global databases of mass killings

At least two global databases of mass killings are available. The first compilation by Rudolph Rummel covers a time period from the beginning of the 20th century until 1987 covering democide, while the second compilation by Barbara Harff combines politicide and genocide since 1955. The Harff database is the most frequently used by genocide scholars, while the Rummel database is a good framework for studying mass killings during the 1900–1987 period.^[13]

These data are intended mostly for statistical analysis of mass killings in attempt to identify the best predictors for their onset. According to Harff, these data are not necessarily the most accurate for a given country, since some sources are general genocide scholars and not experts on local history.^[17] A comparative analysis of the Yugoslav data in two databases revealed a significant difference between the figures of killed per years and low correlation between Rummel's and Harff's data sets. Tomislav Dulić criticized^[39] Rummel's generally higher numbers as arising from flaws in Rummel's statistical methodology, and Rummel's response^[40] was not convincing.^[41]

Another comparative analysis of the two complete databases by Atsushi Tago and Frank W. Wayman revealed that the significant difference between the figures is explained by Harff's dataset of politicide-geoncide being essentially a subset of Rummel's dataset, where he includes other types of killings in addition to politicide-genocide.^[13]

Genocides and politicides from 1955 to 2001 as listed by Harff, 2003^{[19][nb 3]}

Country	Start	End	Nature of episode	Est. number of victims	Related articles
Sudan	October 1956	March 1972	Politicide with communal victims	400,000–600,000	First Sudanese Civil War
South Vietnam	January 1965	April 1975	Politicide	400,000–500,000	South Vietnam
China	March 1959	December 1959	Genocide and politicide	65,000	1959 Tibetan uprising
Iraq	June 1963	March 1975	Politicide with communal victims	30,000–60,000	Ba'athist Iraq
Algeria	July 1962	December 1962	Politicide	9,000–30,000
Rwanda	December 1963	June 1964	Politicide with communal victims	12,000–20,000
Congo-Kinshasa	February 1964	January 1965	Politicide	1,000–10,000
Burundi	October 1965	December 1973	Politicide with communal victims	140,000
Indonesia	November 1965	July 1966	Genocide and politicide	500,000–1,000,000	Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966
China	May 1966	March 1975	Politicide	400,000–850,000	Cultural Revolution
Guatemala	July 1978	December 1996	Politicide and genocide	60,000–200,000	Guatemalan genocide
Pakistan	March 1971	December 1971	Genocide and politicide	2,000,000–3,000,000	1971 Bangladesh genocide
Uganda	December 1972	April 1979	Politicide and genocide	50,000–400,000	Genocides in central Africa
Philippines	September 1972	June 1976	Politicide with communal victims	60,000
Pakistan	February 1973	July 1977	Politicide with communal victims	5,000–10,000
Chile	September 1973	December 1976	Politicide	5,000–10,000
Angola	November 1975	2001	Politicide by UNITA and government forces	500,000
Cambodia	April 1975	January 1979	Politicide and genocide	1,900,000–3,500,000	Cambodian genocide
Indonesia	December 1975	July 1992	Politicide with communal victims	100,000–200,000
Argentina	March 1976	December 1980	Politicide	9,000–20,000
Ethiopia	July 1976	December 1979	Politicide	10,000
Congo-Kinshasa	March 1977	December 1979	Politicide with communal victims	3,000–4,000
Afghanistan	April 1978	April 1992	Politicide	1,800,000	Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)
Burma	January 1978	December 1978	Genocide	5,000
El. Salvador	January 1980	December 1989	Politicide	40,000–60,000
Uganda	December 1980	January 1986	Politicide and genocide	200,000–500,000	Genocides in central Africa
Syria	March 1981	February 1982	Politicide	5,000–30,000
Iran	June 1981	December 1992	Politicide and genocide	10,000–20,000	Casualties of the Iranian Revolution 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners
Sudan	September 1983	?	Politicide with communal victims	2,000,000
Iraq	March 1988	June 1991	Politicide with communal victims	180,000
Somalia	May 1988	January 1991	Politicide with communal victims	15,000–50,000
Burundi	1988	1988	Genocide	5,000–20,000	Hutu massacres of 1988
Sri Lanka	September 1989	January 1990	Politicide	13,000–30,000
Bosnia	May 1992	November 1995	Genocide	225,000	Bosnian genocide
Burundi	October 1993	May 1994	Genocide	50,000	Burundian genocides
Rwanda	April 1994	July 1994	Genocide	500,000–1,000,000	Rwandan genocide
China	1949 - 1976	?	Genocide - Politicide	45,000,000
Serbia	December 1998	July 1999	Politicide with communal victims	10,000

See also

Main article: Outline of Genocide studies

• List of battles and other violent events by death toll
• List of genocides by death toll
• List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll
• Mass killings under communist regimes
• Genocide of indigenous peoples
• Anti-communist mass killings

Notes

1. 
   

Charny 2000 defines generic genocide as "the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims." In the 2006 article "Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings", William Easterly, Roberta Gatti, and Sergio Kurlat adopted Charny's definition of generic genocide for their use of mass killing and massacre to avoid the politics of genocide altogether.^[22]

It is not a complete list of all examples.

3. The list does not include deaths from the Great Chinese Famine and the Great Leap Forward.

References

1. 
   

Staub 1989, p. 8: "Mass killing means killing members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group or killing large numbers of people without a precise definition of group membership."

Staub 2011, p. 100: "In contrast to genocide, I see mass killing as 'killing (or in other ways destroying) members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group, or killing large numbers of people' without a focus on group membership."

Krain 1997.

Valentino 2004.

Stone 2008, p. 2.

Weiss-Wendt 2008.

Verdeja 2012.

Krain 1997, pp. 331–332: "The literatures on state-sponsored mass murder and state terrorism have been plagued by definitional problems."

Valentino 2004, p. 6: "No generally accepted terminology exists to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants."

Weiss-Wendt 2008, p. 42: "There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe."

Verdeja 2012, p. 307: "Although the field has grown enormously over the past decade and a half, genocide scholarship still rarely appears in mainstream disciplinary journals."

Ott 2011, p. 53: "As is customary in the literature on mass killing of civilians there is a need to restate here what mass killing is about. Although many definitions have been used — 'genocide', 'politicide' and 'democide' — there has emerged a sort of consensus that the term 'mass killing' is much more straightforward than either genocide or politicide."

Tago & Wayman 2010.

Mann 2005, p. 17.

Sémelin 2007, p. 37.

La Puma, John (1987-05-01). "Gendercide: The Implications of Sex Selection". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 257 (17): 2362. doi:10.1001/jama.1987.03390170118043. ISSN 0098-7484.

Harff 2017.

Harff 1996.

Harff 2003.

Curthoys & Docker 2008, p. 7.

Schaak 1997; Schabas 2009, p. 160; Jones 2010, p. 137.

Easterly, Gatti & Kurlat 2006.

Esteban, Morelli & Rohner 2010.

Valentino 2004, p. 91.

Bach-Lindsday, Huth & Valentino 2004, p. 387.

Tago & Wayman 2010, pp. 4, 11–12.

Gurr & Harff 1988.

Krouse, William J.; Richardson, Daniel J. (July 30, 2015). Mass Murder with Firearms: Incidents and Victims, 1999–2013 (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. p. 26.

Booty, Marisa; O’Dwyer, Jayne; Webster, Daniel; McCourt, Alex; Crifasi, Cassandra (2019). "Describing a "mass shooting": the role of databases in understanding burden". Injury Epidemiology. 6 (47): 47. doi:10.1186/s40621-019-0226-7. PMC 6889601. PMID 31828004.

Ye Hee Lee, Michelle (December 3, 2015). "Obama's inconsistent claim on the 'frequency' of mass shootings in the U.S. compared to other countries". Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 5, 2021. Retrieved April 9, 2021.

Albright, Mandi (March 17, 2021). "Spa killings another grisly chapter in Georgia history". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution.

Straus 2007, p. 116: "Among them, Valentino identifies two major types, each with three subtypes. The first major type is 'dispossessive mass killing,' which includes (1) 'communist mass killings' in which leaders seek to transform societies according to communist principles; (2) 'ethnic mass killings,' in which leaders forcibly remove an ethnic population; and (3) mass killing as leaders acquire and repopulate land. The second major type of mass killing is 'coercive mass killing,' which includes (1) killing in wars when leaders cannot defeat opponents using conventional means; (2) 'terrorist' mass killing when leaders use violence to force an opposing side to surrender; and (3) killing during the creation of empires when conquering leaders try to defeat resistance and intimidate future resistance."

Valentino 2004, p. 70.

Valentino 2004, p. 60: "I content mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem." See also p. 70 to read Valentino outlining his proposed two major categories of mass killing.

Straus 2007, pp. 484–485: "Valentino makes a quite different argument. The pivot of his cogent and parsimonious analysis is that genocide and mass killing emerge from the strategic calculations of leaders—that genocide and mass killing are calculated, instrumental, and deliberate policies that leaders choose to accomplish certain goals. ... A key question for Valentino is why leaders would choose the strategy of genocide and mass killing. Valentino argues that ideology, racism, and paranoia can shape why leaders believe that genocide and mass killing is the right course of action."

Tago & Wayman 2010, p. 5: "Disagreeing with Rummel's finding that authoritarian and totalitarian government explains mass murder, Valentino (2004) argues that regime type does not matter; to Valentino the crucial thing is the motive for mass killing (Valentino, 2004: 70). He divides motive into the two categories of dispossessive mass killing (as in ethnic cleansing, colonial enlargement, or collectivization of agriculture) and coercive mass killing (as in counter-guerrilla, terrorist, and Axis imperialist conquests)."

Straus 2007.

Straus 2007, pp. 485–486.

Dulić 2004.

Rummel 2004.

41. Gleditish 2017, p. 10.

Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of Genocide studies

• Tago, Atsushi; Wayman, Frank (January 2010). "Explaining the Onset of Mass Killing, 1949–87". Journal of Peace Research. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. 47 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1177/0022343309342944. ISSN 0022-3433. JSTOR 25654524. S2CID 145155872.
• Bach-Lindsday, Dylan; Huth, Paul; Valentino, Benjamin (May 2004). "Draining the Sea: Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare". International Organization. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 58 (2): 375–407. doi:10.1017/S0020818304582061. JSTOR 3877862. S2CID 154296897.
• Charny, Israel W., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Genocide (1st ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-874-36928-1.
• Curthoys, Ann; Docker, John (2008). "Defining Genocide". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide (paperback ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 7–41. ISBN 978-0-230-27955-1.
• Dulić, Tomislav (January 2004). "Tito's Slaughterhouse: A Critical Analysis of Rummel's Work on Democide". Journal of Peace Research. Thousands Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. 41 (1): 85‒102. doi:10.1177/0022343304040051. JSTOR 4149657. S2CID 145120734.
• Easterly, William; Gatti, Roberta; Kurlat, Sergio (June 2006). "Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings". Journal of Economic Growth. New York City, New York: Springer. 11 (2): 129–156. doi:10.1007/s10887-006-9001-z. JSTOR 40216091. S2CID 195313778.
• Esteban, Joan Maria; Morelli, Massimo; Rohner, Dominic (May 2010). "Strategic Mass Killings". Working Paper No. 486. Zurich Switzerland: Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, University of Zurich. SSRN 1615375.
• Gleditish, N. P., ed. (2017). R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. Vol. 37. New York City, New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-54463-2.
• Gurr, Ted Robert; Harff, Barbara (September 1988). "Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945". International Studies Quarterly. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. 32 (3): 359–371. doi:10.2307/2600447. ISSN 0020-8833. JSTOR 2600447.
• Harff, Barbara (Summer 1996). "Review: Death by Government by R. J. Rummel". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 27 (1): 117–119. doi:10.2307/206491. JSTOR 206491.
• Harff, Barbara (February 2003). "No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955". The American Political Science Review. Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association. 97 (1): 57–73. doi:10.1017/S0003055403000522. JSTOR 3118221. S2CID 54804182.
• Harff, Barbara (2017). "The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide". In Gleditish, N. P. (ed.). R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. Vol. 37. New York City, New York: Springer. pp. 111–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12. ISBN 978-3-319-54463-2.
• Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (English paperback 2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-48619-4.
• Krain, Matthew (June 1997). "State-Sponsored Mass Murder: The Onset and Severity of Genocides and Politicides". Journal of Conflict Resolution. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. 41 (3): 331–360. doi:10.1177/0022002797041003001. ISSN 0022-0027. JSTOR 174282. S2CID 143852782.
• Mann, Michael (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (English paperback ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53854-1.
• Ott, Attiat (2011). "Modeling Mass Killing: For Gain or Ethnic Cleansing?". In Hartley, Keith (ed.). Handbook on the Economics of Conflict. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 52–79. ISBN 978-0-857-93034-7.
• Schaak, Beth (May 1997). "The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot". The Yale Law Journal. 106 (7): 2259‒2291. doi:10.2307/797169. JSTOR 797169.
• Sémelin, Jacques; et al. (Hoffman, Stanley) (2007). Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. The CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. New York City, New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14282-3.
• Staub, Ervin (1989). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence (illustrated, reprinted, revised paperback ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42214-7.
• Staub, Ervin (2011). Overcoming Evil: Genocide, Violent Conflict, and Terrorism (illustrated, reprinted hardback ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-38204-4.
• Stone, Dan, ed. (2008). The Historiography of Genocide (paperback ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-27955-1.
• Straus, Scott (April 2007). "Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide". World Politics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 59 (3): 476–501. doi:10.1017/S004388710002089X. JSTOR 40060166. S2CID 144879341.
• Valentino, Benjamin (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century (hardback ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-801-43965-0. OCLC 53013098.
• Verdeja, Ernesto (June 2012). "The Political Science of Genocide: Outlines of an Emerging Research Agenda". Perspectives on Politics. Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association. 10 (2): 307–321. doi:10.1017/S1537592712000680. JSTOR 41479553. S2CID 145170749.
• Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2008). "Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide (paperback ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 42–70. doi:10.1057/9780230297784. ISBN 978-0-230-27955-1.

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Genocide studies

• Esteban, Joan Maria; Morelli, Massimo; Rohner, Dominic (October 2015). "Strategic Mass Killings". Journal of Political Economy. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 123 (5): 1087–1132. doi:10.1086/682584. S2CID 154859371.
• Schaak, Beth (2007). "The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot". In Campbell, Tom; Lattimer, Mark (eds.). Genocide and Human Rights (1st eBook ed.). London, England: Routledge. pp. 140–173. doi:10.4324/9781351157568. ISBN 978-1-351-15756-8.
• Schabas, William A. (2009). Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (2nd hardcover ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71900-1.
• Sémelin, Jacques; et al. (Hoffman, Stanley) (2007). "The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide". Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. The CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. New York City, New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 310–361. ISBN 978-0-231-14282-3.

External links

• Easterly, William; Gatti, Roberta; Kurlat, Sergio (June 2006). "Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings" (PDF). Journal of Economic Growth. New York City, New York: Springer. 11 (2): 129–156. doi:10.1007/s10887-006-9001-z. JSTOR 40216091. S2CID 195313778. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via William Easterly.
• Harff, Barbara (2003). "Genocide Politicide". CIDCM. Center for International Development and Conflict Management. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
• Harff, Barbara (February 2003). "No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955" (PDF). The American Political Science Review. Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association. 97 (1): 57–73. doi:10.1017/S0003055403000522. JSTOR 3118221. S2CID 54804182. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via Genocide Watch.
• Harff, Barbara (2017). "The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide" (PDF). In Gleditish, N. P. (ed.). R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. Vol. 37. New York City, New York: Springer. pp. 111–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12. ISBN 978-3-319-54463-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
• Rummel, Rudolph (2003) [1997]. Statistic of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (hardback ed.). Charlottesville, Virginia: Center for National Security Law, School of Law, University of Virginia; Transaction Publishers, Rutgers University. ISBN 978-3-825-84010-5. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via Power Kills.
• Rummel, Rudolph (January 2004). "One-Thirteenth of a Data Point Does Not a Generalization Make: A Response to Dulić*". Journal of Peace Research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. 41 (1): 103–104. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.989.5581. doi:10.1177/0022343304040500. S2CID 109403016.
• Schaak, Beth (May 1997). "The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot". The Yale Law Journal. 106 (7): 2259‒2291. doi:10.2307/797169. JSTOR 797169. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via Digital Commons.
• Verdeja, Ernesto (June 2012). "The Political Science of Genocide: Outlines of an Emerging Research Agenda". Perspectives on Politics. Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association. 10 (2): 307–321. doi:10.1017/S1537592712000680. JSTOR 41479553. S2CID 145170749. ProQuest 1016173088. Archived from the original on 24 August 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via ProQuest.

Categories:

• Genocide studies
• Killings by type
• Mass murder
• War crimes

 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_killing#Terminology

 

Genocide definitions include many scholarly and international legal definitions of genocide,^[1] a word coined with genos (Greek: "birth", "kind", or "race") and an English suffix -cide by Raphael Lemkin in 1944;^[2] however, the precise etymology of the word is a compound of the ancient Greek word γένος ("birth", "genus", or "kind") or Latin word gēns ("tribe", or "clan") and the Latin word caedō ("cut", or "kill"). While there are various definitions of the term, almost all international bodies of law officially adjudicate the crime of genocide pursuant to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG).^[3]

This and other definitions are generally regarded by the majority of genocide scholars to have an "intent to destroy" as a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide; there is also growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion.^[4] Writing in 1998, Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise; the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that for various reasons, none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support.^[5] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_definitions

A page from an 1864 printing of the Commentarii, made by Parrish & Willingham, a Confederate publisher during the American Civil War

During the campaign against the Usipetes and the Tenceri, Caesar makes the incredible claim that the Romans attacked a camp of 430,000, their victory was total, they lost not a single soldier, and that upon losing the tribes committed mass suicide. Henige finds this entire story impossible, as did Ferdinand Lot, writing in 1947. Lot was one of the first modern authors who directly questioned the validity of these numbers, finding a fighting force of 430,000 to have been unbelievable for the time.^[8] Gilliver also considers 430,000 to be absurd, but does note that it was likely the Romans killed tens of thousands, and finds the claim of zero Roman losses possible. Still, the action to annihilate a non-combatant camp was exceptionally brutal, even by Roman standards.^[57] Ben Kiernan, while noting the 430,000 to be exaggerated, otherwise accepts Caesar's account and describes the action as genocide.^[78]

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallic_Wars

Democide is a term coined by American political scientist Rudolph Rummel to describe "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command."^[1][2] According to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, extrajudicial summary killings, and mass deaths due to governmental acts of criminal omission and neglect, such as in deliberate famines like the Holodomor, as well as killings by de facto governments, i.e. killings during a civil war.^[1][2] This definition covers any murder of any number of persons by any government.^[1][2]

Rummel created democide as an extended term to include forms of government murder not covered by genocide. According to Rummel, democide surpassed war as the leading cause of non-natural death in the 20th century.^[3][4] 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democide

Extrajudicial punishment is a punishment for an alleged crime or offense which is carried out without legal process or supervision by a court or tribunal through a legal proceeding. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment