Blog Archive

Wednesday, June 22, 2022

06-22-2022-0125 - Athetosis

Medical diseases of infancy and childhood (1900) (14580019148).jpg

Athetosis is a symptom characterized by slow, involuntary, convoluted, writhing movements of the fingers, hands, toes, and feet and in some cases, arms, legs, neck and tongue.[1] Movements typical of athetosis are sometimes called athetoid movements. Lesions to the brain are most often the direct cause of the symptoms, particularly to the corpus striatum.[2] This symptom does not occur alone and is often accompanied by the symptoms of cerebral palsy, as it is often a result of this physical disability. Treatments for athetosis are not very effective, and in most cases are simply aimed at managing the uncontrollable movement, rather than the cause itself.[citation needed]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athetosis 

09-14-2021-0448 - DRAFT - Template & Categories at p14ARF, Vesicle-associated membrane protein Membrane-spanning 4A Arrestin Myelin Pulmonary surfactant CSF Tetraspanin Other/ungrouped Synaptobrevin Single-pass transmembrane proteins - Drafting


Chorea (or choreia, occasionally) is an abnormal involuntary movement disorder, one of a group of neurological disorders called dyskinesias. The term chorea is derived from the Ancient Greek: χορεία ("dance"; see choreia), as the quick movements of the feet or hands are comparable to dancing.

The term hemichorea refers to chorea of one side of the body, such as chorea of one arm but not both (analogous to hemiballismus).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorea

Anton syndrome, also known as Anton's blindness and visual anosognosia, is a rare symptom of brain damageoccurring in the occipital lobe. Those who have it are cortically blind, but affirm, often quite adamantly and in the face of clear evidence of their blindness, that they are capable of seeing. Failing to accept being blind, people with Anton syndrome dismiss evidence of their condition and employ confabulation to fill in the missing sensory input. It is named after the neurologist Gabriel Anton. Only 28 cases have been published.[1]

Presentation[edit]

Anton syndrome is mostly seen following a stroke, but may also be seen after head injury. Neurologist Macdonald Critchley describes it thus:

The sudden development of bilateral occipital dysfunction is likely to produce transient physical and psychological effects in which mental confusion may be prominent. It may be some days before the relatives, or the nursing staff, stumble onto the fact that the patient has actually become sightless. This is not only because the patient ordinarily does not volunteer the information that they have become blind, but he furthermore misleads his entourage by behaving and talking as though they were sighted. Attention is aroused however when the patient is found to collide with pieces of furniture, to fall over objects, and to experience difficulty in finding his way around. They may try to walk through a wall or through a closed door on his way from one room to another. Suspicion is still further alerted when they begin to describe people and objects around them which, as a matter of fact, are not there at all.

Thus we have the twin symptoms of anosognosia (or lack of awareness of defect) and confabulation, the latter affecting both speech and behaviour.[3]

Anton syndrome may be thought of ideally as the opposite of blindsight, blindsight occurring when part of the visual field is not consciously experienced, but some reliable perception does in fact occur.[citation needed]

Causes[edit]

Why patients with Anton syndrome deny their blindness is unknown, although there are many theories. One hypothesis is that damage to the visual cortex results in the inability to communicate with the speech-language areas of the brain. Visual imagery is received but cannot be interpreted; the speech centers of the brain confabulatea response.[4]

Patients have also reported visual anosognosia after experiencing ischemic vascular cerebral disease. A 96-year-old man, who was admitted to an emergency department complaining of a severe headache and sudden loss of vision, was discovered to have had a posterior cerebral artery thrombosis with consequent loss of vision. He adamantly claimed he was able to see despite an ophthalmologic exam proving otherwise. An MRI of his brain proved that his right occipital lobe was ischemic. Similarly, a 56-year-old woman was admitted to the emergency department in a confused state and with severely impaired psychomotor skills. Ocular movements and pupil reflexes were still intact, but the patient could not name objects and was not aware of light changes in the room, and seemed unaware of her visual deficit.[citation needed]

History[edit]

Most cases of Anton syndrome are reported from adults. The European Journal of Neurology published an article in 2007 that examines a case study of a six-year-old child with Anton syndrome and early stages of adrenoleukodystrophy. The child reportedly had abnormal eye movements, would often fall, and would reach for things and often miss his target. When his sight was tested at 20/20 he was still unable to read the large letters on the chart. He denied having headaches, diplopia, or eye pain and seemed unconcerned and unaware of his poor eyesight. Upon examination, his pupils were equal in shape, round, and reactive to light. His mother commented that he developed unusual eye movements and that they had a "roving quality".[5]

Culture and society[edit]

Anton syndrome was featured in a two-part episode of the television series House M.D., titled "Euphoria", although it was ascribed to primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, a disease that usually does not cause the syndrome in real life. The syndrome features prominently in the Rupert Thomson novel The Insult. It is also mentioned in the science fiction novel Blindsight, by Peter Watts.[citation needed]

It is mentioned frequently as "Anton's Blindness" as one of the primary metaphors in Raj Patel's The Value of Nothing. In Lars von Trier's film Dogville, the character Jack McKay acts as if he can see but gives many signs he cannot.[citation needed]

The syndrome is also the main theme of the Malaysian movie Desolasi (Desolation), where the patients live in their own world of imagination, while unable to see the real world. It is also mentioned in Oliver Sacks's An Anthropologist on Mars.[citation needed]


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_syndrome


Naegleriasis (also known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis; PAM) is an almost invariably fatal infection of the brain by the free-living unicellular eukaryote Naegleria fowleri. Symptoms are meningitis-like and include headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, a stiff neck, confusion, hallucinations and seizures.[5] Symptoms progress rapidly over around five days, and death usually results within one to two weeks of symptoms.[5][6]

N. fowleri is typically found in warm bodies of fresh water, such as ponds, lakes, rivers and hot springs. It is also found in an amoeboid or temporary flagellate stage in soil, poorly maintained municipal water supplies, water heaters, near warm-water discharges of industrial plants and in poorly chlorinated or unchlorinated swimming pools. There is no evidence of it living in salt water. As the disease is rare, it is often not considered during diagnosis.[citation needed]

Although infection occurs very rarely,[6] it almost inevitably results in death.[7][8] Of the 450 or so naegleriasis cases in the past 60 years, only seven have survived,[9] for a case fatality rate of 98.5%.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naegleriasis


The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at 23°26′10.9″ (or 23.43637°) N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at 23°26′10.9″ (or 23.43637°) S; these latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the Earth. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone). The tropics also includes everywhere on Earth which is a subsolar point (the Sun is directly overhead) at least once during the solar year. Thus the maximum latitudes of the tropics have the same value positive and negative. Likewise, they approximate the angle of the Earth's axial tilt. The "angle" itself is not perfectly fixed due chiefly to the influence of the moon, but the limits of tropics are a geographic convention, being an averaged form, and the variance is very small.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics


Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by parasites of the trypanosome genus Leishmania.[7] It is generally spread through the bite of phlebotomine sandflies, Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia, and occurs most frequently in the tropics and sub-tropics of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and southern Europe.[2][7] The disease can present in three main ways: cutaneous, mucocutaneous, or visceral.[2] The cutaneous form presents with skin ulcers, while the mucocutaneous form presents with ulcers of the skin, mouth, and nose. The visceral form starts with skin ulcers and later presents with fever, low red blood cell count, and enlarged spleen and liver.[2][3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis

Neurocysticercosis /ˈnjʊəroʊˌsɪstiˌsɜːrˈkoʊsɪs/ is a specific form of the infectious parasitic disease cysticercosis that is caused by the infection with Taenia solium, a tapeworm found in pigs. Neurocysticercosis occurs when cysts formed by the infection take hold within the brain, causing neurologic syndromes such as epileptic seizures. It is a common cause of seizures worldwide. It has been called a "hidden epidemic"[2] and "arguably the most common parasitic disease of the human nervous system".[3] Common symptoms of neurocysticercosis include seizures, headaches, blindness, meningitis and dementia.[4]

Neurocysticercosis.gif
Magnetic resonance image of a patient with neurocysticercosis demonstrating multiple cysticerci within the brain.
SpecialtyInfectious disease
Diagnostic methodCT scan
Frequency50 million people affected worldwide [1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocysticercosis


08-11-2021-0358 - drafting fungies, viridaes, vectors (phage, viron, viri thread, parasites, frags, prions, vso, org mods, infective seq, nuc seq, nuclear nucles, etc.), immunosuppr spliean bones cell cycle signals cp TNF lysis SIVIAN A SIV poolio-rabys live modlive HIV HIB etc. HEPA groundboys/airpets/waterwaders/firephiles/etc. oxyhydrodysequilind Autoimmune proliferative syndrom... acute myeloblasic leukimiaes murcomycotics mycosis mysosos sporeluants-parasites fungal leukemiaes decaying matter


0710211513 - Age Spots (Liver Spotting) draft


Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of tropical infections that are common in low-income populations in developing regions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.[2] They are caused by a variety of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and parasitic worms (helminths). These diseases are contrasted with the "big three" infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria), which generally receive greater treatment and research funding.[3] In sub-Saharan Africa, the effect of neglected tropical diseases as a group is comparable to that of malaria and tuberculosis.[4] NTD co-infection can also make HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis more deadly.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals.[5][6][3] Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches.[1][7] In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death.[1] Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito.[3] If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later.[3] In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms.[1] This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum.[3]The signs and symptoms of syphilis vary depending in which of the four stages it presents (primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary).[1] The primary stage classically presents with a single chancre (a firm, painless, non-itchy skin ulceration usually between 1 cm and 2 cm in diameter) though there may be multiple sores.[1] In secondary syphilis, a diffuse rash occurs, which frequently involves the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.[1] There may also be sores in the mouth or vagina.[1] In latent syphilis, which can last for years, there are few or no symptoms.[1]In tertiary syphilis, there are gummas (soft, non-cancerous growths), neurological problems, or heart symptoms.[2]Syphilis has been known as "the great imitator" as it may cause symptoms similar to many other diseases.[1][2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphilis

Leptospirosis is a blood infection caused by the bacteria Leptospira.[8] Signs and symptoms can range from none to mild (headaches, muscle pains, and fevers) to severe (bleeding in the lungs or meningitis).[5] Weil's disease, the acute, severe form of leptospirosis, causes the infected individual to become jaundiced (skin and eyes become yellow), develop kidney failure, and bleed.[6] Bleeding from the lungs associated with leptospirosis is known as severe pulmonary haemorrhage syndrome.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

Leptospirochete leptospirochini

Leukemia (also spelled leukaemia and pronounced /luːˈkiːmiːə/[1] loo-KEE-mee-ə) is a group of blood cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and result in high numbers of abnormal blood cells.[9] These blood cells are not fully developed and are called blasts or leukemia cells.[2] Symptoms may include bleeding and bruising, bone pain, fatigue, fever, and an increased risk of infections.[2] These symptoms occur due to a lack of normal blood cells.[2]Diagnosis is typically made by blood tests or bone marrow biopsy.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemia

Agranulocytosis, also known as agranulosis or granulopenia, is an acute condition involving a severe and dangerous lowered white blood cell count (leukopenia, most commonly of neutrophils) and thus causing a neutropenia in the circulating blood.[1] It is a severe lack of one major class of infection-fighting white blood cells. People with this condition are at very high risk of serious infections due to their suppressed immune system.

In agranulocytosis, the concentration of granulocytes (a major class of white blood cells that includes neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils) drops below 200 cells/mm³ of blood.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agranulocytosis


Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm (BPDCN) is a rare hematologic malignancy. It was initially regarded as a form of lymphocyte-derived cutaneous  lymphoma and alternatively named CD4+CD56+ hematodermic tumor, blastic NK cell lymphoma,[1] and agranular CD4+ NK cell leukemia.[2] Later, however, the disease was determined to be a malignancy of plasmacytoid dendritic cells rather than lymphocytes and therefore termed blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm. In 2016, the World Health Organization designated BPDCN to be in its own separate category within the myeloid class of neoplasms.[3] It is estimated that BPDCN constitutes 0.44% of all hematological malignancies.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastic_plasmacytoid_dendritic_cell_neoplasm

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.[1][2][3]

Though heredity had been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel, Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics

Scrapie (/ˈskreɪpi/) is a fatal, degenerative disease affecting the nervous systems of sheep and goats.[1] It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), and as such it is thought to be caused by a prion.[2][3] Scrapie has been known since at least 1732 and does not appear to be transmissible to humans.[4][5] However, new studies suggest a link between scrapie and sporadic CJD.[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrapie

Orf is a farmyard pox, a type of zoonosis.[2] It causes small pustules in the skin of primarily sheep and goats, but can also occur on the hands of humans.[3] A pale halo forms around a red centre.[4] It may persist for several weeks before crusting and then either resolves or leaves a hard lump.[4] There is usually only one lesion, but there may be many, and they are not painful.[4] Sometimes there are swollen lymph glands.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orf_(disease)

Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by one of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor.[7] The agent of variola virus (VARV) belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus.[11] The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980,[10] making it the only human disease to be eradicated.[12]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox

A zoonosis (plural zoonoses, or zoonotic diseases) is an infectious disease caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite or prion) that has jumped from an animal (usually a vertebrate) to a human.[1][2][3] Typically, the first infected human transmits the infectious agent to at least one other human, who, in turn, infects others.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis

The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of Lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),[1][2] a condition in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive.[3] Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria.[1]Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body.[1] Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis.[1] Around 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kill about half of those affected.[1] Typical symptoms of active TB are chronic coughwith blood-containing mucus, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.[1] It was historically referred to as consumptiondue to the weight loss associated with the disease.[8] Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.[9]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis

Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by measles virus.[11][3][12] Symptoms usually develop 10–12 days after exposure to an infected person and last 7–10 days.[7][8] Initial symptoms typically include fever, often greater than 40 °C (104 °F), cough, runny nose, and inflamed eyes.[3][4] Small white spots known as Koplik's spots may form inside the mouth two or three days after the start of symptoms.[4] A red, flat rash which usually starts on the face and then spreads to the rest of the body typically begins three to five days after the start of symptoms.[4] Common complications include diarrhea (in 8% of cases), middle ear infection (7%), and pneumonia(6%).[5] These occur in part due to measles-induced immunosuppression.[6] Less commonly seizures, blindness, or inflammation of the brain may occur.[5][7] Other names include morbilli, rubeola, red measles, and English measles.[1][2] Both rubella, also known as German measles, and roseola are different diseases caused by unrelated viruses.[13]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain.[5] The severity can be variable with symptoms including reduced or alteration in consciousness, headache, fever, confusion, a stiff neck, and vomiting.[1][6] Complications may include seizures, hallucinations, trouble speaking, memory problems, and problems with hearing.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalitis

Rabies virus, scientific name Rabies lyssavirus, is a neurotropic virus that causes rabies in humans and animals. Rabies transmission can occur through the saliva of animals and less commonly through contact with human saliva. Rabies lyssavirus, like many rhabdoviruses, has an extremely wide host range. In the wild it has been found infecting many mammalian species, while in the laboratory it has been found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from mammals, birds, reptiles and insects.[2] Rabies is reported in more than 150 countries on all continents, with the exclusion of Antarctica.[3] The main burden of disease is reported in Asia and Africa, but some cases have been reported also in Europe in the past 10 years, especially in returning travellers.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabies_virus

A neurotropic virus is a virus that is capable of infecting nerve tissue.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotropic_virus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Neurochemistry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbovirus


Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are a diverse group of animal and human illnesses in which fever and hemorrhage are caused by a viral infection. VHFs may be caused by five distinct families of RNA viruses: the families Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Rhabdoviridae, and several member families of the Bunyavirales order such as Arenaviridae, and Hantaviridae. All types of VHF are characterized by fever and bleeding disorders and all can progress to high fever, shock and death in many cases. Some of the VHF agents cause relatively mild illnesses, such as the Scandinavian nephropathia epidemica (a hantavirus), while others, such as Ebola virus, can cause severe, life-threatening disease.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever

Prions are misfolded proteins with the ability to transmit their misfolded shape onto normal variants of the same protein. They characterize several fatal and transmissible neurodegenerative diseases in humans and many other animals.[3] It is not known what causes the normal protein to misfold, but the abnormal three-dimensional structureis suspected of conferring infectious properties, collapsing nearby protein molecules into the same shape. The word prion derives from "proteinaceous infectious particle".[4][5][6] The hypothesized role of a protein as an infectious agent stands in contrast to all other known infectious agents such as viroids, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, all of which contain nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or both).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion

Chronic wasting disease (CWD), sometimes called zombie deer disease, is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) affecting deer. TSEs are a family of diseases thought to be caused by misfolded proteins called prions and include similar diseases such as BSE (mad cow disease) in cattle, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease(CJD) in humans and scrapie in sheep.[2] In the US, CWD affects mule deer, white-tailed deer, red deer, sika deer, elk, caribou, and moose.[3] Natural infection causing CWD affects members of the deer family.[3] Experimental transmission of CWD to other species such as squirrel monkeys and genetically modified mice has been shown.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_wasting_disease

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are a group of progressive and fatal conditions that are associated with prions and affect the brain and nervous system of many animals, including humans, cattle, and sheep. According to the most widespread hypothesis, they are transmitted by prions, though some other data suggest an involvement of a Spiroplasma infection.[1] Mental and physical abilities deteriorate and many tiny holes appear in the cortex causing it to appear like a sponge when brain tissue obtained at autopsy is examined under a microscope. The disorders cause impairment of brain function, including memory changes, personality changes and problems with movement that worsen chronically.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmissible_spongiform_encephalopathy

The human T-lymphotropic virus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus, or human T-cell leukemia-lymphoma virus (HTLV) family of viruses are a group of human retroviruses that are known to cause a type of cancer called adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and a demyelinating disease called HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). The HTLVs belong to a larger group of primate T-lymphotropic viruses (PTLVs). Members of this family that infect humans are called HTLVs, and the ones that infect Old World monkeys are called Simian T-lymphotropic viruses (STLVs). To date, four types of HTLVs (HTLV-1, HTLV-2, HTLV-3, and HTLV-4) and four types of STLVs (STLV-1, STLV-2, STLV-3, and STLV-5) have been identified. HTLV types HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 viruses are the first retroviruses discovered. Both belong to the oncovirus subfamily of retroviruses and can transform human lymphocytes so that they are self-sustaining in vitro.[1] The HTLVs are believed to originate from interspecies transmission of STLVs. The HTLV-1 genome is diploid, composed of two copies of a single-stranded RNA virus whose genome is copied into a double-stranded DNA form that integrates into the host cell genome, at which point the virus is referred to as a provirus. A closely related virus is bovine leukemia virus BLV. The original name for HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, was HTLV-3.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus

Lupus, technically known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), is an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in many parts of the body.[1] Symptoms vary among people and may be mild to severe.[1] Common symptoms include painful and swollen joints, fever, chest pain, hair loss, mouth ulcers, swollen lymph nodes, feeling tired, and a red rash which is most commonly on the face.[1]Often there are periods of illness, called flares, and periods of remission during which there are few symptoms.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupus

A retrovirus is a type of virus that inserts a copy of its RNA genome[a] into the DNA of a host cell that it invades, thus changing the genome of that cell.[3] Once inside the host cell's cytoplasm, the virus uses its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from its RNA genome, the reverse of the usual pattern, thus retro (backwards). The new DNA is then incorporated into the host cell genome by an integrase enzyme, at which point the retroviral DNA is referred to as a provirus. The host cell then treats the viral DNA as part of its own genome, transcribing and translating the viral genes along with the cell's own genes, producing the proteins required to assemble new copies of the virus.

Although retroviruses have different subfamilies, they have three basic groups: the oncoretroviruses (oncogenic retroviruses), the lentiviruses (slow retroviruses) and the spumaviruses (foamy viruses).[4] The oncoretroviruses are able to cause cancer in some species, the lentiviruses are able to cause severe immunodeficiency and death in humans and other animals, and the spumaviruses are benign and not linked to any disease in humans or animals.[4]

Many retroviruses cause serious diseases in humans, other mammals, and birds.[5] Human retroviruses include HIV-1 and HIV-2, the cause of the disease AIDS. Also, human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV) causes disease in humans. The murine leukemia viruses (MLVs) cause cancer in mouse hosts.[6] Retroviruses are valuable research tools in molecular biology, and they have been used successfully in gene delivery systems.[7]

Evidence from endogenous retroviruses suggest that retroviruses have been infecting vertebrates for at least 450 million years.[8]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrovirus

Human foamy virus (HFV) is a retrovirus and specifically belongs to the genus Spumavirus. The spumaviruses are complex and significantly different from the other six genera of retroviruses in several ways. The foamy viruses derive their name from the characteristic ‘foamy’ appearance of the cytopathic effect (CPE) induced in the cells.[1] Foamy virus in humans occurs only as a result of zoonotic infection.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_foamy_virus

Simian foamy virus (SFV) is a species of the genus Spumavirus that belongs to the family of Retroviridae. It has been identified in a wide variety of primates, including prosimians, New World and Old World monkeys, as well as apes, and each species has been shown to harbor a unique (species-specific) strain of SFV, including African green monkeys, baboons, macaques, and chimpanzees.[1] As it is related to the more well-known retrovirus human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), its discovery in primateshas led to some speculation that HIV may have been spread to the human species in Africa through contact with blood from apes, monkeys, and other primates, most likely through bushmeat-hunting practices.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simian_foamy_virus

Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a long-term infection by the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis.[4][8] Infection can lead to damage of the nerves, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes.[4]This nerve damage may result in a lack of ability to feel pain, which can lead to the loss of parts of a person's extremities from repeated injuries or infection through unnoticed wounds.[3] An infected person may also experience muscle weakness and poor eyesight.[3] Leprosy symptoms may begin within one year, but, for some people, symptoms may take 20 years or more to occur.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leprosy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycosis_fungoides

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aclidinium_bromide

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infectious diseases involving the respiratory tract.[1] An infection of this type usually is further classified as an upper respiratory tract infection (URI or URTI) or a lower respiratory tract infection (LRI or LRTI). Lower respiratory infections, such as pneumonia, tend to be far more severe than upper respiratory infections, such as the common cold.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

The enzootic nasal tumor virus of the betaretrovirus genus is a carcinogenic retrovirus that causes enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma in sheep and goats.[1] Strain ENTV-1 is found in sheep and strain ENTV-2 is found in goats.[2][3] The virus causes tumor growth in the upper nasal cavity and is closely related to JSRV which also causes respiratory tumors in ovine.[4]The disease, enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma is common in North America and is found in sheep and goats on every continent except New Zealand and Australia.[5] There are more than 27 betaretroviruses similar to ENVT and JSRV in the ovine genome.[6][7] In the future, research on ENTV may become important in studying viruses that cause human lung cancer.[8]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzootic_nasal_tumor_virus

Enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma is a fatal, malignant neoplastic, infectious disease in sheep and goats. It is caused by the Enzootic nasal tumor virus, a retrovirussimilar to Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus, which causes a similar disease, also in sheep and goats called Ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA).[1] Symptoms include nasal discharge, dyspnea, facial deformity, and weight loss. Like OPA, the disease has a very long incubation period and is invariably fatal.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzootic_nasal_adenocarcinoma

Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (JSRV) is a betaretrovirus which is the causative agent of a contagious lung cancer in sheep, called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma.

Natural history[edit]

JSRV is the virus that is the cause of the contagious lung tumors in sheep called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA). The disease has also been called "jaagsiekte", after the Afrikaans words for "chase" (jaag) and "sickness" (siekte), to describe the respiratory distress observed in an animal out of breath from being chased, indicating the breathing difficulty experienced by infected sheep. Transmission of virus is through aerosol spread between sheep.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaagsiekte_sheep_retrovirus

Equine infectious anemia or equine infectious anaemia (EIA), also known by horsemen as swamp fever, is a horse disease caused by a retrovirus (Equine infectious anemia virus) and transmitted by bloodsucking insects. The virus (EIAV) is endemic in the Americas, parts of Europe, the Middle and Far East, Russia, and South Africa. The virus is a lentivirus, like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Like HIV, EIA can be transmitted through blood, milk, and body secretions. Transmission is primarily through biting flies, such as the horse-fly and deer-fly.[1] The virus survives up to 4 hours in the vector. Contaminated surgical equipment and recycled needles and syringes, and bits[2] can transmit the disease. Mares can transmit the disease to their foals via the placenta. The risk of transmitting the disease is greatest when an infected horse is ill, as the blood levels of the virus are then highest.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_infectious_anemia

Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a disease of horses caused by a virus of the species Alphaarterivirus equid, an RNA virus.[1][2]It is the only species in the genus Alphaarterivirus, and that is the only genus in the Equarterivirinae subfamily. The virus which causes EVA was first isolated in 1953, but the disease has afflicted equine animals worldwide for centuries. It has been more common in some breeds of horses in the United States, but there is no breed "immunity". In the UK, it is a notifiable disease.[3] There is no known human hazard.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_viral_arteritis

Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Caulimoviridae that primarily infects cacao trees. It decreases cacao yield within the first year of infection, and usually kills the tree within a few years. Symptoms vary by strain, but leaf discoloration, stem/root swelling, and die-back generally occur. The virus is transmitted from tree to tree by mealybugvectors. It was first discovered in Ghana in 1936, and is currently endemic in Togo, Ghana and Nigeria.[1] Over 200 million trees have already been claimed by this disease, which has prompted Ghana to launch the most ambitious and costly eradication effort of any country in the world against a viral plant disease.[1]

Cacao swollen shoot virus should not be confused with the related species Cacao swollen shoot CD virus and Cacao swollen shoot Togo A virus.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacao_swollen_shoot_virus

The chocolate wattled bat, species Chalinolobus morio, is a bat allied to the family Vespertilionidae. It is found only in Australia, including the island Tasmania,[3] and widespread in southern regions.[1] It is known to reside from sea level to at least 1,570 metres (5,150 ft) in Victoria.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_wattled_bat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Anton

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gould%27s_wattled_bat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_sarcoma_leukosis_virus

Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) is a retrovirus which infects goats and cross-reacts immunologically with HIV,[1]due to being from the same family of viruses.[2] CAEV cannot be transmitted to humans, including through the consumption of milk from an infected goat.[3] There is no evidence that CAEV can cure HIV in humans.[2][4]

CAEV is commonly transferred within the goat species by ingestion of colostrum or milk from an infected goat, and to a less extent, cross species CAEV transfer by sheep is possible.[3][5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caprine_arthritis_encephalitis_virus

Visna-maedi virus (also known as Visna virus, Maedi-visna virus and Ovine lentivirus[1]) from the genus Lentivirus and subfamily Orthoretrovirinae, is a retrovirus that causes encephalitis and chronic pneumonitis in sheep.[2][3][4] It is known as visna when found in the brain, and maedi when infecting the lungs. Lifelong, persistent infections in sheep occur in the lungs, lymph nodes, spleen, joints, central nervous system, and mammary glands;[2][5] The condition is sometimes known as ovineprogressive pneumonia (OPP), particularly in the United States,[1] or Montana sheep disease.[6] White blood cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage are the main target of the virus.[7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visna-maedi_virus

Macrophages (abbreviated as Mφ, MΦ or MP) (Greek: large eaters, from Greek μακρός (makrós) = large, φαγεῖν(phagein) = to eat) are a type of white blood cell of the immune system that engulfs and digests pathogens, such as cancer cells, microbes, cellular debris, and foreign substances, which do not have proteins that are specific to healthy body cells on their surface.[2][3] The process is called phagocytosis, which acts to defend the host against infection and injury.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage

Naegleria fowleri, colloquially known as a "brain-eating amoeba", is a species of the genus Naegleria, belonging to the phylumPercolozoa, which is technically not classified as true amoeba, but a shapeshifting amoeboflagellate excavate.[1] It is a free-living, bacteria-eating microorganism that can be pathogenic, causing an extremely rare, sudden, severe and usually fatal brain infection called naegleriasis or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM).[2] This microorganism is typically found in bodies of warm freshwater,[3] such as ponds, lakes,[4] rivers, hot springs,[5] warm water discharge from industrial or power plants,[6]geothermal well water,[7] poorly maintained or minimally chlorinated (under 0.5 mg/m3 residual) swimming pools,[8] water heaters,[9] soil, and pipes connected to tap water.[10] It can be seen in either an amoeboid or temporary flagellate stage.[11]

The naegleriasis infection has been documented in Australia in 1965,[12] Czechoslovakia in 1962 to 1965,[13] the United States in 2003, 2011, 2013, 2020, and 2021, and Pakistan in 2008.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naegleria_fowleri

Filariasis is a parasitic disease caused by an infection with roundworms of the Filarioidea type.[1] These are spread by blood-feeding insects such as black flies and mosquitoes. They belong to the group of diseases called helminthiases.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filariasis

Protozoan infections are parasitic diseases caused by organisms formerly classified in the kingdom Protozoa. They are usually contracted by either an insect vector or by contact with an infected substance or surface and include organisms that are now classified in the supergroups Excavata, Amoebozoa, SAR, and Archaeplastida.[1]

Alveolata is a large group, which includes Dinoflagellata, Ciliophora, and Apicomplexa.[26]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoan_infection

An amoeba (/əˈmiːbə/; less commonly spelled ameba or amœba; plural am(o)ebas or am(o)ebae /əˈmiːbi/),[1]often called an amoeboid, is a type of cell or unicellular organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.[2] Amoebae do not form a single taxonomic group; instead, they are found in every major lineage of eukaryotic organisms. Amoeboid cells occur not only among the protozoa, but also in fungi, algae, and animals.[3][4][5][6][7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoeba

Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic parasitic amoebozoan, part of the genus Entamoeba.[1] Predominantly infecting humans and other primates causing amoebiasis, E. histolytica is estimated to infect about 35-50 million people worldwide.[1] E. histolytica infection is estimated to kill more than 55,000 people each year.[2] Previously, it was thought that 10% of the world population was infected, but these figures predate the recognition that at least 90% of these infections were due to a second species, E. dispar.[3] Mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected transiently, but are not thought to contribute significantly to transmission.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entamoeba_histolytica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroquine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Aminoquinoline

Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply.[4] Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness.[1] The feet and hands are most commonly affected.[1] If the gangrene is caused by an infectious agent, it may present with a fever or sepsis.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangrene

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF), also known as flesh-eating disease, is a bacterial infection that results in the death of parts of the body's soft tissue.[3] It is a severe disease of sudden onset that spreads rapidly.[3] Symptoms usually include red or purple skin in the affected area, severe pain, fever, and vomiting.[3] The most commonly affected areas are the limbs and perineum.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrotizing_fasciitis

Clostridium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria. This genus includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative agents of botulism and tetanus. The genus formerly included an important cause of diarrhea, Clostridioides difficile, which was reclassified into the Clostridioides genus in 2016.[1] They are obligate anaerobes capable of producing endospores. The normal, reproducing cells of Clostridium, called the vegetative form, are rod-shaped, which gives them their name, from the Greek κλωστήρ or spindle. Clostridium endospores have a distinct bowling pin or bottle shape, distinguishing them from other bacterial endospores, which are usually ovoid in shape. Clostridium species inhabit soils and the intestinal tract of animals, including humans.[2] Clostridium is a normal inhabitant of the healthy lower reproductive tract of females.[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_tetani

Pertussis vaccine is a vaccine that protects against whooping cough (pertussis).[1][2] There are two main types: whole-cell vaccines and acellular vaccines.[1][2] The whole-cell vaccine is about 78% effective while the acellular vaccine is 71–85% effective.[1][3] The effectiveness of the vaccines appears to decrease by between 2 and 10% per year after vaccination with a more rapid decrease with the acellular vaccines.[1] The vaccine is only available in combination with tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.[1] Pertussis vaccine is estimated to have saved over 500,000 lives in 2002.[4]

Acellular pertussis vaccine (aP) with three or more antigens prevents around 85% of typical whooping cough cases in children.[3] It has higher or similar efficacy to the previously-used whole cell pertussis vaccine, however the efficacy of the acellular vaccine declines faster.[3] Acellular vaccines also cause fewer side effects than whole cell vaccines.[3]

For children, immunizations are commonly given in combination with immunizations against tetanus, diphtheria, polio, and haemophilus influenzae type B at two, four, six, and 15–18 months of age.[12]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertussis_vaccine

Haemophilus influenzae (formerly called Pfeiffer's bacillus or Bacillus influenzae) is a Gram-negative, coccobacillary, facultatively anaerobic capnophilic pathogenic bacterium of the family Pasteurellaceae. H. influenzae was first described in 1892 by Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic.[1] He incorrectly described Haemophilus influenzae as the causative microbe, which retains "influenza" in its name.[2][3]

The bacterium was argued by some to be the cause of influenza[4] as bacterial influenza.  H. influenzae is responsible for a wide range of localized and invasive infections, but influenza is caused by viruses.

This species was the first free-living organism to have its entire genome sequenced.[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria


Gram-negative bacteria are found in virtually all environments on Earth that support life. The gram-negative bacteria include the model organism Escherichia coli, as well as many pathogenic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Yersinia pestis. They are an important medical challenge, as their outer membrane protects them from many antibiotics (including penicillin), detergents that would normally damage the inner cell membrane, and lysozyme, an antimicrobial enzyme produced by animals that forms part of the innate immune system. Additionally, the outer leaflet of this membrane comprises a complex lipopolysaccharide (LPS) whose lipid A component can cause a toxic reaction when bacteria are lysed by immune cells. This toxic reaction may lead to low blood pressure, respiratory failure, reduced oxygen delivery, and lactic acidosis — manifestations of septic shock.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria

Streptococcus pyogenes is a species of Gram-positive, aerotolerant bacteria in the genus Streptococcus. These bacteria are extracellular, and made up of non-motile and non-sporing cocci (round cells) that tend to link in chains. They are clinically important for humans, as they are an infrequent, but usually pathogenic, part of the skin microbiota that can cause Group A streptococcal infection.  S. pyogenes is the predominant species harboring the Lancefield group A antigen, and is often called group A Streptococcus (GAS). However, both Streptococcus dysgalactiae and the Streptococcus anginosus group can possess group A antigen as well. Group A streptococci, when grown on blood agar, typically produce small (2–3 mm) zones of beta-hemolysis, a complete destruction of red blood cells. The name group A (beta-hemolytic) Streptococcus (GABHS) is thus also used.[1]

The species name is derived from Greek words meaning 'a chain' (streptos) of berries (coccus [Latinized from kokkos]) and pus(pyo)-forming (genes), since a number of infections caused by the bacterium produce pus. The main criterion for differentiation between Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. is the catalase test. Staphylococci are catalase positive whereas streptococci are catalase-negative.[2]  S. pyogenes can be cultured on fresh blood agar plates. Under ideal conditions, it has an incubation period of 1 to 3 days.[3]

An estimated 700 million GAS infections occur worldwide each year. While the overall mortality rate for these infections is 0.1%, over 650,000 of the cases are severe and invasive, with these cases having a mortality rate of 25%.[4] Early recognition and treatment are critical; diagnostic failure can result in sepsis and death.[5][6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes

Ascaris is a genus of parasitic nematode worms known as the "small intestinal roundworms", which is a type of parasitic worm.[1] One species, Ascaris lumbricoides, affects humans and causes the disease ascariasis. Another species, Ascaris suum, typically infects pigs. Parascaris equorum, the equine roundworm, is also commonly called an "ascarid".[2]

Their eggs are deposited in feces and soil. Plants with the eggs on them infect any organism that consumes them.[3] A. lumbricoides is the largest intestinal roundworm and is the most common helminth infection of humans worldwide. Infestation can cause morbidity by compromising nutritional status,[4] affecting cognitive processes,[5] inducing tissue reactions such as granuloma to larval stages, and by causing intestinal obstruction, which can be fatal.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascaris

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbapenem


Serratia marcescens (/səˈreɪʃiə mɑːrˈsɛsɪnz/)[3][failed verification] is a species of rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacteria in the family Yersiniaceae. It is a facultative anaerobe and an opportunistic pathogen. It was discovered in 1819 by Bartolomeo Bizio in Padua, Italy.[4] S. marcescens is commonly involved in hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), particularly catheter-associatedbacteremia, urinary tract infections, and wound infections,[5][6] and is responsible for 1.4% of HAI cases in the United States.[7]It is commonly found in the respiratory and urinary tracts of hospitalized adults and in the gastrointestinal systems of children.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serratia_marcescens

Rickets is a condition that results in weak or soft bones in children, and is caused by either dietary deficiency or genetic causes.[2] Symptoms include bowed legs, stunted growth, bone pain, large forehead, and trouble sleeping.[2][3]Complications may include bone deformities, bone pseudofractures and fractures, muscle spasms, or an abnormally curved spine.[2][3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickets

Rickettsia is a genus of nonmotile, gram-negative, nonspore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that may occur in the forms of cocci (0.1 μm in diameter), bacilli (1–4 μm long), or threads (up to about 10 μm long). The term "rickettsia" has nothing to do with rickets (which is a deficiency disease resulting from lack of vitamin D); the bacterial genus Rickettsia instead was named after Howard Taylor Ricketts, in honor of his pioneering work on tick-borne spotted fever.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsia

Rickettsia typhi is a small, aerobic, obligate intracellular, rod shaped gram negative bacterium.[1] It belongs to the typhus group of the Rickettsia genus, along with R. prowazekii.[2] R. typhi has an uncertain history, as it may have long gone shadowed by epidemic typhus (R. prowazekii).[3] This bacterium is recognized as a biocontainment level 2/3 organism.[1][4] R. typhi is a flea-borne disease that is best known to be the causative agent for the disease murine typhus, which is an endemictyphus in humans that is distributed worldwide.[3] As with all rickettsial organisms, R. typhi is a zoonotic agent that causes the disease murine typhus, displaying non-specific mild symptoms of fevers, headaches, pains and rashes.[5][6] There are two cycles of R. typhi transmission from animal reservoirs containing R. typhi to humans: a classic rat-flea-rat cycle that is most well studied and common, and a secondary periodomestic cycle that could involve cats, dogs, opossums, sheep, and their fleas.[7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsia_typhi

Murine typhus, also known as endemic typhus or flea-borne typhus, is a form of typhus transmitted by fleas(Xenopsylla cheopis), usually on rats, in contrast to epidemic typhus which is usually transmitted by lice.[1][2][3]Murine typhus is an under-recognized entity, as it is often confused with viral illnesses. Most people who are infected do not realize that they have been bitten by fleas. Historically the term "hunger-typhus" was used in accounts by British POWs in Germany at the end of World War I when they described conditions in Germany.[citation needed]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murine_typhus

The Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis), also known as the tropical rat flea, is a parasite of rodents, primarily of the genus Rattus, and is a primary vector for bubonic plague and murine typhus. This occurs when a flea that has fed on an infected rodent bites a human, although this flea can live on any warm blooded mammal.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_rat_flea

Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae.[1] Most infections are asymptomatic or have a mild clinical course, but in some outbreaks more than 10% of those diagnosed with the disease may die.[2] Signs and symptoms may vary from mild to severe[2] and usually start two to five days after exposure.[1] Symptoms often come on fairly gradually, beginning with a sore throat and fever.[2] In severe cases, a grey or white patch develops in the throat.[1][2] This can block the airway and create a barking cough as in croup.[2]The neck may swell in part due to enlarged lymph nodes.[1] A form of diphtheria which involves the skin, eyes or genitals also exists.[1][2] Complications may include myocarditis, inflammation of nerves, kidney problems, and bleeding problems due to low levels of platelets.[1] Myocarditis may result in an abnormal heart rate and inflammation of the nerves may result in paralysis.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria

Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria.[2] Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure.[3][4] Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days.[3] This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting.[4][5] Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots.[4] In severe cases, people may experience confusion.[5] Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months.[4] Diarrhea may be severe, but is uncommon.[5] Other people may carry the bacterium without being affected, but they are still able to spread the disease to others.[6] Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever, along with paratyphoid fever.[2] So far, S. enterica Typhi is only known to infect and replicate within humans.[7]

Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestines, peyers patches, mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, liver, gallbladder, bone marrow and blood.[4][5] Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person.[6] Risk factors include limited access to clean drinking water and poor sanitation.[2] Those who have not yet been exposed to the pathogen and ingest contaminated drinking water or food are most at risk for developing symptoms.[5] Only humans can be infected; there are no known animal reservoirs.[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Waterborne_diseases

Dysentery (UK pronunciation: /ˈdɪsəntri/,[7] US: /ˈdɪsəntɛri/[8]), historically known as the bloody flux,[9] is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea.[1][10] Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation.[2][11][5] Complications may include dehydration.[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery

Shigellosis is an infection of the intestines caused by Shigella bacteria.[1][3] Symptoms generally start one to two days after exposure and include diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain, and feeling the need to pass stools even when the bowels are empty.[1] The diarrhea may be bloody.[1] Symptoms typically last five to seven days and it may take several months before bowel habits return entirely to normal.[1] Complications can include reactive arthritis, sepsis, seizures, and hemolytic uremic syndrome.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigellosis

Cholera is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.[4][3] Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe.[3] The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea that lasts a few days.[2] Vomiting and muscle cramps may also occur.[3] Diarrhea can be so severe that it leads within hours to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.[2] This may result in sunken eyes, cold skin, decreased skin elasticity, and wrinkling of the hands and feet.[5] Dehydration can cause the skin to turn bluish.[8] Symptoms start two hours to five days after exposure.[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera

Dracunculiasis, also called Guinea-worm disease, is a parasitic infection by the Guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis. A person becomes infected from drinking water that contains water fleas infected with guinea worm larvae. After ingestion, the worms penetrate the digestive tract and escape into the body, where they develop over the course of a year. Eventually, the adult worm migrates to an exit site – usually a lower limb – and induces an intensely painful blister on the skin. When an infected person submerges the wound in water to ease the pain, the blister bursts open and the worm spews her larvae into the water, then slowly crawls out of the wound over the course of a few weeks. The wound remains painful over the course of the worm's emergence, disabling the infected person for the three to ten weeks it takes the worm to emerge. During this time, the open wound can become infected with bacteria, leading to death in around 1% of cases.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracunculiasis

Giardiasis is a parasitic disease caused by Giardia duodenalis (also known as G. lamblia and G. intestinalis).[3]Infected individuals who experience symptoms (about 10% have no symptoms) may have diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss.[1] Less common symptoms include vomiting and blood in the stool.[1] Symptoms usually begin 1 to 3 weeks after exposure and, without treatment, may last two to six weeks or longer.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giardiasis

Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE)[2] is a rare, usually fatal, subacute-to-chronic central nervous system disease caused by certain species of free-living amoebae[3] of the genera Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia and Sappinia pedata.[4][5] The term is most commonly used with Acanthamoeba. In more modern references, the term "balamuthia amoebic encephalitis" (BAE) is commonly used when Balamuthia mandrillaris is the cause.[6][7][8][9]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulomatous_amoebic_encephalitis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Inflammatory_diseases_of_the_central_nervous_system

Polioencephalitis is a viral infection of the brain, causing inflammation within the grey matter of the brain stem.[1] The virus has an affinity for neuronal cell bodies and has been found to affect mostly the midbrain, pons, medulla and cerebellum of most infected patients. The infection can reach up through the thalamus and hypothalamus and possibly reach the cerebral hemispheres.[2] The infection is caused by the poliomyelitis virus which is a single-stranded, positive sense RNA virus surrounded by a non-enveloped capsid. Humans are the only known natural hosts of this virus. The disease has been eliminated from the U.S. since the mid-twentieth century, but is still found in certain areas of the world such as Africa.[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polioencephalitis

Scarlet fever is an infectious disease resulting from a group A streptococcus (group A strep) infection, also known as Streptococcus pyogenes.[1] The signs and symptoms include a sore throat, fever, headaches, swollen lymph nodes, and a characteristic rash.[1] The rash is red and feels like sandpaper and the tongue may be red and bumpy.[1] It most commonly affects children between five and 15 years of age.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_fever

Nephritic syndrome is a syndrome comprising signs of nephritis, which is kidney disease involving inflammation. It often occurs in the glomerulus, where it is called glomerulonephritis. Glomerulonephritis is characterized by inflammation and thinning of the glomerular basement membrane and the occurrence of small pores in the podocytes of the glomerulus. These pores become large enough to permit both proteins and red blood cells to pass into the urine (yielding proteinuria and hematuria, respectively). By contrast, nephrotic syndrome is characterized by proteinuria and a constellation of other symptoms that specifically do not include hematuria.[6]Nephritic syndrome, like nephrotic syndrome, may involve low level of albumin in the blood due to the protein albumin moving from the blood to the urine.[7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephritic_syndrome

Mucormycosis, also known as black fungus,[3][4] is a serious fungal infection that comes under fulminant fungal sinusitis,[11] usually in people who are immunocompromised.[9][12] It is curable only when diagnosed early.[11]Symptoms depend on where in the body the infection occurs.[13][14] It most commonly infects the nose, sinuses, eye, and brain resulting in a runny nose, one-sided facial swelling and pain, headache, fever, blurred vision, bulging or displacement of the eye (proptosis), and tissue death.[1][6] Other forms of disease may infect the lungs, stomach and intestines, and skin.[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucormycosis

Immunosuppressive drugs, also known as immunosuppressive agents, immunosuppressants and antirejection medications, are drugs that inhibit or prevent activity of the immune system.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is an incurable and inevitably fatal neurodegenerative disease of cattle.[2] Symptoms include abnormal behavior, trouble walking, and weight loss.[1] Later in the course of the disease the cow becomes unable to function normally.[1] The time between infection and onset of symptoms is generally four to five years.[2] Time from onset of symptoms to death is generally weeks to months.[2] Spread to humans is believed to result in variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease(vCJD).[3] As of 2018, a total of 231 cases of vCJD had been reported globally.[5]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy

Streptomyces hygroscopicus is a bacterial species in the genus Streptomyces. It was first described by Hans Laurits Jensen in 1931.[3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptomyces_hygroscopicus

In enzymology, a carboxyvinyl-carboxyphosphonate phosphorylmutase (EC 2.7.8.23) is an enzyme that catalyzesthe chemical reaction

1-carboxyvinyl carboxyphosphonate  3-(hydrohydroxyphosphoryl)pyruvate + CO2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxyvinyl-carboxyphosphonate_phosphorylmutase

Avascular necrosis (AVN), also called osteonecrosis or bone infarction, is death of bone tissue due to interruption of the blood supply.[1] Early on, there may be no symptoms.[1] Gradually joint pain may develop which may limit the ability to move.[1] Complications may include collapse of the bone or nearby joint surface.[1]

Risk factors include bone fractures, joint dislocations, alcoholism, and the use of high-dose steroids.[1] The condition may also occur without any clear reason.[1] The most commonly affected bone is the femur.[1] Other relatively common sites include the upper arm bone, knee, shoulder, and ankle.[1] Diagnosis is typically by medical imaging such as X-ray, CT scan, or MRI.[1] Rarely biopsy may be used.[1]

Treatments may include medication, not walking on the affected leg, stretching, and surgery.[1] Most of the time surgery is eventually required and may include core decompression, osteotomy, bone grafts, or joint replacement.[1] About 15,000 cases occur per year in the United States.[4] People 30 to 50 years old are most commonly affected.[3] Males are more commonly affected than females.[4]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avascular_necrosis

Osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ) is a severe bone disease (osteonecrosis) that affects the jaws (the maxilla and the mandible). Various forms of ONJ have been described since 1861, and a number of causes have been suggested in the literature.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteonecrosis_of_the_jaw

Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MON, MRONJ) is progressive death of the jawbone in a person exposed to a medications known to increase the risk of disease, in the absence of a previous radiation treatment. It may lead to surgical complication in the form of impaired wound healing following oral and maxillofacial surgery, periodontal surgery, or endodontic therapy.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medication-related_osteonecrosis_of_the_jaw

Osteomyelitis (OM) is an infection of bone.[1] Symptoms may include pain in a specific bone with overlying redness, fever, and weakness.[1] The long bones of the arms and legs are most commonly involved in children e.g. the femur and humerus,[7] while the feet, spine, and hips are most commonly involved in adults.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteomyelitis

Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels,[1][2][3] formed in the earlier stage of vasculogenesis. Angiogenesis continues the growth of the vasculature by processes of sprouting and splitting.[4] Vasculogenesis is the embryonic formation of endothelial cells from mesoderm cell precursors,[5] and from neovascularization, although discussions are not always precise (especially in older texts). The first vessels in the developing embryo form through vasculogenesis, after which angiogenesis is responsible for most, if not all, blood vessel growth during development and in disease.[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiogenesis

Embryology (from Greek ἔμβρυον, embryon, "the unborn, embryo"; and -λογία, -logia) is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryology


01-28-2022-0048 - Fan Fiction draft


In chemistry, the phosphonium (more obscurely: phosphinium) cation describes polyatomic cations with the chemical formula PR+
4 (where R is a hydrogenor an alkyl, aryl, or halide group). These cations have tetrahedral structures. The salts are generally colorless or take the color of the anions.[1]

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphonium
  • Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride (THPC) is an organophosphorus compound with the chemical formula [P(CH2OH)4]Cl. The cation P(CH2OH)4+ is four-coordinate, as is typical for phosphonium salts. THPC has applications as a precursor to fire-retardant materials,[1] as well as a microbiocide in commercial and industrial water systems.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium_chloride

  • Toxicity and safety[edit]

    Further information: Aluminium phosphide poisoning
    See also: White phosphorus munitions

    Deaths have resulted from accidental exposure to fumigation materials containing aluminium phosphide or phosphine.[26][27][28][29] It can be absorbed either by inhalation or transdermally.[26] As a respiratory poison, it affects the transport of oxygen or interferes with the utilization of oxygen by various cells in the body.[28] Exposure results in pulmonary edema (the lungs fill with fluid).[29] Phosphine gas is heavier than air so it stays near the floor.[30]

    Phosphine appears to be mainly a redox toxin, causing cell damage by inducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.[31] Resistance in insects is caused by a mutation in a mitochondrial metabolic gene.[25]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphine

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Blood_agents


  • Arsine (IUPAC name: arsane) is an inorganic compound with the formula AsH3. This flammable, pyrophoric, and highly toxic pnictogen hydride gas is one of the simplest compounds of arsenic.[4] Despite its lethality, it finds some applications in the semiconductor industry and for the synthesis of organoarsenic compounds. The term arsine is commonly used to describe a class of organoarsenic compounds of the formula AsH3−xRx, where R = aryl or alkyl. For example, As(C6H5)3, called triphenylarsine, is referred to as "an arsine".
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsine



    rifampicin ivermectin benzyl pen sulfa drugs barbiturate betadine silvadene hyvisc 

    arsenic iodine Silver phosphorous phosphorus lead acid hydrogen [Q] (black white grey) 

    nicotine caffiene tobacco cellulose 

    baking powder salt buttermilk yeast water xanthan gum guar gum

    lettuce diet soda energy drink diet tobacco vape pen

    09-08-2021-1856 - fusion gene hybrid gene formed from two previously independent genes. It can occur as a result of translocation, interstitial deletion, or chromosomal inversion

    A fusion gene is a hybrid gene formed from two previously independent genes. It can occur as a result of translocation, interstitial deletion, or chromosomal inversion. Fusion genes have been found to be prevalent in all main types of human neoplasia.[1] The identification of these fusion genes play a prominent role in being a diagnostic and prognostic marker.[2] 


    Showing posts sorted by relevance for query magnetogenetics. Sort by date Show all posts

    Sunday, April 10, 2022

    04-10-2022-0739 - neurotrop vir neurotrophic factor NTF


    Magnetogenetics refers to a biological technique that involves the use of magnetic fields to remotely control cell activity.

    In most cases, magnetic stimulation is transformed into either force (magneto-mechanical genetics) or heat (magneto-thermal genetics), which depends on the applied magnetic field. Therefore, cells are usually genetically modified to express ion channels that are either mechanically or thermally gated. As such, magnetogenetics is a cellular modulation method that uses a combination of techniques from magnetism and genetics to control activities of individual cells in living tissue – even within freely moving animals. This technique is comparable to optogenetics, which is the manipulation of cell behavior using light. In magnetogenetics, magnetic stimulation is used instead of light, a characteristic that allows for a less invasive, less toxic, and wireless modulation of cell activity.

    Cell activity control is achieved using magnetic compounds such as ferritin or magnetic nanoparticles. These compounds are designed to link to the ion channels that are genetically expressed on specific cells. Control of activity is thus restricted to genetically pre-defined cells and performed in a spatiotemporal-specific manner by magnetic stimulation.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetogenetics

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optogenetics

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optogenetic_methods_to_record_cellular_activity


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphilitic_aortitis

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosyphilis

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granuloma

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabes_dorsalis

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutination

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglomerate

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance#Capacitance_matrix


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogue_electronics

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_force


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCL1#Autonomic_nervous_system_development

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroregeneration

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurogenesis

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_stem_cell

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo#Development

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_embryonic_development

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_embryonic_development

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proembryo

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperhydricity

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignin

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootropic

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_granule


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cyclohexanes

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfoxide

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimethylsulfoxonium_iodide

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Iodides


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydride

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazine

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_station

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_scavenger

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiccant

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_process

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_anhydride

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorous

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blowing_agent

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_foam

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_ash


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_azide

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazine_sulfate

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_gas_thruster

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopropellant

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trihydrogen_cation

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe


    dark matter, vortex, mirror, etc.,


    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trioxidane


    rebodiment, nervous system regrowth trace line magnetic cascade induction catalyst autoregenerative or static/etc., etc..

    insect metabolic/nervous system

    respiratory circulatory (bone vein artery pump dissemination component (capillary) junctions joints etc. specialized tissue) nervous (brain nerves (channels))

    nervous system viand phosphorus autosustain finite dimension

    shell sustenance procedure materials mechanisms processes facilities etc..

    catabolic function drive, anorexia, cachexia, wasting, etc..

    [carbohydrate, metal, radioactive, acid, salt, dessicant, etc..]

    (nicotine, caffiene phosphorous soda diet salt at living tissue)

    tissue substitution and novel shell development with aesthetic

    [structure function etc..

    confounds, constraints, conditions, etc.. statistics, mathematics, computer science, education, physics, chemistry, biology, biochemistry, psychology, animal science, veterinary, dental, laboratory, nuclear science, engineering, etc..]

    respiratory - carb

    circulatory - pro [at bone] or carb

    nervous - lip or carb

    Reaction with halogen compounds[edit]

    Reactions of arsine with the halogens (fluorine and chlorine) or some of their compounds, such as nitrogen trichloride, are extremely dangerous and can result in explosions.[8]

    Catenation[edit]

    In contrast to the behavior of PH3, AsH3 does not form stable chains, although H2As–AsH2 and even H2As–As(H)–AsH2 have been detected. The diarsine is unstable above −100 °C.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsine

    A solid-state laser is a laser that uses a gain medium that is a solid, rather than a liquid as in dye lasers or a gas as in gas lasers. Semiconductor-based lasers are also in the solid state, but are generally considered as a separate class from solid-state lasers, called laser diodes.


    Generally, the active medium of a solid-state laser consists of a glass or crystalline "host" material, to which is added a "dopant" such as neodymium, chromium, erbium,[1]thulium[2] or ytterbium.[3] Many of the common dopants are rare-earth elements, because the excited states of such ions are not strongly coupled with the thermal vibrations of their crystal lattices (phonons), and their operational thresholds can be reached at relatively low intensities of laser pumping.

    Uranium-doped calcium fluoride was the second type of solid state laser invented, in the 1960s. Peter Sorokin and Mirek Stevenson at IBM's laboratories in Yorktown Heights(US) achieved lasing at 2.5 µm shortly after Maiman's ruby laser.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_laser



    Neodymium ions in various types of ionic crystals, and also in glasses, act as a laser gain medium, typically emitting 1064 nm light from a particular atomic transition in the neodymium ion, after being "pumped" into excitation from an external source

    The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-terawatt neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads. HELEN can create plasmas of around 106 K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured.[74]

    Neodymium glass solid-state lasers are used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion. Nd:glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices.[75]

    Uranyl acetate has been the standard contrasting agent in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for decades.[76][77]However, its use is increasingly hampered by regulations by governments due to its radioactive properties as well as its high toxicity. Therefore, alternatives are being searched for, including lanthanide acetates or platinum blue [78][79][80][81] as well as the use of less defined substances such as oolong tea extract.[82][83] Despite these published alternatives, uranyl acetate (UAc) is still the standard for EM contrasting.[50]

    The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective.[87][88] Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms.[89]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium#Neodymium_doped_lasers


    https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Search&limit=20&offset=40&profile=default&search=blank+matrix&ns0=1

    Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum (/haɪˈdrɑːrdʒərəm/ hy-DRAR-jər-əm) from the Greek words, hydor (water) and argyros (silver).[4] A heavy, silvery d-block element, mercury is the only metallic element that is known to be liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is the halogen bromine, though metals such as caesium, gallium, and rubidium melt just above room temperature.

    Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)

    A pressure reactor, sometimes referred to as a pressure tube, or a sealed tube, is a chemical reaction vessel which can conduct a reaction under pressure. A pressure reactor is a special application of a pressure vessel. The pressure can be caused by the reaction itself or created by an external source, like hydrogen in catalytic transfer hydrogenation.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_reactor

    The liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR; often pronounced lifter) is a type of molten salt reactor. LFTRs use the thorium fuel cyclewith a fluoride-based, molten, liquid salt for fuel. In a typical design, the liquid is pumped between a critical core and an external heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to a nonradioactive secondary salt. The secondary salt then transfers its heat to a steam turbineor closed-cycle gas turbine.[1]

    Th-232, U-235 and U-238 are primordial nuclides, having existed in their current form for over 4.5 billion years, predating the formation of the Earth; they were forged in the cores of dying stars through the r-process and scattered across the galaxy by supernovas.[9] Their radioactive decay produces about half of the Earth's internal heat.[10]

    For technical and historical[11] reasons, the three are each associated with different reactor types. U-235 is the world's primary nuclear fuel and is usually used in light water reactors. U-238/Pu-239 has found the most use in liquid sodium fast breeder reactors and CANDU Reactors. Th-232/U-233 is best suited to molten salt reactors (MSR).[12]

    Alvin M. Weinberg pioneered the use of the MSR at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. At ORNL, two prototype molten salt reactors were successfully designed, constructed and operated. These were the Aircraft Reactor Experiment in 1954 and Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment from 1965 to 1969. Both test reactors used liquid fluoride fuel salts. The MSRE notably demonstrated fueling with U-233 and U-235 during separate test runs.[13]: ix  Weinberg was removed from his post and the MSR program closed down in the early 1970s,[14]after which research stagnated in the United States.[15][16] Today, the ARE and the MSRE remain the only molten salt reactors ever operated.

    In a nuclear power reactor, there are two types of fuel. The first is fissile material, which splits when hit by neutrons, releasing a large amount of energy and also releasing two or three new neutrons. These can split more fissile material, resulting in a continued chain reaction. Examples of fissile fuels are U-233, U-235 and Pu-239. The second type of fuel is called fertile. Examples of fertile fuel are Th-232 (mined thorium) and U-238 (mined uranium). In order to become fissile these nuclides must first absorb a neutron that's been produced in the process of fission, to become Th-233 and U-239 respectively. After two sequential beta decays, they transmute into fissile isotopes U-233 and Pu-239 respectively. This process is called breeding.[5]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor

    Uranium hexafluoride (UF
    6    ), (sometimes called "hex") is an inorganic compound with the formula UF6. Uranium hexafluoride is a volatile white solid that reacts with water, releasing corrosive hydrofluoric acid. The compound reacts mildly with aluminium, forming a thin surface layer of AlF3 that resists any further reaction from the compound. UF6 is used in the process of enriching uranium, which produces fuel for nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride

    Inherent safety. LFTR designs use a strong negative temperature coefficient of reactivity to achieve passive inherent safety against excursions of reactivity. The temperature dependence comes from 3 sources. The first is that thorium absorbs more neutrons if it overheats, the so-called Doppler effect.[42] This leaves fewer neutrons to continue the chain reaction, reducing power. The second part is heating the graphite moderator, that usually causes a positive contribution to the temperature coefficient.[42] The third effect has to do with thermal expansion of the fuel.[42]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor


    A subcritical reactor is a nuclear fission reactor concept that produces fission without achieving criticality. Instead of sustaining a chain reaction, a subcritical reactor uses additional neutrons from an outside source. There are two general classes of such devices. One uses neutrons provided by a nuclear fusion machine, a concept known as a fusion–fission hybrid. The other uses neutrons created through spallation of heavy nuclei by charged particles such as protons accelerated by a particle accelerator, a concept known as an accelerator-driven system (ADS) or accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcritical_reactor

    The ISIS Neutron and Muon Source is a pulsed neutron and muon source, established 1984 at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory of the Science and Technology Facilities Council, on the Harwell Science and Innovation Campus in Oxfordshire, United Kingdom. It uses the techniques of muon spectroscopy and neutron scattering to probe the structure and dynamics of condensed matter on a microscopic scale ranging from the subatomic to the macromolecular.

    Hundreds of experiments are performed every year at the facility by researchers from around the world, in diverse science areas such as physics, chemistry, materials engineering, earth sciences, biology and archaeology.[1]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIS_Neutron_and_Muon_Source

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology


    Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). It occurs in all species of animals except the porifera (sponges) and placozoans.[1] Types of NSCs include neuroepithelial cells (NECs), radial glial cells (RGCs), basal progenitors (BPs), intermediate neuronal precursors (INPs), subventricular zone astrocytes, and subgranular zone radial astrocytes, among others.[1]

    Neurogenesis is most active during embryonic development and is responsible for producing all the various types of neurons of the organism, but it continues throughout adult life in a variety of organisms.[1] Once born, neurons do not divide (see mitosis), and many will live the lifespan of the animal.[2]

    Neurogenesis is most active during embryonic development and is responsible for producing all the various types of neurons of the organism, but it continues throughout adult life in a variety of organisms.[1] Once born, neurons do not divide (see mitosis), and many will live the lifespan of the animal.[2]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurogenesis

    The Placozoa /plækəˈzoʊə/ are a basal form of marine free-living (non-parasitic) multicellular organism.[1] They are the simplest in structure of all animals. Three genera have been found: the classical Trichoplax adhaerens, Hoilungia hongkongensis, and Polyplacotoma mediterranea, where the last appears most basal. The last two have been found only since 2017.[2][3][4][5][6] Although the Placozoa were first discovered in 1883 by the German zoologist Franz Eilhard Schulze (1840–1921)[7][8] and since the 1970s more systematically analyzed by the German protozoologist Karl Gottlieb Grell (1912–1994),[9] a common name does not yet exist for the taxon; the scientific name means "flat animals".[10]

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placozoa

    Trichoplax adhaerens is one of the three named species in the phylum Placozoa. The others are Hoilungia hongkongensis and Polyplacotoma mediterranea. The Placozoa is a basal group of multicellular animals (metazoa). Trichoplax are very flat organisms around a millimetre in diameter, lacking any organs or internal structures. They have two cellular layers: the top epitheloid layer is made of ciliated "cover cells" flattened toward the outside of the organism, and the bottom layer is made up of cylinder cells that possess ciliaused in locomotion, and gland cells that lack cilia.[2] Between these layers is the fibre syncytium, a liquid-filled cavity strutted open by star-like fibres.

    Trichoplax feed by absorbing food particles—mainly microbes—with their underside. They generally reproduce asexually, by dividing or budding, but can also reproduce sexually. Though Trichoplax has a small genome in comparison to other animals, nearly 87% of its 11,514 predicted protein-coding genes are identifiably similar to known genes in other animals.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichoplax

    Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera (/pəˈrɪfərə/; meaning 'pore bearer'), are a basal animal clade as a sister of the Diploblasts.[2][3][4][5][6] They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athetoid_cerebral_palsy

    Gait is the pattern of movement of the limbs of animals, including humans, during locomotion over a solid substrate. Most animals use a variety of gaits, selecting gait based on speed, terrain, the need to maneuver, and energetic efficiency. Different animal species may use different gaits due to differences in anatomy that prevent use of certain gaits, or simply due to evolved innate preferences as a result of habitat differences. While various gaits are given specific names, the complexity of biological systems and interacting with the environment make these distinctions "fuzzy" at best. Gaits are typically classified according to footfall patterns, but recent studies often prefer definitions based on mechanics. The term typically does not refer to limb-based propulsion through fluid mediums such as water or air, but rather to propulsion across a solid substrate by generating reactive forces against it (which can apply to walking while underwater as well as on land).

    Due to the rapidity of animal movement, simple direct observation is rarely sufficient to give any insight into the pattern of limb movement. In spite of early attempts to classify gaits based on footprints or the sound of footfalls, it was not until Eadweard Muybridgeand Étienne-Jules Marey began taking rapid series of photographs that proper scientific examination of gaits could begin.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gait


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